bureau of mines f report o investigations

B U R E A U OF MINES

Yune 1970

By Foster Fraas

report o investigations 1404 f

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR

BUREAU OF MINES

This publication has been cataloged as follows:

Fraas, Foster
Factors related to mineral separation in a vacuum. [Washington] U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Bureau of Mines [1970]
13 p. illus., tables. gations 7404)
Includes bibliography,

(US. Bureau of Mines. Report of investi-

1 Vacuum metallurgy. I. Title. 1 . Title: Mineral separation in . 1

a vacuum.

(Series)

TN23.U7

no. 7404

622.06173

US, Dept. of the Int. Library

CONTENTS Page Abstract Introduction Experimental method The vacuum system Contact electrification measurement..............................^,. Experimental procedure Experimental results Particle flow and dispersion Contact electrification Advantages of vacuum operation Air viscosity Sound transmission Radiation transmission Conclusions Acknowledgment References ILLUSTRATIONS

................................................................. ............................................................. ...................................................... ................................................... .............................................. ..................................................... ........................................ ............................................. ...................................... .................................................. ............................................. ......................................... .............................................................. ........................................................... ...............................................................

1 2 2 3
3 3 3

5
7 7
8

10 11
12

1 .
2

. 3.
4

F l o w and contact electrification measurement apparatus

.
. . .

Particle charging and discharging relations Frequency of occurrence of particle contact area.....^......*......^^ Apparatus for photoelectric mineral separation

............... ..........................

.......................

2 4 5 10

TABLES

1
2

Contact electrification of minerals in vacuum and in air Rebound comparison of a 200-micron particle Results of supplementing photoactivation with thermal activation

............. .......................... .....

6 8

10

FACTQRS RELATED TO MINERAL SEPARATION IN A VACUUM

by
Foster Fraas

ABSTRACT Under a very high vacuum of loe8 torr the transfer of terrestrial mineral beneficiation methods to the vacuum ambient of extraterrestrial locations such as the lunar surface was investigated. In the size range for the electrostatic and magnetic separation of ores (minus 35 plus 150 mesh) there is no adhesion of particles produced by crushing and grinding due to the limited contact area, and for repeated contacts area size has a frequency of occurrence in accordance to the normal law. The photoelectric effect which is successful in separating a few minerals in an air ambient has a wider application in a vacuum, while the lack of air viscosity and sound transmission provides for high feed velocities and the adaptation of particle vibration to dispersion and grinding. Contact electrification is reversible upon return to atmo sphere. INTRODUCTION This investigationhas for its purpose the transfer of terrestrial mineral separation methods to the vacuum ambient of extraterrestrial locations. Mineral separation in a vacuum has never been considered before, although related information is obtained from the results of a long-range mineral beneficiation program of the Bureau of Mines including theory and application of 2)separation, the magnetization electrostatic (&L)2 and magnetic delay factor ( l o ) , and effects related to changes on the mineral surface A prizry objective is the determination of the extent of the (5-12). increase of particle adhesion in a vacuum and the harmful effect this may have on the flow of particles. Other objectives include changes in contact electrification and the advantages which a vacuum may provide.

IMetallurgist, College Park Metallurgy Research Center, Bureau of Mines, College Park, Md. 2Underlined numbers in parentheses refer to items in the list of references at the end of this report.

26

EXPERIMENTAL METHOD

The Vacuum System Information on t h e experimental arrangement 2 Bin dumping position 3 Bin support arm may be obtained from f i g 4 T r i p rod dumping position u r e 1. The Welch3 model 5 Feeder transport surfoce 3102 turbomolecular pump 6 Bearing support 7 Rotating bin support arm could be baked with h e a t 6 Support column ers supplied by t h e manu9 B i n particle collecting position 10 Trip rod f a c t u r e r while baking of I I Charge measurement electrode t h e 18- by 30-inch s t a i n 12 Vocuum pumping port 1 3 Bellows type r o t a t i n g feed-through l e s s steel b e l l j a r was 14 Bellows type vibroting feed-through accomplished with t h r e e 15 Rod connecting to vibrotion drive unit 385-watt he a ting ta pe s 16 Charge measurement feed-through 17 O f f -center b e l l lor base plate spaced on t h e b e l l j a r 18 Low copocitonce support rod surface. A double O-ring 19 Hollow tube support column 20 Feed hopper support brocket s e a l between t h e b e l l j a r 2 1 Vibration drive rod and ba se p l a t e permitted 22 Vibration feeder base easy opening and c losing 23 Vibrating feeder reeds ~ 2 4 Vibrating portion of feeder of t h e system. Although 25 Feed hopper support brocket a s e a l of t h i s type i n t r o 26 M i t e r gear box duces l i m i t a t i o n s t o t h e 27 Horizontal shaft supporting bin 28 Porceloin insulotor on shaft 21 maximum a t t a i n a b l e vacuum, 29 Pump protection b a f f l e s a t i s f a c t o r y ope r a tion c l o s e t o t h e lo- t o r r l i m i t of t h e pump could be a t t a i n e d with Apiezon - 0 type L grease on t h e Scale, inche5 O-rings. This grease has FIGURE 1. Flow and Contact Electrification a vapor pr e ssur e of 1 0 - l ~ Measurement Apparatus. t o r r a t room temperature. A water cooled f la nge on t h e b e l l j a r prevented h e a t i n g of t h e s e a l during bakeout. Vacuum was measured with an i o n i z a t i o n gage and NRC 720 c o n t r o l , while l i f t i n g of t h e b e l l j a r was f a c i l i t a t e d w ith a Heraeus-Engelhard hydr a ulic h o i s t .
I Feed hopper

There i s no o i l contamination source except a t t h e bearings loc a te d a t t h e pump exhaust p o r t . Since t h e pump removes a l l gases e qua lly, t h e o i l vapor which may a r i s e a t t h e bearings i s c o n t i n u a l l y exhausted. However, improper procedures, such a s p ermi tting t h e b e l l j a r b a c k f i l l t o pass through t h e pump, w i l l r e s u l t i n o i l contamination. When t h e b a c k f i l l , n i t r o g e n or a i r , i s introduced through t h e b e l l j a r base p l a t e , hydrocarbon contamination i s prevented.

3Reference t o s p e c i f i c brands o r makes or models of equipment i s made f o r i d e n t i f i c a t i o n only and does not imply endorsement by t h e Bureau of Mines.

3 Contact E l e c t r i f i c a t i o n Measurement P a r t i c l e charging occurred on the v i b r a t i n g feeder which w a s driven by an MB model SC d r i v e u n i t . By means of r o t a t i o n with a r o t a t i n g feed-through and a PIC model BA3 m i t e r gear t h e p a r t i c l e s c o l l e c t e d i n t h e b i n could be returned t o t h e feed hopper, and by a r e ve r se r o t a t i o n , a s i l l u s t r a t e d i n f i g u r e 1, t h e b i n could be brought i n t o c onta c t with an i n s u l a t e d e l e c t r o d e f o r p o t e n t i a l measurement with a Keithley model 220 electrometer. Capacitance of t h e e l e c t r i c a l system was determined by measuring t h e change i n p o t e n t i a l with change i n capacitance r e s u l t i n g from an added standard v a r i a b l e capacitance. The pump was p ro tected from f a l l i n g p a r t i c l e s by a b a f f l e of 24 s t a i n l e s s s t e e l r i n g s co n stru cted of 0.02-inch-thick she e t and spaced 0.10 inch a p a r t . Experimental Procedure The procedure f o r vacuum o pe r a tion was f i r s t t o pump with an 18-hour bakeout period, next t o cool t o atmospheric temperature, and then t o b a c k f i l l with a i r f o r sample ad d itio n . This i n i t i a l bakeout of t h e system was found t o prov i d e a t room temperature a h ig h er vacuum i n a s h o r t e r pumping time. Pumping a t room temperature w a s resumed f o r 2-1/2 more hours, a f t e r which t h e f i r s t pass of t h e sample under vacuum was conducted. The second pass over t h e v i b r a t i n g feed er was a l s o conducted a t room temperature, b u t with an inte r ve n i n g 18-hour bakeout period during which t h e temperature of t h e sample i n t h e feed hopper was r a i s e d t o 100"-104" C , near t h e maximum* which might be encountered. Illu min atio n f a r observation through a s i g h t p o r t was supplied by an 18-ampere, 6-volt p r o j e c t i o n lamp bulb with i t s base removed.
EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS

P a r t i c l e Flow and Dispersion Through a s i g h t p o r t i n t h e b e l l j a r i t was observed t h a t with a vacuum t o r r a flow of minus 35- p l u s 65-mesh p a r t i c l e s of 6 X lom8 t o 8 X occurred without adhesion t o t h e v i b r a t i n g f e e de r o r t h e c o l l e c t i n g b i n even though t h e sample was retu rn ed t o t h e feed hopper and repassed. I n t h e minus 65- p l u s 150-mesh range an adhering s i n g l e - p a r t i c l e l a y e r occurred on t h e v i b r a t i n g feed er near t h e feed hopper and a t t h e discharge end. The p a r t i c l e s i z e s cover t h e range adaptable t o e l e c t r o s t a t i c and dry magnetic se pa r a tion . The p a r t i c l e s were fragments produced by crushing and grinding. For adhes i o n a t t h e s e g ran u lar s i z e s s u r f a c e contour i s of prime importance. P a r t i c l e adhesion when i t does occur r e q u i r e s e i t h e r polished dust f r e e s u r f a c e s or very small p a r t i c l e s i z e s . An i l l u s t r a t i v e c a l c u l a t i o n on molecular f o r c e adhesion has been made by Lowe (17). Although Wagner )2 9( . demonstrated adhesion of 6-mm-diameter o p t i c a l l y polished spheres i n a vacuum of 10"' t o r r , other d a t a i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e show t h a t s i m i l a r adhesion, inc luding p a r t i c l e - t o p a r t i c l e adhesion, occurs a t atmospheric pr e ssur e f o r sand s i z e s . This f a c t *According t o Penn (3) h e temperature of t h e l u n a r environment v a r i e s from t -148" t o +102" C .

4
h as been demonstrated previously (3, p. 61), wherein dry beach sand with a s u r f a c e contour s i m i l a r t o rounded gr a ve l w a s found t o agglomerate when s t i r r e d w ith a g l a s s rod. Since t h e agglomeration disappeared on exposure t o an a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t corona, t h e a t t r a c t i v e f o r c e s were i d e n t i f i e d a s e l e c t r o s t a t i c . O rounded p a r t i c l e s of t h i s type t h e t o t a l n a t t a i n a b l e c onta c ting a r e a i s c l o s e t o t h a t calcul a t e d from t h e p a r t i c l e dimensions.

+
A

+
B

FIGURE 2.

For fragmented p a r t i c l e s c onta c t a r e a i s l i m i t e d t o t he sur f a c e peaks and f o r repeated c o n t a c t s and Discharging an assortment of c onta c t areas would b e obtained. Re1at ions. It can be shown t h a t the frequency of occurrence of a s p e c i f i c con tact a r e a i s i n accordance t o t h e normal law. The procedure involves charge accumulation measurements a s e l e c t r i c a l l y conductive p a r t i c l e s pass over an electro d e.

- Particle Charging

A s i l l u s t r a t e d i n f i g u r e 2& an uncharged p a r t i c l e when placed i n an elect r i c f i e l d w i l l acq u ire t h e induced charges, q, and q+, whose sum i s equal t o zero. I n f i g u r e 2B t h e p a r t i c l e i s brought i n t o c onta c t with one of the e l e c tro des which produFe t h e f i e l d , and t h e p a r t i c l e charge adjacent t o t h e electro de flows ac ro ss t h e co n tact a r e a , A . I f t h i s t r a n s f e r a b l e charge i s q, and i s discharged completely, t h e t o t a l charge on the p a r t i c l e changes from (9, -t- q+) t o q+. The r e l a t i o n between q and t h e c onta c t a r e a i s t h e r e f o r e represented by t h e d isch arg e of a condenser, where C i s t h e capacitance of t h e condenser system c o n t r i b u t e d by t h e p a r t i c l e , E i s t h e p o t e n t i a l a c r oss t h e contact a r e a , and r i s t h e s p e c i f i c r e s i s t i v i t y of t h e p a r t i c l e . For t h e d i s charge of a condenser,

where t i s t h e time. t = 0,

I n t e g r a t i n g and solving f o r t h e i n t e g r a t i o n c onsta nt a t

log q =

rC

log CE.

Since i n t h e charge measurements t h e e l e c t r i c f i e l d i n t e n s i t y i s s u f f i c i e n t l y low t o elimin ate e l e c t r o s t a t i c d e f l e c t i o n , t i s a c onsta nt. C i s a constant when t h e p a r t i c l e diameter i s constant. The ne ga tive s i g n i n equat i o n s l and 2 appears from t h e r a t e of change of charge with r e s p e c t t o change i n time. Equation 2 may accordingly be r e w r i t t e n log q

log CE = l o g n Q

log CE = A

$ ) 9

(3)

where Q i s t h e measured charge i n a r b i t r a r y u n i t s a f t e r t h e p a r t i c l e le a ve s t h e f i e l d , n i s a co n stan t, and q i s t h e a c t u a l charge on t h e p a r t i c l e .

Data of t h i s type represented as a s t r a i g h t - l i n e cumulative percentage p l o t have been presented (5, p. 4 3 ) . D i f f e r e n t i a t i o n through t h e use of F r y ' s t a b l e ( 3 p. 456) provides a frequency of occurrence p l o t as i l l u s t r a t e d i n 1, f i g u r e 3 . The mean charge, log QI i s equal t o 0 . 4 , and the equivalent area may be found by t h e equation

lo g n Q

log nm = log Q Q

log Qm = (A-A,)

() 2.

( 41

The term on t h e r i g h t s i d e of equation 4 i s a f unc tion of t h e a c t u a l area A . Over th e t h e o r e t i c a l range i n f i g u r e 3 t h i s f unc tion h a s an approximate e i g h t f o l d v a r i a t i o n . Contact E l e c t r i f i c a t i o n The successive co n tact e l e c t r i f i c a t i o n measurements a r e summarized i n t a b l e 1. The f i n a l weight of sample i n t h e b i n a f t e r r e t u r n t o atmosphere w a s l e s s than t h e i n i t i a l weight. Loss of sample is due t o t h e higher bounce of the p a r t i c l e s i n vacuum, t h e r e being under the se c onditions no r e s t r a i n t t o p a r t i c l e movement such as t h a t which r e s u l t s from t h e v i s c o s i t y of ambient a i r . The a c t u a l inc r e a se i n rebound d i s t a n c e w i l l MEASURED CHARGE, log Q be described l a t e r . A f t e r c onta c t e l e c t r i f i c a t i o n was measured i n t h e atmosphere, t h e 2-gram sample w a s r e tur ne d t o the feed hopper ( i , l , 1). f g With t h i s ope r a tion t h e r e w a s no l o s s of p a r t i c l e s by bouncing. The average charge on the p a r t i c l e w a s c a l c u l a t e d on t h e b a s i s of a measured e l e c t r i c capacitance of 83 X f a r a d f o r the b i n , feed-through, and electrome t e r . The low va lue f o r the average charge i s a t t r i b u t e d t o se ve r a l f a c t o r s . One i s t h a t the v i b r a t i o n i n t e n s i t y of t h e feeder i s too low f o r s a t i s f a c t o r y charging f o r c ont a c t e l e c t r i f i c a t i o n separation; another i s t h a t the average charge i s c a l c u l a t e d from the bulk charge and, as known from c onta c t e lec t r i f i c a t i o n s t u d i e s ( some p a r t i c l e s i , ) a c quir e a charge p o l a r i t y opposite t o t h e bulk p o l a r i t y .
\

I
I

I I

/
I
I I I
I

I I

I I
I

I I I I

;
I II

/
I

Examination of t a b l e 1 i n d i c a t e s t h a t the c onta c t e l e c t r i f i c a t i o n f o r the f i r s t --- Theoretical ronge b pass under vacuum i s g r e a t e r than t h a t i n a i r . This can be a t t r i b u t e d t o both t h e absence of 01 I I I I a corona leakage discharge, which can occur -0.4 -03 -0.2 -0.1 0 01 0 2 0.3 0 4 i n a i r , and t h e absence of sur f a c e conductivAREA FUNCTION, (A-Am)($) i t y due t o atmospheric moisture (6). Parks FIGURE 30 Frequency of Occurrence (19) has presented an e x c e l l e n t theory with of Particle Contact Area.
5.__ Experimental range

confirming d a t a on t h e e f f e c t of & O electrification.

TABLE 1.

adsorption on s u r f a c e conductivity and contact

Contact e l e c t r i f i c a t i o n of minerals i n vacuum and i n a i r F i r s t pass I n i t i a l under vacuum3 atmospheric pass Y volts"
Pass a f t e r return t o Second p a s s under L C U U ~ ~ Actual Corv o l t s :ected5 volts volts

Mineral

Particle size,' mesh

Microcline.

1.660 -7.7 1.574 -43 1.288 +16 Olivine...... 1.526 +8.0 +11 1.033 -10 -5.5 Hornblende.. 1.659 -26 -31 1.754 -42 -39 -34 Quartz....... -36 1.867 . -12 -39 -65 + 1501 -14 1-42 1.8 -13 -I lStandard screen scale. Mesh s i z e s 35, 65, ar 150 correspon . t o s i ezre openings of 420, 210, and 104 microns, r e s p e c t i v e l y . : I n i t i a l weight of sample = 2.00 grams. J F i r s t pass a t room temperature with no intervening i n c r e a s e i n temperature. Vacuum values f o r succeeding d a t a down column were 4.6, 5.5, 7.2, 4.9, 4.0, 4.2, 4.3, and 4.0 X lo-' t o r r . 4Second pass conducted a t room temperature b u t with an intervening 18-hour sample temperature of 102"+2" C. Vacuum values f o r succeeding d a t a down column were 8.0, 7.6, 7.8, 7.8, 7.6, 6.1, 6.8, and7.5 X lo-* t o r r . 5 Corrected v o l t s a r e f o r 2.0 grams c a l c u l a t e d from weight a f t e r r e t u r n t o atmosphere.
e e

-6.4 -34 +10

Correction f o r l o s s of weight i n d i c a t e s t h a t upon r e t u r n t o atmosphere t h e e l e c t r i f i c a t i o n p o t e n t i a l s a r e r e v e r s i b l e f o r a l l minerals except t h e f i n e s i z e o l i v i n e and t h e c o a r s e r s i z e quartz. Since t h e coarse p a r t i c l e s i z e t e s t s were conducted during t h e w i n t e r low humidity period t h e high e l e c t r i f i c a t i o n of t h e q u a r t z a f t e r r e t u r n t o atmosphere may b e a t t r i b u t e d t o a l a g i n H 3 readsorption. The f i n e par;0 t i c l e s i z e t e s t s were conducted during t h e summer when t h e r e l a t i v e humidity w a s 50k5 percent a t 28"+2" C . The higher p o t e n t i a l f o r t h e f i n e s i z e o l i v i n e upon r e t u r n t o atmosphere may b e explained on t h e b a s i s t h a t t h e r e l a t i v e humidity was 54 percent a t 26" C f o r t h e i n i t i a l pass, and 45 percent a t 26' C a f t e r r e t u r n t o atmosphere. Except f o r t h e k i n e s i z e microcline and the coarse s i z e hornblende t h e r e i s a t r e n d t o more p o s i t i v e c o n t a c t e l e c t r i f i c a t i o n v a l u e s between t h e f i r s t and second passes i n vacuum. A t t h e low temperature and s h o r t time of t h e bakeout any changes which may occur can only b e a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e desorption of high vapor pressure substances which may include water.

A v i b r a t i n g feeder with a contacting s u r f a c e more negative i n c o n t a c t p o t e n t i a l v a l u e than t h e aluminum used i n t h e s e t e s t s would decrease t h e magnitude of t h e microcline, hornblende, and quartz negative charges and might change them t o positive e l e c t r i f i c a t i o n p o l a r i t i e s . It has previously been shown (5) t h a t when a numb e r of nonconductive minerals and e l e c t r i c a l l y conductive contact surfaces a r e a l t e r n a t e l y arranged i n a series according t o c o n t a c t e l e c t r i f i c a t i o n p o l a r i t i e s , t h e conductive c o n t a c t s u r f a c e s a r e automatically arranged i n a contact p o t e n t i a l series.

7
By inference the nonconductive minerals are also arranged in a contact potential series. Contact potential theory is based on the flow of electrons in metals and the energy required to remove them from the Fermi level. For an extension to nonconductors Vick (27)postulated the existence of lattice imperfections on the nonconductor surface. At temperatures sufficiently higher than 100" C, contact electrification upon return to atmosphere would not be reversible because of the changes in the lattice imperfections at the surface. It has previously been shown (5, p. 64) that beryl when heated to 500" C loses cations from its surface with a change from positive to negative contact electrification. The cations could be restored by treatment in solutions of NaOH and W O H . Restoration to a positive electrification polarity can also be accomplished by an electrical discharge in hydrogen (12). Advantages of Vacuum Operation Vacuum operation eliminates the factors related to air, viscosity, the transmission of sound, and the restrictions to the transmission of electromagnetic radiation and atomic particles. Air Viscosity Air viscosity may either stop a particle having an initial velocity, or limit the maximum velocity which a particle attains under acceleration by gravity. The stopping distance, s, can be calculated by the use of T, the time-offlight factor. If the initial velocity of the particle is v, then the stopping distance is
s = TV.
(5)

For particles which follow Stokes' law, T can be calculated theoretically. For the case in which the theoretical conditions do not hold because of changes in the Reynolds' number due to turbulence, Davies ( 4 ) has presented a table of values. The same table supplies terminal velociti&, v, for particles falling in air. An unexpected high bounce of particles in vacuum has been noted. Comparison with the rebound in air may be calculated with the use of the above data and the equations
s = 112 gt2
(6)

and

gt,

(7)

where g is the acceleration of gravity and t is the time. Rebound calculations in air and vacuum are summarized in table 2.

8
TABLE 2.

v, cm per second4.

- ..
e..

e e e .

e . .

2Distance from feeder to collecting bin. 3 Data of Davies (4). 4Terminal velocity of fall. Sound Transmission The much higher velocities of fall which a particle can attain in a vacuum result in much higher intensities of resonating vibrations initiated by the elastic deformation of the particle during rebound. The vacuum also reduces sound radiation losses to zero. At the small particle sizes where the sound radiation losses in air become prohibitive, there is an increased possibility for stored energy because of the less likely occurrence of cracks and polycrystalline structure. The total energy of a system is the sum of the potential and kinetic energies and is equal to the kinetic energy when this is a maximum. The increment in energy, aW, in a layer of unit area of incremental thickness, ax, is

where p is the density of the medium

(a).When the kinetic energy is a maxidS dt

is a maximum. At the maximum in Zrrfa,

mum, the rate of displacement of medium,

simple harmonic motion,

L = S dt

(9)

where f is the frequency and a is the amplitude of vibration. For unit volume, equation 8 at the maximum kinetic energy becomes
W

With the sound waves reflected back from the surface of a solid cube of dimension z and density P s , the retained sound is the stored energy represented by

9
When t h e cube p a r t i c l e i s placed i n a i r with a de nsity Pa and a sound v e l o c i t y c, th e r a t e of energy decrease by r a d i a t i o n from two opposited faces would be

1 Combining equations 1 and 1 2 ,

I n t e g r a t i o n of equation 13 and solving f o r t h e i n t e g r a t i o n constant a t t = o provides t h e equation log WJ

log w =

Pa 2~ - - t, Ps z

where WJ i s th e i n i t i a l sto red energy a t t = o and w i s t h e s t o r e d energy a f t e r an el ap se of time. With a constant e la pse of t i m e t h e l o s s of energy increases with decrease i n t h e p a r t i c l e dimension z . W e t h e r e f o r e conclude t h a t f o r small p a r t i c l e s resonating v i b r a t i o n s w i l l be r e t a i n e d much longer with a vacuum ambient than an a i r ambient. The l a r g e i n t e n s i t i e s of stor e d resonating energy r e s u l t i n g from the rebound of p a r t i c l e s f a l l i n g from a g r e a t he ight i n vacuum would c o n t r i b u t e t o the dispersio n of agglomerates and the removal of dust from t h e p a r t i c l e sur face. P i e z o e l e c t r i c p r o p e r t i e s of t h e p a r t i c l e s , of which 20 of the t o t a l of provide f o r electromechanical cou32 c r y s t a l c l a s s e s a r e p i e z o e l e c t r i c ( E ) , p l i n g (25). Application of an e x t e r n a l resonating e l e c t r i c f i e l d would accent u a t e t h e v i b r a t i o n s t o in crease d i s p e r s i o n and provide means f o r p a r t i c l e s i z e reduction by f r a c t u r e , p a r t i c u l a r l y a t the g r a i n boundary of two locked minerals e Radiation Transmission
A vacuum ambient permits the u n r e s t r i c t e d transmission of electromagnetic r a d i a t i o n and atomic p a r t i c l e s . O p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t i s u l t r a v i o l e t r a di a f t i o n which has a high absorption i n a i r a t wavelengths less than 2,000 A (24). That the photoconductive e f f e c t can be adapted t o the se pa r a tion of m i n e r a E w a s demonstrated i n a i r with t h e equipment shown i n f i g u r e 4. Here the amount of s p h a l e r i t e p a r t i c l e s c o l l e c t e d i n the conductor f r a c t i o n b i n changed from 8 t o 91 percent of t h e t o t a l feed when the p a r t i c l e s on the se pa r a tor r o l l were i r r a d i a t e d with u l t r a v i o l e t l i g h t from a high-pressure quartz envelope lamp.

Although s p h a l e r i t e i s not included i n t h e l i s t of minerals postula te d as measured t h e photoemission of e x i s t i n g on th e lu n ar su rface, Hartmann s i l i c a with an e l e c t r o n camera. The same technique was used by o t h e r s Q - 2 ) @ Additional d a t a on i n s u l a t o r s using e l e c t r i c c u r r e n t methods include photo: emission (2) and photoconductivity e f f e c t s (3,g-g9 26). I n the range

(4 1)

10

20 to 120 A two photoemission peaks occur near 100 A for Be0

e).

Vibroting feeder U l t r a v i o l e t lamp Cylindrical high-voltage electrode, 2-inch diometer Dividing edge. Conductor porticles orrive ot C and nonconductor p o r t i c l e s arrive o t N Ground potentiol cylindric01 r o t a t i n g r o l l , 6-inch diameter

2
3

4
5

Photoactivation may be supplemented to some extent by thermal activation. This is illustrated in table 3 with diamond. For a conductive response in an electrostatic separator the contact resistance should be loL2 ohms or 7 . Since the number of photoconless ( ) d c o : is proportional to the square utr a lamp root of the light intensity (g), with at least 100 times the intensity would be required for a resistance of 10l2 ohms at 50" C.

Atomic particles in the form of electrons from a heated cathode, or FIGURE 4. - Apparatus for Photoelectric positive ions such as hydrogen ions, Mineral Separation. would have application in the electro-static separation of conductors from nonconductors. In terrestrial applications this separation is carried out with an air ionizing electrode (2). An alternative application of electrons or positive ions when deposited on particle surfaces is the dispersion of agglomerates by the repelling effect of similar charges, TABLE 3 .

Results of supplementing photoactivation with thermal activation1

. 0 . 0 . . . . 0 0 0 . . . .

Irradiated2

e..

, .

Icontact resistance using the method 200 volts across Irradiation from a H4 high-pressure

'

of a 200-micron diamond particle previously described (i3 69) with p. the electrodes. Continental Lithograph Corporation quartz lamp. CONCLUSIONS

With particles produced by crushing and grinding there will be no difficulty in the electrostatic and magnetic separation of minerals in a vacuum, provided separation is confined to particles coarser than 150 mesh. The lack of air viscosity permits magnetic and electrostatic separation at high feed rates, while the absence of sound transmission in space results in a vibration method for the dispersion of particle agglomerates and the removal of particle surface dust.

11

Another advantage of vacuum operation is the elimination of the ultraviolet absorption which occurs in air at wavelengths below 2,000 A. At the shorter wavelengths photoconductive and photoemission effects may be useful in increasing the selectivity of mineral separation. The increased electrical insulation of a vacuum provides for larger contact electrification charges and higher electrical operating potentials, both of which would contribute to electrostatic separation at larger particle sizes. Even though the air ionizing electrode, normally employed in the electrostatic separation of conductors from nonconductors, will not operate in a vacuum, the same separation can be accomplished by the use of electrons from a heated cathode, or by the use of positive ions such as hydrogen ions, A secondary effect of ion deposition is the dispersion of particle agglomerates, ACKNOWLEDGMENT The author wishes to acknowledge the support of the Office of Advanced Research and Technology, National Aeronautics and Space Administration. The research was conducted as part of the Bureau of Mines program of Multidisciplinary Research Leading to Utilization of Extraterrestrial Resources under NASA contract R-09-040-001,

12

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Bizouard, M. , J. Pantaloni, and J. Crousillat. Emission photo6lectrique d'un monocristal de NaCl (Photoelectric Emission of a Single Crystal NaC1). C. R. Acad. Sci,, v. 2 6 2 , No. 4 , Jan. 2 4 , 1 9 6 6 , pp. 278-280. Cook, J. R. Photoconductivity in Calcium Tungstate. v. B 6 8 , January 1 9 5 5 , pp. 148-155. Proc. Phys. Soc.,

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Hartmann, M, P. Excitati2n de l'emission photoglectrique de la silice par irradiation en lumiere ultraviolette (Excitation of Photoelectric Emission in Silica by Irradiation in Ultraviolet Light). C. R. Acad, No, 1 7 , Oct. 2 1 , 1 9 6 3 , pp. 2447-2450. Sci,, v, 257

'Titles enclosed in parentheses are translations from the language in which the item was originally published.

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e

Stokes, R. G. An Improved Apparatus for Detecting Piezoelectricity. Am. Miner., v. 32, Nos. 11-12, November-December 1947, pp. 670-677. Taylor, J. W., and P. L. Hartmann. Photoelectric Effects in Certain of . the Alkali Halides in the Vacuum Ultraviolet. Phys. Rev., v 113, Mar. 15, 1959, pp. 1421-1435. Vick, F. A. Theory of Contact Electrification. British J. Appl. Phys., Suppl. 2, March 1953, pp. Sl-S5. Wagner, P. E. Electrostatic Charge Separation at Metal-Insulator Contacts. J. Appl. Phys., v. 27, No. 11, November 1956, pp. 1300-1311. Wood, A. B. Textbook of Sound. ed., 1955, 610 pp. Dover Publications Inc., New York, 3d

27. 28 29

IN T.-BU.OF

MIN ES,PGH.,P

A. 14966