NanotechnologyMeaning Nanotechnology(sometimesshortenedto"nanotech")isthestudyof manipulatingmatteronanatomicandmolecularscale.Generally, nanotechnologydealswithdevelopingmaterials,devices,orotherstructures possessingatleastonedimensionsizedfrom1to100nanometres.Quantum mechanicaleffectsareimportantatthisquantumrealmscale. Nanotechnologyisverydiverse,rangingfromextensionsofconventionaldevice physicstocompletelynewapproachesbaseduponmolecularselfassembly,from developingnewmaterialswithdimensionsonthenanoscaletodirectcontrolof matterontheatomicscale.Nanotechnologyentailstheapplicationoffieldsof scienceasdiverseassurfacescience,organicchemistry,molecular biology,semiconductorphysics,microfabrication,etc.Nanotechnologymaybe abletocreatemanynewmaterialsanddeviceswithavastrangeofapplications, suchasinmedicine,electronics,biomaterialsandenergyproduction.

ToolsinNanotechnology Themaintoolsusedinnanotechnologyarethreemainmicroscopes TransmissionElectronMicroscope(TEM)

o Useshighenergyelectronbeamtoprobematerialwiththickness<100nm. o Someelectronsareabsorbedorbouncedoffobject;somepassthroughthe objectandmakemagnifiedimages o Digitalcamerarecordsimages. AtomicForceMicroscope(AFM)

o Usesmallsilicontipasprobetomakeimagesofsamplematerial o Probemovesalongsurface o Electronsofatomsinsamplerepelthoseinprobe o Creates3Dimages

ScanningTunnelingMicroscope(STM)

o Usesnanosizedprobetoscanobjectsandmaterials o Usestunnelingtodetectsurfaceandcreatesamapofsurface o Rateofelectronsthattunnelfromprobetosurfacerelatedtodistance betweenprobeandsurface Listofnanotechnologyapplications Withnanotechnology,alargesetofmaterialsandimprovedproductsrelyona changeinthephysicalpropertieswhenthefeaturesizesareshrunk. Nanoparticles,forexample,takeadvantageoftheirdramaticallyincreased surfaceareatovolumeratio.Theiropticalproperties,e.g.fluorescence,becomea functionoftheparticlediameter.Whenbroughtintoabulkmaterial, nanoparticlescanstronglyinfluencethemechanicalpropertiesofthematerial, likestiffnessorelasticity.Forexample,traditionalpolymerscanbereinforcedby nanoparticlesresultinginnovelmaterialswhichcanbeusedaslightweight replacementsformetals.Therefore,anincreasingsocietalbenefitofsuch nanoparticlescanbeexpected.Suchnanotechnologicallyenhancedmaterialswill enableaweightreductionaccompaniedbyanincreaseinstabilityandimproved functionality.Practicalnanotechnologyisessentiallytheincreasingabilityto manipulate(withprecision)matteronpreviouslyimpossiblescales,presenting possibilitieswhichmanycouldneverhaveimagineditthereforeseems unsurprisingthatfewareasofhumantechnologyareexemptfromthebenefits whichnanotechnologycouldpotentiallybring.

A) Medicine Thebiologicalandmedicalresearchcommunitieshaveexploitedthe uniquepropertiesofnanomaterialsforvariousapplications.Termssuch asbiomedicalnanotechnology,nanobiotechnology,andnanomedicineare usedtodescribethishybridfield.Functionalitiescanbeaddedto nanomaterialsbyinterfacingthemwithbiologicalmoleculesorstructures. Thesizeofnanomaterialsissimilartothatofmostbiologicalmoleculesand structures;therefore,nanomaterialscanbeusefulforbothinvivoandin vitrobiomedicalresearchandapplications.Thusfar,theintegrationof nanomaterialswithbiologyhasledtothedevelopmentofdiagnostic devices,contrastagents,analyticaltools,physicaltherapyapplications,and drugdeliveryvehicles. B) Environment Astronginfluenceofphotochemistryonwastewatertreatment,air purificationandenergystoragedevicesistobeexpected.Mechanicalor chemicalmethodscanbeusedforeffectivefiltrationtechniques.Oneclass offiltrationtechniquesisbasedontheuseofmembraneswithsuitable holesizes,wherebytheliquidispressedthroughthemembrane. Nanoporousmembranesaresuitableforamechanicalfiltrationwith extremelysmallporessmallerthan10nm(nanofiltration)andmay becomposedofnanotubes.Nanofiltrationismainlyusedfortheremovalof ionsortheseparationofdifferentfluids.Onalargerscale,themembrane filtrationtechniqueisnamedultrafiltration,whichworksdowntobetween 10and100nm.Oneimportantfieldofapplicationforultrafiltrationis medicalpurposesascanbefoundinrenaldialysis.Magneticnanoparticles offeraneffectiveandreliablemethodtoremoveheavymetal contaminantsfromwastewaterbymakinguseofmagneticseparation techniques.Usingnanoscaleparticlesincreasestheefficiencytoabsorbthe

contaminantsandiscomparativelyinexpensivecomparedtotraditional precipitationandfiltrationmethods. C) Energy Themostadvancednanotechnologyprojectsrelatedtoenergyare:storage, conversion,manufacturingimprovementsbyreducingmaterialsand processrates,energysaving(bybetterthermalinsulationforexample),and enhancedrenewableenergysources. Reductionofenergyconsumption Areductionofenergyconsumptioncanbereachedbybetterinsulation systems,bytheuseofmoreefficientlightingorcombustionsystems,and byuseoflighterandstrongermaterialsinthetransportationsector. Currentlyusedlightbulbsonlyconvertapproximately5%oftheelectrical energyintolight.Nanotechnologicalapproacheslikelightemitting diodes(LEDs)orquantumcagedatoms(QCAs)couldleadtoastrong reductionofenergyconsumptionforillumination. Increasingtheefficiencyofenergyproduction Today'sbestsolarcellshavelayersofseveraldifferentsemiconductors stackedtogethertoabsorblightatdifferentenergiesbuttheystillonly managetouse40percentoftheSun'senergy.Commerciallyavailablesolar cellshavemuchlowerefficiencies(1520%).Nanotechnologycouldhelp increasetheefficiencyoflightconversionbyusingnanostructureswitha continuumofbandgaps. D) InformationandCommunication Currenthightechnologyproductionprocessesarebasedontraditionaltop downstrategies,wherenanotechnologyhasalreadybeenintroduced

silently.Thecriticallengthscaleofintegratedcircuitsisalreadyatthe nanoscale(50nmandbelow)regardingthegatelengthoftransistors inCPUsorDRAMdevices. Memorystorage Electronicmemorydesignsinthepasthavelargelyreliedontheformation oftransistors.However,researchintocrossbarswitchbasedelectronics haveofferedanalternativeusingreconfigurableinterconnectionsbetween verticalandhorizontalwiringarraystocreateultrahighdensitymemories. TwoleadersinthisareaareNanterowhichhasdevelopedacarbon nanotubebasedcrossbarmemorycalledNanoRAMandHewlett Packardwhichhasproposedtheuseofmemristormaterialasafuture replacementofFlashmemory. Displays Theproductionofdisplayswithlowenergyconsumptioncouldbe accomplishedusingcarbonnanotubes(CNT).Carbonnanotubesare electricallyconductiveandduetotheirsmalldiameterofseveral nanometers,theycanbeusedasfieldemitterswithextremelyhigh efficiencyforfieldemissiondisplays(FED).Theprincipleofoperation resemblesthatofthecathoderaytube,butonamuchsmallerlengthscale. Quantumcomputers Entirelynewapproachesforcomputingexploitthelawsofquantum mechanicsfornovelquantumcomputers,whichenabletheuseoffast quantumalgorithms.TheQuantumcomputerhasquantumbitmemory spacetermed"Qubit"forseveralcomputationsatthesametime.This facilitymayimprovetheperformanceoftheoldersystems. E) HeavyIndustry Aninevitableuseofnanotechnologywillbeinheavyindustry.

Aerospace Lighterandstrongermaterialswillbeofimmenseusetoaircraft manufacturers,leadingtoincreasedperformance.Spacecraftwillalso benefit,whereweightisamajorfactor.Nanotechnologywouldhelpto reducethesizeofequipmentandtherebydecreasefuelconsumption requiredtogetitairborne.Hangglidersmaybeabletohalvetheirweight whileincreasingtheirstrengthandtoughnessthroughtheuseofnanotech materials.Nanotechisloweringthemassofsupercapacitorsthatwill increasinglybeusedtogivepowertoassistiveelectricalmotorsfor launchinghangglidersoffflatlandtothermalchasingaltitudes. Construction Nanotechnologyhasthepotentialtomakeconstructionfaster,cheaper, safer,andmorevaried.Automationofnanotechnologyconstructioncan allowforthecreationofstructuresfromadvancedhomestomassive skyscrapersmuchmorequicklyandatmuchlowercost.Inthenearfuture Nanotechnologycanbeusedtosensecracksinfoundationsofarchitecture andcansendnanobotstorepairthem. o Risksofusingnanoparticlesinconstruction Inbuildingconstructionnanomaterialsarewidelyusedfromselfcleaning windowstoflexiblesolarpanelstowifiblockingpaint.Theselfhealing concrete,materialstoblockultravioletandinfraredradiation,smogeating coatingsandlightemittingwallsandceilingsarethenewnanomaterialsin construction.Nanotechnologyisapromiseformakingthesmarthomea reality.Nanotechenabledsensorscanmonitortemperature,humidity,and airbornetoxinswhichneedsnanotechbasedimprovedbatteries.The buildingcomponentswillbeintelligentandinteractivesincethesensor useswirelesscomponents,itcancollectthewiderangeofdata. 1) Effectofnanoparticlesonhealthandenvironment:Nanoparticlesmayalso enterthebodyifbuildingwatersuppliesarefilteredthroughcommercially

availablenanofilters.Airborneandwaterbornenanoparticlesenterfrom buildingventilationandwastewatersystems. 2) Effectofnanoparticlesonsocietalissues:Assensorsbecomemore commonplace,alossofprivacymayresultfromusersinteractingwith increasinglyintelligentbuildingcomponents.Thetechnologyatonesidehas theadvantagesofnewbuildingmaterial.Theothersideithasthefearof riskarisesfromthesematerials.However,theoverallperformanceof nanomaterialstodate,isthatvaluableopportunitiestoimprovebuilding performance,userhealthandenvironmentalquality. Vehiclemanufacturers Muchlikeaerospace,lighterandstrongermaterialswillbeusefulfor creatingvehiclesthatarebothfasterandsafer.Combustionengineswill alsobenefitfrompartsthataremorehardwearingandmoreheat resistant. F) ConsumerGoods Nanotechnologyisalreadyimpactingthefieldofconsumergoods, providingproductswithnovelfunctionsrangingfromeasytocleanto scratchresistant.Moderntextilesarewrinkleresistantandstainrepellent; inthemidtermclotheswillbecomesmart,throughembedded wearableelectronics.Alreadyinusearedifferentnanoparticleimproved products.Especiallyinthefieldofcosmetics,suchnovelproductshavea promisingpotential. Foods Nanotechnologycanbeappliedintheproduction,processing,safetyand packagingoffood.Ananocompositecoatingprocesscouldimprovefood packagingbyplacingantimicrobialagentsdirectlyonthesurfaceofthe coatedfilm.Nanocompositescouldincreaseordecreasegaspermeability

ofdifferentfillersasisneededfordifferentproducts.Theycanalso improvethemechanicalandheatresistancepropertiesandlowerthe oxygentransmissionrate.Researchisbeingperformedtoapply nanotechnologytothedetectionofchemicalandbiologicalsubstancesfor sensangesinfoods. Household Themostprominentapplicationofnanotechnologyinthehouseholdisself cleaningoreasytocleansurfacesonceramicsorglasses.Nanoceramic particleshaveimprovedthesmoothnessandheatresistanceofcommon householdequipmentsuchastheflatiron. Optics Thefirstsunglassesusingprotectiveandantireflectiveultrathinpolymer coatingsareonthemarket.Foroptics,nanotechnologyalsooffersscratch resistantsurfacecoatingsbasedonnanocomposites.Nanoopticscould allowforanincreaseinprecisionofpupilrepairandothertypesoflaser eyesurgery. Textiles Theuseofengineerednanofibersalreadymakesclotheswaterandstain repellentorwrinklefree.Textileswithananotechnologicalfinishcanbe washedlessfrequentlyandatlowertemperatures.Nanotechnologyhas beenusedtointegratetinycarbonparticlesmembraneandguaranteefull surfaceprotectionfromelectrostaticchargesforthewearer.Manyother applicationshavebeendevelopedbyresearchinstitutionssuchas theTextilesNanotechnologyLaboratoryatCornellUniversity,andthe UK'sDstlanditsspinoutcompany. Cosmetics Onefieldofapplicationisinsunscreens.ThetraditionalchemicalUV protectionapproachsuffersfromitspoorlongtermstability.Asunscreen

basedonmineralnanoparticlessuchastitaniumdioxideofferseveral advantages.TitaniumoxidenanoparticleshaveacomparableUVprotection propertyasthebulkmaterial,butlosethecosmeticallyundesirable whiteningastheparticlesizeisdecreased. Agriculture Applicationsofnanotechnologyhavethepotentialtochangetheentire agriculturesectorandfoodindustrychainfromproductiontoconservation, processing,packaging,transportation,andevenwastetreatment. NanoScienceconceptsandnanotechnologyapplicationshavethepotential toredesigntheproductioncycle,restructuretheprocessingand conservationprocessesandredefinethefoodhabitsofthepeople. Majorchallengesrelatedtoagriculturelikelowproductivityincultivable areas,largeuncultivableareas,shrinkageofcultivablelands,wastageof inputslikewater,fertilizers,pesticides,wastageofproductsandofcourse Foodsecurityforgrowingnumberscanbeaddressedthroughvarious applicationsofnanotechnology. Sports Nanotechnologymayalsoplayaroleinsportssuchassoccer,football,and baseball.Materialsfornewathleticshoesmaybemadeinordertomake theshoelighter(andtheathletefaster).Baseballbatsalreadyonthe marketaremadewithcarbonnanotubeswhichreinforcetheresin,whichis saidtoimproveitsperformancebymakingitlighter.Otheritemssuchas sporttowels,yogamats,exercisematsareonthemarketandusedby playersintheNationalFootballLeague,whichuseantimicrobial nanotechnologytopreventparasuramfromillnessescausedbybacteria suchasMethicillinresistantStaphylococcusaureus(commonlyknownas MRSA).