Proceedings Full Length Papers - Final

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DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
Dedicated to Bharat Ratna Sir. M. Visvesvaraya
An Inspiration for all engineers
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PROCEEDINGS OF STUDENTS TECHNICAL SEMINAR
EDITORIAL
Engineering and Technology plays a pivotal role in the development of todays world. For the young engineer, it is essential to have the knowledge of the latest and emerging trends in Engineering and Technology. Education is time bound. Learning is continuous and sky is the limit. In this competitive world, the students should adopt innovative and creative thinking to achieve goals and take right decisions. A technical seminar has been organized to provide a platform to the students for mutual sharing of knowledge and experience but also to help budding managers for making decision to meet the present day challenges. Our thanks are due to all the students, authors of papers, for contributing to the success of the seminar. We place our gratitude to the management of Vidya Vikas Education Trust, Mysore. Sri Vasu Chairman, Sri V. Kaveesh Gowda Secretary of Vidya Vikas Education Trust, Mysore and to all the faculty, staff and students of the Department of Mechanical Engineering for their support and encouragement in bringing out this E-proceedings and conducting this seminar successfully. We are sure that the students would find this publication very useful and valuable.
Department of Mechanical Engineering

Vidya Vikas Institute of Engineering & Technology Mysore-Bannur Road, Mysore 570 010
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MEMBERS OF THE EDITORIAL COMMITTEE
Dr. B.J. Ranganath, M.Tech, Ph.D, FIE CHIEF EDITOR Professor & HOD Department of Mechanical Engineering
Sri. A. S. Srikantappa Associate Editor Assistant Professor Department of Mechanical Engineering
Sri. B.R. Vijay Associate Editor Lecturer Department of Mechanical Engineering
Sri. B.R. Narendra Babu Associate Editor Assistant Professor Department of Mechanical Engineering
Karthik B.S. Editor 4th Semester Department of Mechanical Engineering
Abhijit Editor 4th Semester Department of Mechanical Engineering
Varun Kumar Editor 4th Semester Department of Mechanical Engineering

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Sri. B.R. Vijay Chairperson Lecturer Department of Mechanical Engineering VVIET, Mysore 570 010
Sri. Nandish S. Chairperson Lecturer Department of Mechanical Engineering VVIET, Mysore 570 010
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CONTENTS
INVITED TALK : INTERCONNECTION OF VERY SMALL CAPACITY ROOFTOP PV PANEL WITH LOW VOLTAGE DISTRIBUTION NETWORKS
Sl. No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33
Name Srinidhi R & Swetha Pramod Rao U.M. & Nishith V.B. Sandeep H.P. & Vivekanand A.G. Kiran Rohidekar & Nagashreenivasa B Varsha Banu & Lakshmi Swananad Patwardhan & Bharath Kushal Prasad & Shreyas M.N. Vinay Kumar M Manoj & Srinivas C.M Mouna H.N. & Priyanka N Megha G.S. & Keethana M.J. Varun Kumar & Abhijit Nitin G & Aditya G.C Ravikiran R & Gautham N.H Sowmya S Prasanna Kumar K.C. & Yogesh Sajan N.P. & Yatish Kumar Gururaj B.S. & Pramod Adi Krishna B.S & Anthony Michael M.J. Raghvendra K.S. & Sanju Lakshmesh Srinidhi Rao K & Karthik R Vijay G & Michael Stanley Megha Raj Ravi V & Kamlesh Kumar S Yogesh R & Satyanarayana Akshay S Bhat & Supreeth Dev Nishan Nanjappa & Asha Rani K Sheethal Kumar P Shravan C.R. & Ullas D.R Ganesh Shankar & Srivatsva B.S Karthik B.S. Praveen R Gowda Sachin V Hiremath & Rahul Singh
Topic Hydrogen fuel cells- The alternative source of fuel Wind Energy Robotics Geothermal Energy Sources Application of Solar Technology Robotics- Industrial Robots A study of Lignite biomass co-firing gasifier Tidal Energy & its applications Robotics - Industrial Automation Geothermal Energy Sources Robotics in biological & Medical Applications The Art of HR Management Planning in Management - Creative Planning Strategic management Robotics Applications of Industrial Robots Robotics Sunflower- An innovative HCPV system Solar Energy - Energy Forever Hydrogen Fuel Cell - An Alternative fuel Tidal Energy Solar Energy - Solid state Aircrafts Wind Energy Renewable Energy Resources Geothernal Energy Wind Energy Solar power satellites using beamed ray transmission Renewable Energy Sources & their Applications Low cost solar collectors Renewable Energy Sources & their Applications Tidal Energy Optical Solutions to Power Your Network Microbial Fuel Cell
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HYDROGEN & FUEL CELLS THE RELIABLE FUTURE SOURCE OF ENERGY

Authors: Srinidhi R1, Swetha G.N.2 6 SEM, Mechanical Engineering, Vidya Vikas Institute of Engineering and Technology, Mysore-10
th
A Fuel Cell is an electrochemical device that combines hydrogen and oxygen to produce electricity, with water and heat as its by-product. Conversion of the fuel to energy takes place via an electrochemical process, not combustion. It is a clean, quiet and highly efficient process- two to three times more efficient than fuel burning. It operates similarly to a battery, but it does not run down nor does it require recharging. As long as fuel is supplied, a Fuel Cell will produce both energy and heat. A Fuel Cell consists of two catalyst coated electrodes surrounding an electrolyte. One electrode is an anode and the other is a cathode. The process begins when Hydrogen molecules enter the anode. The catalyst coating separates hydrogens negatively charged electrons from the positively
charged protons. The electrolyte allows the protons to pass through to the cathode, but not the electrons. Instead the electrons are directed through an external circuit which creates electrical current. While the electrons pass through the external circuit, oxygen molecules pass through the cathode. There the oxygen and the protons combine with the electrons after they have passed through the external circuit. When the oxygen and the protons combine with the electrons it produces water and heat. Individual fuel cells can then be placed in a series to form a fuel cell stack. The stack can be used in a system to power a vehicle or to provide stationary power to a building.
MAJOR TYPES OF FUEL CELLS:
1) Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM)
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3) Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell
2) Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell [PAFC]
4) Solid Oxide Fuel Cell
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5) Alkaline Fuel Cell
A hydrogen vehicle is an alternative fuel vehicle that uses hydrogen as its onboard fuel for motive power. The term may refer to a personal transportation vehicle, such as an automobile, or any other
vehicle that uses hydrogen in a similar fashion, such as an aircraft. Hydrogen fuel does not occur naturally on Earth and thus is not an energy source, but is an energy carrier. Currently it is most frequently made from methane or other fossil fuels. However, it can be produced from a wide range of sources (such as wind, solar, or nuclear) that are intermittent, too diffuse or too cumbersome to directly propel vehicles. According to the United States Department of Energy "Producing hydrogen from natural gas does result in some greenhouse gas emissions. When compared to ICE vehicles using gasoline, however, fuel cell vehicles using hydrogen produced from natural gas reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 60%. Hydrogen will need to be stored onboard vehicles, at hydrogen production sites, refueling stations and stationary power sites. Hydrogen has very high energy content by weight (3x more than gasoline) and very low energy content by volume (4x less than gasoline). If the hydrogen is compressed and stored at room temperature under moderate pressure, too large a fuel tank would be required .Researchers are trying to find light-weight, safe, composite materials that can help reduce the weight and volume of compressed gas storage systems. Developing safe, reliable, compact and cost-effective hydrogen storage is one of the biggest challenges to widespread use of fuel cell technology. Hydrogen has physical characteristics that make it difficult to store large quantities without taking up a great deal of space.
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USE OF FUEL CELLS IN OTHER FIELDS:

Transportation Stationary Power Stations Telecommunications Micro Power All major automakers are working to commercialize a fuel cell car. Automakers and experts speculate that a fuel cell vehicle will be commercialized by 2010. 50 fuel cell buses are currently in use in North and South America, Europe, Asia and Australia. Over 2,500 fuel cell systems have been installed all over the world in hospitals, nursing homes, hotels, office buildings, schools and utility power plants. Most of these systems are either connected to the electric grid to provide supplemental power and backup assurance or as a gridindependent generator for locations that are inaccessible by power lines. Due to computers, the Internet and sophisticated communication networks there is a need for an incredibly reliable power source. Fuel Cells have been proven to be 99.999% reliable. Consumer electronics could gain drastically longer battery power with Fuel Cell technology. Cell phones can be powered for 30 days without recharging.
Laptops can be powered for 20 hours without recharging.
COST OF FUEL CELLS:

Fuel cells are generally priced in USD/kW, and data is scarce regarding costs. Ballard Power Systems is virtually alone in publishing such data. Their 2005 figure was $73 USD/kW (based on high volume manufacturing estimates), which they said was on track to achieve the U.S. DoE's 2010 goal of $30 USD/kW. This would achieve closer parity with internal combustion engines for automotive applications, allowing a 100 kW fuel cell to be produced for $3000. 100 kW is about 134 hp.
ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS:
Environmental consequences of the production of hydrogen from fossil energy resources include the emission of greenhouse gases, a consequence that would also result from the on-board reforming of methanol into hydrogen. Studies comparing the environmental consequences of hydrogen production and use in fuel-cell vehicles to the refining of petroleum and combustion in conventional automobile engines find a net reduction of ozone and greenhouse gases in favor of hydrogen. Hydrogen production using renewable energy resources would not create such emissions or, in the case of biomass, would create near-zero net
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emissions assuming new biomass is grown
in place of that converted to hydrogen.
WIND POWER
Authors: Pramod Rao U.M.1, Nishith V.B.2 th 4 SEM, Mechanical Engineering, Vidya Vikas Institute of Engineering and Technology, Mysore-10
Wind power is the conversion of wind energy into a useful form of energy, such as using wind turbines to make electricity, wind mills for mechanical power, wind pumps for pumping water or drainage, or sails to propel ships. At the end of 2009, worldwide nameplate capacity of wind-powered generators was 159.2 gigawatts (GW).Energy production was 340 TWh, which is about 2% of worldwide electricity usage;and is growing rapidly, having doubled in the past three years. Several countries have achieved relatively high levels of wind power penetration (with large governmental subsidies), such as 19% of stationary electricity production in Denmark, 13% in Spain and Portugal, and 7% in Germany and the Republic of Ireland in 2008. As of May 2009, eighty countries around the world are using wind power on a commercial basis. Large-scale wind farms are connected to the electric power transmission network; smaller facilities are used to provide electricity to isolated locations. Utility companies increasingly buy back surplus electricity produced by small domestic turbines. Wind energy as a power source is attractiveas an alternative to fossil fuels, because it is plentiful, renewable, widely distributed, cleans, and produces no greenhouse gas emissions during operation. However, the construction of wind farms is not universally
welcomed because of their visual impact and other effects on the environment.
Wind power is non-dispatch able, meaning that for economic operation, all of the available output must be taken when it is available. Other resources, such as hydropower, and standard load management techniques must be used to match supply with demand. The intermittency of wind seldom creates problems when using wind power to supply a low proportion of total demand, but costs rise as does the proportion.
HISTORY
Windmills are typically installed in favourable windy locations. In the image, generators in Spain Humans have been using wind power for at least 5,500 years to propel sailboats and sailing ships, and architects have used winddriven natural ventilation in buildings since similarly ancient times. Windmills have been used for irrigation pumping and for
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milling grain since the 7th century AD in what is now Afghanistan, Iran and Pakistan. In the United States, the development of the "water-pumping windmill" was the major factor in allowing the farming and ranching of vast areas otherwise devoid of readily accessible water. Wind pumps contributed to the expansion of rail transport systems throughout the world, by pumping water from water wells for the steam locomotives.[6] The multi-bladed wind turbine atop a lattice tower made of wood or steel was, for many years, a fixture of the landscape throughout rural America. When fitted with generators and battery banks, small wind machines provided electricity to isolated farms. Small wind turbines for lighting of isolated rural buildings were widespread in the first part of the 20th century. Larger units intended for connection to a distribution network were tried at several locations including Balaklava USSR in 1931 and in a 1.25 megawatt (MW) experimental unit in Vermont in 1941. Europe was the heart of Windmill development and fortunately many fine examples are preserved, some, especially in Holland where Windmills are present in large numbers in a small area. Even more remarkable is the fact that many of these windmills are in very reasonable, many of them even in excellent, condition and a considerable number of them are working regularly. Moreover, there are windmills of the many varied types: drainage mills, corn mills, and industrial mills for all sorts of purposes.
The modern wind power industry began in 1979 with the serial production of wind turbines by Danish manufacturers Kuriant, Vestas, Nordtank, and Bonus. These early turbines were small by today's standards, with capacities of 2030 kW each. Since then, they have increased greatly in size, with the Enercon E-126 capable of delivering up to 7 MW, while wind turbine production has expanded to many countries.
WIND ENERGY
The Earth is unevenly heated by the sun, such that the poles receive less energy from the sun than the equator; along with this, dry land heats up (and cools down) more quickly than the seas do. The differential heating drives a global atmospheric convection system reaching from the Earth's surface to the stratosphere which acts as a virtual ceiling. Most of the energy stored in these wind movements can be found at high altitudes where continuous wind speeds of
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over 160 km/h (99 mph) occur. Eventually, the wind energy is converted through friction into diffuse heat throughout the Earth's surface and the atmosphere. The total amount of economically extractable power available from the wind is considerably more than present human power use from all sources.[8] An estimated 72 terawatt (TW) of wind power on the Earth potentially can be commercially viable,[9] compared to about 15 TW average global power consumption from all sources in 2005.
In a wind farm, individual turbines are interconnected with a medium voltage (often 34.5 kV), power collection system and communications network. At a substation, this medium-voltage electrical current is increased in voltage with a transformer for connection to the high voltage electric power transmission system. The surplus power produced by domestic micro generators can, in some jurisdictions, be fed into the network and sold to the utility company, producing a retail credit for the micro generators' owners to offset their energy costs. Wind turbines are used to generate electricity from the kinetic power of the wind. Historical they were more frequently used as a mechanical device to turn machinery. There are two main kinds of wind generators, those with a vertical axis, and those with a horizontal axis. Wind turbines can be used to generate large amounts of electricity in wind farms both onshore and offshore. The articles on this page are about wind turbines.
ELECTRICITY GENERATION
Typical components of a wind turbine (gearbox, rotor shaft and brake assembly) being lifted into position
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ECONOMICS AND FEASIBILITY

Growth and cost trends Wind power has negligible fuel costs, but a high capital cost. The estimated average cost per unit incorporates the cost of construction of the turbine and transmission facilities, borrowed funds, return to investors (including cost of risk), estimated annual production, and other components, averaged over the projected useful life of the equipment, which may be in excess of twenty years. Energy cost estimates are highly dependent on these assumptions so published cost figures can differ substantially. A British Wind Energy Association report gives an average generation cost of onshore wind power of around 3.2 pence (between US 5 and 6 cents) per kWh (2005).[90] Cost per unit of energy produced was estimated in 2006 to be comparable to the cost of new generating capacity in the US for coal and natural gas: wind cost was estimated at $55.80 per MWh, coal at $53.10/MWh and natural gas at $52.50.[91] Other sources in various studies have estimated wind to be more expensive than other sources (see Economics of new nuclear power plants, Clean coal, and Carbon capture and storage). A 2009 study on wind power in Spain by the Universidad Rey Juan Carlos concluded that each installed MW of wind power destroyed 4.27 jobs, by raising energy costs and driving away electricity-intensive businesses In 2004, wind energy cost a fifth of what it did in the 1980s, and some expected that downward trend to continue as larger multimegawatt turbines were mass-produced however, installed cost averaged 1,300 a kW in 2007, compared to 1,100 a kW in 2005. Not as many facilities can produce large modern turbines and their towers and foundations, so constraints develop in the
supply of turbines resulting in higher costs. Research from a wide variety of sources in various countries shows that support for wind power is consistently 7080% among the general public
DESIGN SPECIFICATION
The design specification for a wind-turbine will contain a power curve and guaranteed availability. With the data from the wind resource assessment it is possible to calculate commercial viability.[1] The typical operating temperature range is -20 to 40 C (-4 to 104 F). In areas with extreme climate (like Inner Mongolia or Rajasthan) specific cold and hot weather versions are required.
LOW TEMPERATURE
Utility-scale wind turbine generators have minimum temperature operating limits which apply in areas that experience temperatures below 20 C. Wind turbines must be protected from ice accumulation, which can make anemometer readings inaccurate and which can cause high structure loads and damage. Some turbine manufacturers offer low-temperature packages at a few percent extra costs, which include internal heaters, different lubricants, and different alloys for structural elements. If the low-temperature interval is combined with a low-wind condition, the wind turbine will require an external supply of power, equivalent to a few percent of its rated power, for internal heating. For example, the St. Leon, Manitoba project has a total rating of 99 MW and is estimated to need up to 3 MW (around 3% of capacity) of station service power a few days a year for temperatures down to 30 C. This factor affects the economics of wind turbine operation in cold climates.
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AERODYNAMICS
The aerodynamics of a horizontal-axis wind turbine are not straightforward. The air flow at the blades is not the same as the airflow far away from the turbine. The very nature of the way in which energy is extracted from the air also causes air to be deflected by the turbine. In addition the aerodynamics of a wind turbine at the rotor surface exhibit phenomena that are rarely seen in other aerodynamic fields. In 1919 the physicist Albert Betz showed that for a hypothetical ideal wind-energy extraction machine, the fundamental laws of conservation of mass and energy allowed no more than 16/27 (59.3%) of the kinetic energy of the wind to be captured. This Betz' law limit can be approached by modern turbine designs which may reach 70 to 80% of this theoretical limit.
root of the blade where the boundary layer Stalling works by increasing the angle at which the relative wind strikes the blades (angle of attack), and it reduces the induced drag (drag associated with lift). Stalling is simple because it can be made to happen passively (it increases automatically when the winds speed up), but it increases the cross-section of the blade face-on to the wind, and thus the ordinary drag. A fully stalled turbine blade, when stopped, has the flat side of the blade facing directly into the wind. A fixed-speed HAWT inherently increases its angle of attack at higher wind speed as the blades speed up. A natural strategy, then, is to allow the blade to stall when the wind speed increases. This technique was successfully used on many early HAWTs. However, on some of these blade sets, it was observed that the degree of blade pitch tended to increase audible noise levels. Vortex generators may be used to control the lift characteristics of the blade. The VGs are placed on the airfoil to enhance the lift if they are placed on the lower (flatter) surface or limit the maximum lift if placed on the upper (higher camber) surface.[2]
POWER CONTROL
A wind turbine is designed to produce a maximum of power at wide spectrum of wind speeds. The wind turbines have three modes of operation:

Below rated wind speed operation Around rated wind speed operation Above rated wind speed operation
PITCH CONTROL
Furling works by decreasing the angle of attack, which reduces the induced drag from the lift of the rotor, as well as the crosssection. One major problem in designing wind turbines is getting the blades to stall or furl quickly enough should a gust of wind cause sudden acceleration. A fully furled turbine blade, when stopped, has the edge of the blade facing into the wind. Standard modern turbines all pitch the blades in high winds. Since pitching requires acting against the torque on the blade, it requires some form of pitch angle control.
If the rated wind speed is exceeded the power has to be limited. There are various ways to achieve this.
STALL
Plastic vortex generator stripes used to control stall characteristics of the blade - in this example protecting the blade from rapid fluctuations in wind speed. Close-up look at the vortex generators (VGs) - the larger ones are closest to the
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Many turbines use hydraulic systems. These systems are usually spring loaded, so that if hydraulic power fails, the blades automatically furl. Other turbines use an electric servomotor for every rotor blade. They have a small battery-reserve in case of an electric-grid breakdown. Small wind turbines (under 50 kW) with variablepitching generally use systems operated by centrifugal force, either by flyweights or geometric design, and employ no electric or hydraulic controls.
ELECTRICAL BRAKING
YAWING
Modern large wind turbines are typically actively controlled to face the wind direction measured by a wind vane situated on the back of the nacelle. By minimizing the yaw angle (the misalignment between wind and turbine pointing direction), the power output is maximized and non-symmetrical loads minimized. However, since the wind direction varies quickly the turbine will not strictly follow the direction and will have a small yaw angle on average. The power output losses can simply be approximated to fall with cos3(yaw angle).
Dynamic braking resistor for wind turbine. Braking of a small wind turbine can also be done by dumping energy from the generator into a resistor bank, converting the kinetic energy of the turbine rotation into heat. This method is useful if the kinetic load on the generator is suddenly reduced or is too small to keep the turbine speed within its allowed limit. Cyclically braking causes the blades to slow down, which increases the stalling effect, reducing the efficiency of the blades. This way, the turbine's rotation can be kept at a safe speed in faster winds while maintaining (nominal) power output. This method is usually not applied on large grid-connected wind turbines.
MECHANICAL BRAKING
A mechanical drum brake or used to hold the turbine maintenance. Such brakes applied only after blade disk brake is at rest for are usually furling and
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electromagnetic braking have reduced the turbine speed, as the mechanical brakes would wear quickly if used to stop the turbine from full speed. There can also be a stick brake.
TURBINE SIZE
10 Israeli wind turbines in the Golan Heights 600 kW each For large, commercial size horizontal-axis wind turbines, the generator is mounted in a nacelle at the top of a tower, behind the hub of the turbine rotor. Typically wind turbines generate electricity through asynchronous machines that are directly connected with the electricity grid. Usually the rotational speed of the wind turbine is slower than the equivalent rotation speed of the electrical network - typical rotation speeds for a wind generators are 5-20 rpm while a directly connected machine will have an electrical speed between 750-3600 rpm. Therefore, a gearbox is inserted between the rotor hub and the generator. This also reduces the generator cost and weight. Commercial size generators have a rotor carrying a field winding so that a rotating magnetic field is produced inside a set of windings called the stator. While the rotating field winding consumes a fraction of a percent of the generator output, adjustment of the field current allows good control over the generator output voltage. Windmills up to 3MW are now using gearless permanent magnet generators. This gives better reliability and performance than gear based systems. Gearless turbines Parts of DIY Wind turbine Electrical generators inherently produce AC power. Older style wind generators rotate at a constant speed, to match power line
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A person standing beside medium size modern turbine blades. For a given survivable wind speed, the mass of a turbine is approximately proportional to the cube of its blade-length. Wind power intercepted by the turbine is proportional to the square of its blade-length. The maximum blade-length of a turbine is limited by both the strength and stiffness of its material. Labor and maintenance costs increase only gradually with increasing turbine size, so to minimize costs, wind farm turbines are basically limited by the strength of materials, and siting requirements. Typical modern wind turbines have diameters of 40 to 90 metres (130 to 300 ft) and are rated between 500 kW and 2 MW. As of 2010 the most powerful turbine is rated at 7 MW.
GENERATOR
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frequency, which allowed the use of less costly induction generators. Newer wind turbines often turn at whatever speed generates electricity most efficiently. This can be solved using multiple technologies such as doubly fed induction generators or full-effect converters where the variable frequency current produced is converted to DC and then back to AC, matching the line frequency and voltage. Although such alternatives require costly equipment and cause power loss, the turbine can capture a significantly larger fraction of the wind energy. In some cases, especially when turbines are sited offshore, the DC energy will be transmitted from the turbine to a central (onshore) inverter for connection to the grid.
governed by the AC frequency of the power lines. The high inertia buffered the changes in rotation speed and thus made power output more stable. The speed and torque at which a wind turbine rotates must be controlled for several reasons:

BLADES
Blade design Blades can be made from simple objects as barrels.The ratio between the speed of the wind and the speed of the blade tips is called Tip speed ratio. High efficiency 3-bladeturbines have tip speed/wind speed ratios of 6 to 7 Modern wind turbines are designed to spin at varying speeds (a consequence of their generator design, see above). Use of aluminum and composites in their blades has contributed to low rotational inertia, which means that newer wind turbines can accelerate quickly if the winds pick up, keeping the tip speed ratio more nearly constant. Operating closer to their optimal tip speed ratio during energetic gusts of wind allows wind turbines to improve energy capture from sudden gusts that are typical in urban settings. In contrast, older style wind turbines were designed with heavier steel blades, which have higher inertia, and rotated at speeds
To optimize the aerodynamic efficiency of the rotor in light winds. To keep the generator within its speed and torque limits. To keep the rotor and hub within their centripetal force limits. The centripetal force from the spinning rotors increases as the square of the rotation speed, which makes this structure sensitive to overspeed. To keep the rotor and tower within their strength limits. Because the power of the wind increases as the cube of the wind speed, turbines have to be built to survive much higher wind loads (such as gusts of wind) than those from which they can practically generate power. Since the blades generate more downwind force (and thus put far greater stress on the tower) when they are producing torque, most wind turbines have ways of reducing torque in high winds. To enable maintenance; because it is dangerous to have people working on a wind turbine while it is active, it is sometimes necessary to bring a turbine to a full stop. To reduce noise; As a rule of thumb, the noise from a wind turbine increases with the fifth power of the relative wind speed (as seen from the moving tip of the blades). In noisesensitive environments, the tip speed can be limited to approximately 60
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m/s (200 ft/s). Blade count
The NASA Mod-0 research wind turbine at Glenn Research Center's Plum Brook station in Ohio tested a one-bladed rotor configuration The determination of the number of blades involves design considerations of aerodynamic efficiency, component costs, system reliability, and aesthetics. Noise emissions are affected by the location of the blades upwind or downwind of the tower and the speed of the rotor. Given that the noise emissions from the blades' trailing edges and tips vary by the 5th power of blade speed, a small increase in tip speed can make a large difference. Wind turbines developed over the last 50 years have almost universally used either two or three blades. Aerodynamic efficiency increases with number of blades but with diminishing return. Increasing the number of blades from one to two yields a six percent increase in aerodynamic efficiency, whereas increasing the blade count from two to three yields only an additional three percent in efficiency. Further increasing the blade count yields minimal improvements in aerodynamic efficiency and sacrifices too much in blade stiffness as the blades become thinner. Component costs that are affected by blade count are primarily for materials and manufacturing of the turbine rotor and drive
train. Generally, the fewer the number of blades, the lower the material and manufacturing costs will be. In addition, the fewer the number of blades, the higher the rotational speed can be. This is because blade stiffness requirements to avoid interference with the tower limit how thin the blades can be manufactured, but only for upwind machines; deflection of blades in a downwind machine results in increased tower clearance. Fewer blades with higher rotational speeds reduce peak torques in the drive train, resulting in lower gearbox and generator costs.
The 98 meter diameter, two-bladed NASA/DOE Mod-5B wind turbine was the largest operating wind turbine in the world in the early 1990s System reliability is affected by blade count primarily through the dynamic loading of the rotor into the drive train and tower systems. While aligning the wind turbine to changes in wind direction (yawing), each blade experiences a cyclic load at its root end depending on blade position. This is true of one, two, three blades or more. However, these cyclic loads when combined together at the drive train shaft are symmetrically balanced for three blades, yielding smoother operation during turbine yaw. Turbines with one or two blades can use a pivoting teetered hub to also nearly eliminate the cyclic loads
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into the drive shaft and system during yawing. Finally, aesthetics can be considered a factor in that some people find that the threebladed rotor is more pleasing to look at than a one- or two-bladed rotor. Blade materials New generation wind turbine designs are pushing power generation from the single megawatt range to upwards of 10 megawatts. The common trend of these larger capacity designs are larger and larger turbine blades. Covering a larger area effectively increases the tip-speed ratio of a turbine at a given wind speed, thus increasing the energy extraction capability of a turbine system. Current production wind turbine blades are manufactured as large as 80 meters in diameter with prototypes in the range of 100 to 120 meters. In 2001, an estimated 50 million kilograms of fiberglass laminate were used in wind turbine blades.[4] New materials and manufacturing methods provide the opportunity to improve wind turbine efficiency by allowing for larger, stronger blades. One of the most important goals when designing larger blade systems is to keep blade weight under control. Since blade mass scales as the cube of the turbine radius, loading due to gravity becomes a constraining design factor for systems with larger blades.[5] Current manufacturing methods for blades in the 40 to 50 meter range involve various proven fiberglass composite fabrication techniques. Manufactures such as Nordex and GE Wind use an infusion process for blade manufacture. Other manufacturers use variations on this technique, some including
carbon and wood with fiberglass in an epoxy matrix. Options also include prepreg fiberglass and vacuum-assisted resin transfer molding. Essentially each of these options are variations on the same theme: a glassfiber reinforced polymer composite constructed through various means with differing complexity. Perhaps the largest issue with more simplistic, open-mold, wet systems are the emissions associated with the volatile organics released into the atmosphere. Preimpregnated materials and resin infusion techniques avoid the release of volatiles by containing all reaction gases. However, these contained processes have their own challenges, namely the production of thick laminates necessary for structural components becomes more difficult. As the preform resin permeability dictates the maximum laminate thickness, bleeding is required to eliminate voids and insure proper resin distribution.[4] A unique solution to resin distribution is the use of a partially preimpregnated fiberglass. During evacuation, the dry fabric provides a path for airflow and, once heat and pressure are applied, resin may flow into the dry region resulting in a thoroughly impregnated laminate structure.[4] Epoxy-based composites are of greatest interest to wind turbine manufacturers because they deliver a key combination of environmental, production, and cost advantages over other resin systems. Epoxies also improve wind turbine blade composite manufacture by allowing for shorter cure cycles, increased durability, and improved surface finish. Prepreg operations further improve cost-effective operations by reducing processing cycles, and therefore manufacturing time, over wet lay-up systems. As turbine blades are approaching 60 meters and greater, infusion techniques are becoming more prevalent as the traditional resin transfer moulding injection
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time is too long as compared to the resin setup time, thus limiting laminate thickness. Injection forces resin through a thicker ply stack, thus depositing the resin where in the laminate structure before gelatin occurs. Specialized epoxy resins have been developed to customize lifetimes and viscosity to tune resin performance in injection applications.[6] Carbon fiber-reinforced load-bearing spars have recently been identified as a costeffective means for reducing weight and increasing stiffness. The use of carbon fibers in 60 meter turbine blades is estimated to result in a 38% reduction in total blade mass and a 14% decrease in cost as compared to a 100% fiberglass design. The use of carbon fibers has the added benefit of reducing the thickness of fiberglass laminate sections, further addressing the problems associated with resin wetting of thick lay-up sections. Wind turbine applications of carbon fiber may also benefit from the general trend of increasing use and decreasing cost of carbon fiber materials.[4] Smaller blades can be made from light metals such as aluminum. Wood and canvas sails were originally used on early windmills due to their low price, availability, and ease of manufacture. These materials, however, require frequent maintenance during their lifetime. Also, wood and canvas have a relatively high drag (low aerodynamic efficiency) as compared to the force they capture. For these reasons they have been mostly replaced by solid airfoils. Tower Typically, 2 types of towers exist: floating towers and land-based towers. Tower height
The wind blows faster at higher altitudes because of the drag of the surface (sea or land) and the viscosity of the air. The variation in velocity with altitude, called wind shear, is most dramatic near the surface.
Wind turbines generating electricity at the San Gorgonio Pass Wind Farm. Typically, in daytime the variation follows the Wind profile power law, which predicts that wind speed rises proportionally to the seventh root of altitude. Doubling the altitude of a turbine, then, increases the expected wind speeds by 10% and the expected power by 34%. To avoid buckling, doubling the tower height generally requires doubling the diameter of the tower as well, increasing the amount of material by a factor of eight. At night time, or when the atmosphere becomes stable, wind speed close to the ground usually subsides whereas at turbine hub altitude it does not decrease that much or may even increase. As a result the wind speed is higher and a turbine will produce more power than expected from the 1/7th power law: doubling the altitude may increase wind speed by 20% to 60%. A stable atmosphere is caused by radiative cooling of the surface and is common in a temperate climate: it usually occurs when there is a (partly) clear sky at night. When the (high altitude) wind is strong (a 10-meter (33 ft) wind speed higher than approximately 6 to 7 m/s (2023 ft/s)) the
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stable atmosphere is disrupted because of friction turbulence and the atmosphere will turn neutral. A daytime atmosphere is either neutral (no net radiation; usually with strong winds and/or heavy clouding) or unstable (rising air because of ground heating by the sun). Here again the 1/7th power law applies or is at least a good approximation of the wind profile. Indiana had been rated as having a wind capacity of 30,000 MW, but by raising the expected turbine height from 50 m to 70 m, the wind capacity estimate was raised to 40,000 MW, and could be double that at 100 m.
developed in areas more sheltered from wind. The commercial viability of wind power also depends on the price paid to power producers. Electricity prices are highly regulated worldwide, and in many locations may not reflect the full cost of production, let alone indirect subsidies or negative externalities. Customers may enter into long-term pricing contracts for wind to reduce the risk of future pricing changes, thereby ensuring more stable returns for projects at the development stage. These may take the form of standard offer contracts, whereby the system operator undertakes to purchase power from wind at a fixed price for a certain period (perhaps up to a limit); these prices may be different than purchase prices from other sources, and even incorporate an implicit subsidy. Where the price for electricity is based on market mechanisms, revenue for all producers per unit is higher when their production coincides with periods of higher prices. The profitability of wind farms will therefore be higher if their production schedule coincides with these periods. If wind represents a significant portion of supply, average revenue per unit of production may be lower as more expensive and less-efficient forms of generation, which typically set revenue levels, are displaced from economic dispatchThis may be of particular concern if the output of many wind plants in a market have strong temporal correlation. In economic terms, the marginal revenue of the wind sector as penetration increases may diminish. External costs Most forms of energy production create some form of negative externality: costs that are not paid by the producer or consumer of
Global Wind Energy Council (GWEC) figures show that 2007 recorded an increase of installed capacity of 20 GW, taking the total installed wind energy capacity to 94 GW, up from 74 GW in 2006. Despite constraints facing supply chains for wind turbines, the annual market for wind continued to increase at an estimated rate of 37%, following 32% growth in 2006. In terms of economic value, the wind energy sector has become one of the important players in the energy markets, with the total value of new generating equipment installed in 2007 reaching 25 billion, or US$36 billion. Direct costs Many potential sites for wind farms are far from demand centres, requiring substantially more money to construct new transmission lines and substations. In some regions this is partly because frequent strong winds themselves have discouraged dense human settlement in especially windy areas. The wind which was historically a nuisance is now becoming a valuable resource, but it may be far from large populations which
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the good. For electric production, the most significant externality is pollution, which imposes social costs in increased health expenses, reduced agricultural productivity, and other problems. In addition, carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas produced when fossil fuels are burned, may impose even greater costs in the form of global warming. Few mechanisms currently exist to internalize these costs, and the total cost is highly uncertain. Other significant externalities can include military expenditures to ensure access to fossil fuels, remediation of polluted sites, destruction of wild habitat, loss of scenery/tourism, etc. If the external costs are taken into account, wind energy can be competitive in more cases, as costs have generally decreased because of technology development and scale enlargement. Supporters argue that, once external costs and subsidies to other forms of electrical production are accounted for, wind energy is amongst the least costly forms of electrical production. Critics argue that the level of required subsidies, the small amount of energy needs met, the expense of transmission lines to connect the wind farms to population centers, and the uncertain financial returns to wind projects make it inferior to other energy sources. Intermittency and other characteristics of wind energy also have costs that may rise with higher levels of penetration, and may change the cost-benefit ratio. Full costs and lobbying Commenting on the EU's 2020 renewable energy target, Helm (2009) is critical of how the costs of wind power are citied by lobbyists: For those with an economic interest in capturing as much of the climate-change pork barrel as possible, there are two ways
of presenting the costs [of wind power] in a favourable light: first, define the cost base as narrowly as possible; and, second, assume that the costs will fall over time with R&D and large-scale deployment. And, for good measure, when considering the alternatives, go for a wider cost base (for example, focusing on the full fuel-cycle costs of nuclear and coal-mining for coal generation) and assume that these technologies are mature, and even that costs might rise (for example, invoking the highly questionable peak oil hypothesis). A House of Lords Select Committee report (2008) on renewable energy in the UK says: We have a particular concern over the prospective role of wind generated and other intermittent sources of electricity in the UK, in the absence of a break-through in electricity storage technology or the integration of the UK grid with that of continental Europe. Wind generation offers the most readily available short-term enhancement in renewable electricity and its base cost is relatively cheap. Yet the evidence presented to us implies that the full costs of wind generation (allowing for intermittency, back-up conventional plant and grid connection), although declining over time, remain significantly higher than those of conventional or nuclear generation (even before allowing for support costs and the environmental impacts of wind farms). Furthermore, the evidence suggests that the capacity credit of wind power (its probable power output at the time of need) is very low; so it cannot be relied upon to meet peak demand. Thus wind generation needs to be viewed largely as additional capacity to that which will need to be provided, in any event, by more reliable means Helm (2009) says that wind's problem of intermittent supply will probably lead to
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another dash-for-gas or dash-for-coal in Europe, possibly with a negative impact on energy security. In the United States, the wind power industry has recently increased its lobbying efforts considerably, spending about $5 million in 2009 after years of relative obscurity in Washington.
ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS
operation for offshore turbines. Danger to birds and bats has been a concern in some locations. However, studies show that the number of birds killed by wind turbines is very low, compared to the number of those that die as a result of certain other ways of generating electricity and especially of the environmental impacts of using non-clean power sources. Fossil fuel generation kills around twenty times as many birds per unit of energy produced than wind-farms. Bat species appear to be at risk during key movement periods. Almost nothing is known about current populations of these species and the impact on bat numbers as a result of mortality at windpower locations. Offshore wind sites 10 km or more from shore do not interact with bat populations. While a wind farm may cover a large area of land, many land uses such as agriculture are compatible, with only small areas of turbine foundations and infrastructure made unavailable for use. Aesthetics have also been an issue. In the USA, the Massachusetts Cape Wind project was delayed for years mainly because of aesthetic concerns. In the UK, repeated opinion surveys have shown that more than 70% of people either like, or do not mind, the visual impact. According to a town councillor in Ardrossan, Scotland, the overwhelming majority of locals believe that the Ardrossan Wind Farm has enhanced the area, saying that the turbines are impressive looking and bring a calming effect to the town Finally, noise has also been an important disadvantage. With careful implanting of the wind turbines, along with use of noise reducing-modifications for the wind turbines however, these issues can be easily addressed.
Livestock ignore wind turbines and continue to graze as they did before wind turbines were installed. Compared to the environmental effects of traditional energy sources, the environmental effects of wind power are relatively minor. Wind power consumes no fuel, and emits no air pollution, unlike fossil fuel power sources. The energy consumed to manufacture and transport the materials used to build a wind power plant is equal to the new energy produced by the plant within a few months of operation [Garrett Gross, a scientist from UMKC in Kansas City, Missouri states, "The impact made on the environment is very little when compared to what is gained." The initial carbon dioxide emission from energy used in the installation is "paid back" within about 9 months of
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ROBOTICS
Authors: Sandeep H.P1, Vivekanand A Gavi2 6 SEM, Mechanical Engineering, Vidya Vikas Institute of Engineering and Technology, Mysore-10
th
INTRODUCTION: Robotics includes the knowledge of Mechanical, Electronics, Electrical & Computer Science Engineering. It is a field of Engineering that covers the mimicking of human behavior
A robot may not injure a human being, or, through inaction, allow a human being to come to harm. A robot must obey the orders given it by human beings except where such order would conflict
WHAT IS ROBOTICS? The word robotics is used to collectively define a field in engineering that covers the
with the First Law. A robot must protect its own existence as long as such
protection does not conflict with the First or Second Law WHY ROBOTICS NECESSARY?
mimicking of various human characteristics. Sound concepts in many is Speed. It
engineering
disciplines
can
work
hazardous/dangerous
needed for working in this field. It finds its uses in all aspects of our life.
environment. To perform repetitive task. Efficiency Accuracy
WHAT IS A ROBOT? A re-programmable, designed multifunctional to move manipulator
Adaptability
TYPES OF ROBOTS WHEELED
material, parts, tools, or specialized devices through various programmed
motions for the performance of a variety of tasks. LAWS OF ROBOTICS The term robotics was coined in the 1940s by science fiction writer Isaac Asimov. Asimov's Laws of Robotics: LEGGED
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CLIMBING
Repetitive tasks High speed Few sensing operations High precision movements Pre-planned policies trajectories and task
FLYING
No interaction with humans
CURRENT ROBOTS Design Goals:
TRADITIONAL ROBOTICS Industrial robot manipulators
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The chain is formed of links (its bones), actuators (its muscles), and joints which can allow one or more degrees of freedom.
POWER SUPPLY: Suitable power supply is needed to run the motors and associated circuitry Typical power requirement ranges from 3V to 24V DC 220V AC supply must be modified to suit the needs of our machine Batteries can also be used to run robots MOTORS Robots are driven by different motors :DC Motors
Sensor-rich Flexible Versatile Controllable COMPONENTS OF ROBOTS Structure Power source Actuation Sensing Manipulation Locomotion STRUCTURE: The structure of a robot is usually mostly mechanical and can be called a kinematic chain. Stepper Motors
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Servo Motors
Actuators are the "muscles" of a robot, the parts which convert stored energy into movement. The most popular actuators are electric motors
Robots which must work in the real world require some way to manipulate objects; pick up, modify, destroy, or otherwise ACCTUATION AND MANIPULATION have an effect. Some manipulators are: Mechanical Grippers Vacuum Grippers General effectors purpose
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LOCOMOTION It is concerned with the motion of the robot. Robot contains different types of drives:Differential drive Car type Skid steer drive Synchronous drive Pivot drive Articulated drive SENSORS: Sensors are the parts that act like senses and can detect objects or things like heat and light and convert the object information into symbols or in analog or digital form so that then
New & wide scope in Education & Training. A good help in Nuclear industry. Used tremendously in Sports activities. Play the role of an efficient assistance in Research and Development sciences. Can business. Uncertainty in Robot Systems Sensor Uncertainty: Sensor readings are imprecise and unreliable. Nonobservability: Various aspects of the very well handle household
environment cannot be observed The environment is initially unknown Action Uncertainty: Actions can fail Actions have nondeterministic outcomes FUTURE PROSPECTS Scientists say that it is possible that a robot brain will exist by 2019 . Vernor Vinge has suggested that a moment may come when computers and robots are
computers
understand.
And
Robots react according to information provided by the sensory system Vision Sensor Proximity Sensors Proprioceptive Sensors Logical Sensors A robot must have the following essential characteristics: MOBILITY PROGRAMMABILITY SENSORS MECHANICAL CAPABILITY FLEXIBILITYADVANTAGES ADVANTAGES: Revolution in Medical science and Health care systems.
smarter than humans. In 2009, some robots acquired various forms of semi-
autonomy, including being able to find power sources on their own.
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The
Association of
for
the
Intelligence has researched on this problem.
Advancement
Artificial
GEOTHERMAL ENERGY
Authors: Kiran Rohidekar1, Nagashreenivasa B2 4 SEM, Mechanical Engineering, Vidya Vikas Institute of Engineering and Technology, Mysore-10
th
INTRODUCTION
From the Greek roots geo, meaning earth, and thermos, meaning heat. Early humans probably used geothermal water that occured in natural pools and hot springs for cooking, bathing and to keep warm. We have archeological evidence that the Indians of the Americas occupied sites around these geothermal resources for over 10,000 years to recuperate from battle and take refuge. Many of their oral legends describe these places and other volcanic phenomena. Recorded history shows uses by Japanese, Turks, Icelanders, Central Europeans and the Maori of New Zealand for bathing, cooking and space heating. Baths in the Roman Empire, the middle kingdom of the Chinese, and the Turkish baths of the Ottomans were some of the early uses of balneology; where, body health, hygiene and discussions were the social custom of the day. This custom has been extended to geothermal spas in Japan, Germany, Iceland, and countries of the former AustroHungarian Empire, the Americas and New Zealand. Early industrial applications include chemical extraction from the natural manifestations of steam, pools and mineral deposits in the Larderello region of Italy, with boric acid being extracted
commercially starting in the early 1800s. At Chaudes-Aigues in the heart of France, the worlds first geothermal district heating system was started in the 14th century and is still going strong. The oldest geothermal district heating project in the United States is on Warm Springs Avenue in Boise, Idaho, going on line in 1892 and continues to provide space heating for up to 450 homes. The first use of geothermal energy for electric power production was in Italy with experimental work by Prince Gionori Conti between 1904 and 1905. The first commercial power plant (250 kWe) was commissioned in 1913 at Larderello, Italy. An experimental 35 kWe plant was installed in The Geyers in 1932, and provided power to the local resort. These developments were followed in New Zealand at Wairakei in1958; an experimental plant at Pathe, Mexico in 1959; and the first commercial plant at The Geysers in the United States in1960. Japan followed with 23 MWe at Matsukawa in 1966. All of these early plants used steam directly from the earth (dry steam fields), except for New Zealand, which was the first to use flashed or separated steam for running the turbines. The former USSR produced power from the first true binary powerplant, 680 kWe using
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81C water at Paratunka on the Kamchatka peninsula the lowest temperature, at that time. These were followed by plants in El Salvador, China, Indonesia, Kenya, Turkey, Philippines, Portugal (Azores), Greece and Nicaragua in the1970s and 80s.
of the naturally occurring radioactive isotopes of uranium, thorium and potassium in the earth. Because of the internal heat generation, the Earths surface heat flow averages 82 mW/m2 which amounts to a total heat loss of about 42 million megawatts. The estimated total thermal energy above mean surface temperature to a depth of 10 km is 1.3 x 1027 J, equivalent to burning 3.0 x 1017 barrels of oil.
The above fig. represents a simple but effective diagram of a geothermal reservoir.
TYPES OF RESOURCES
GEOTHERMAL
Geothermal energy comes from the natural generation of heat primarily due to the decay
Since the global energy consumptions for all types of energy, is equivalent to use of about 100 million barrels of oil per day, the Earths energy to a depth of 10 kilometers
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could theoretically supply all of mankinds energy needs for six million years On average, the temperature of the Earth increases about30degrees C per km above the mean surface ambient temperature. Thus, assuming a conductive gradient, the temperature of the earth at 10 km would be over 300degree C. However, most geothermal exploration and use occurs where the gradient is higher, and thus where drilling is shallower and less costly. These shallow depth geothermal resources occur due to: (1) intrusion of molten rock (magma) from depth, bringing up great quantities of heat; (2) high surface heat flow, due to a thin crust and high temperature gradient; (3)ascent of groundwater that has circulated to depths of several kilometers and been heated due to the normal temperature gradient; (4) thermal blanketing or insulation of deep rocks by thick formation of such rocks as shale whose thermal conductivity is low; and. (5) anomalous heating of shallow rock by decay of radioactive elements, perhaps augmented by thermal blanketing . Geothermal resources are usually classified as shown in. These geothermal resources range from the mean annual ambient temperature of around 20degree C to over 300degree C. In general, resources above 150degree C are
used for electric power generation, although power has recently been generated at Chena Hot Springs Resort in Alaska using a 74degree C geothermal resource (Lund, 2006). Resources below 150degree C are usually used in direct-use projects for heating and cooling. Ambient temperatures in the 5 to 30degree C range can be used with geothermal (ground-source) heat pumps to provide both heating and cooling. 1) Convective hydrothermal resources:These occur where Earths heat is carried upward by convective circulation of naturally occuring hot water or steam. Some high temperature convective hydrothermal resource result from deep circulation of water along fractures. 2) Vapour dominated systems :produce steam from boiling of deep, saline waters in low permeability rocks. These reservoirs are few in number, with The Geysers in northern California, Larderello in Italy and Matsukawa in Japan being ones where the steam is exploited to produce electric energy.
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3) Water dominated systems :These are produced by groundwater circulating to depth and ascending from buoyancy in permeable reservoirs that are a uniform temperature over large volumes. There is typically an upflow zone at the center of each convection cell, an outflow zone or
plume of heated water moving laterally away from the center of the system, and a down flow zone where recharge is taking place. Surface manifestations include hot springs, fumaroles, geysers, travertine deposits, chemically altered rocks, or sometimes, no surface manifestations (a blind resource).
The above fig. shows the water dominated system. 4) Sedimentary basins :These produce higher temperature resources than the surrounding formations due to their low thermal conductivity or high heat flow or both producing geothermal gradients >30degree C/km. These generally extend over large areas and are typical of the Madison Formation of North Dakota, South Dakota, Montana and Wyoming area of the northern United States and the Pannonian Basin of central Europe where it has been used extensively in Hungary. 5)Geopressured resources :-
These occur in basin environments where deeply buried fluids contained in permeable sedimentary rocks are warmed in a normal or enhanced geothermal gradient by their great burial depth. The fluids are tightly confined by surrounding impermeable rock and bear pressure much greater than hydrostatic. Thermal waters under high pressure in sand aquifers are the target for drilling, mainly as they contain dissolved methane. The source of energy available from this type of resource consists of: (1) heat; (2) mechanical energy; (3) methane. The Texas and Louisiana Gulf Coast in the United States has been tested for the geothermal energy; however, due to the
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great depths of several kilometers, they have not proved economic. 6)Radiogenic resources :These are found where granitic intrusions are near surface heating up the local ground water from the decay of radioactive thorium, potassium and uranium. This localized heating increases the normal geothermal gradient providing hot water at economical drilling depths. This type of resource occurs along the eastern United States, but has not been developed commercially land; however both of these projects have been abandoned due to lack of funds and poor results. Projects are currently underway in Soultzsous-Fort in the Rhine Graben on the French-German border, in Switzerland at Basil and Zurich, in Germany at Bad Urach, several locations in Japan, and in the Cooper Basin of Australia .
permeability. In order to extract the heat, experimental projects have artificially fractured the rock by hydraulic pressure, followed by circulating cold water down one well to extract the heat from the rocks and then producing from a second well in a closed system. Early experimental projects were undertaken at Fenton Hill (Valdes Caldera) in northern New Mexico and on Cornwall in south west .
UTILIZATION
Based on 68 country update papers submitted to the World Geothermal Congress 2005 (WGC 2005) held in Turkey, the following figures on worldwide geothermal electric and directuse capacity, are reported. A total of 72 countries have reported some utilization from WGC 2000 and WGC 2005, either electric, direct-use or both (Lund and Freeston, 2001; capacity (MWe) appear to be fairly accurate; however, several of the countrys annual generation values (GWh) had to be estimated which amounted to only 0.5% of the total. The direct-use figures are less reliable and probably are understated by as much as 20%. The author is also aware of at least five countries, which utilize geothermal energy for direct-heat applications, but did not submit reports to WGC 2005. The details of the present installed electric power capacity and generation, and directuse of geothermal energy can be found in
7)Molten rock or magma resources :These have been drilled in Hawaii experimentally to extract heat energy directly from molten rock. It has been used successfully at Heimaey in Iceland (one of the Westmann Islands) after the 1973 eruption. A heat exchanger constructed on the surface of the lava flow recovered steam resulting from boiling of downward percolation water from the surface. The heat was used in a space heating system for over 10 years; but, is now shut down due to cooling of the surrounding rock. 8) Hot dry rock resources :These are defined as heat stored in rocks within about 10 km of the surface from which energy cannot be economically extracted by natural hot water or steam. These hot rocks have few pore space, or fractures, and therefore, contain little water and little or no interconnected
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Bertani (2005), and Lund, et al., 2005a.These data are summarized in Table 3.A review of the above data shows that in electric power generation each major continent has approximately the same percentage share of the installed capacity and energy produced with North America and Asia having over 80% of the total. Whereas, with the direct-use figures, the percentages drop significantly from installed capacity to energy use for the Americas (32.3 to 16.7%) due to the high percentage of geothermal heat pumps with a low capacity factor for these units in the United States. On the other hand, the percentages increased for the remainder of the world due to a lesser reliance on geothermal heat pumps, and the greater number of operating hours per year for these units.
ELECTRIC GENERATION
POWER
Geothermal power is generated by using steam or a secondary hydrocarbon vapor to turn a turbine-generator set to produce electrons. A vapor dominated (dry steam) resource can be used directly, whereas a hot water resource needs to be flashed by reducing the pressure to produce steam. In the case of low temperature resource, generally below 150degree C, the use of a secondary low boiling point fluid (hydrocarbon) is required to generate the vapor, in a binary or organic Rankine cycle plant Usually a wet or dry cooling tower is used to condense the vapor after it leaves the turbine to maximize the temperature drop between the incoming and outgoing vapor and thus increase the efficiency of the operation. The worldwide installed capacity has the following distribution: 29%dry steam, 37% single flash, 25% double flash, 8% binary/combined cycle/hybrid, and 1%
backpressure (Bertani,2005) (Figures 8 & 9 courtesy EGI).Electric power has been produced from geothermal energy in 27 countries; however, Greece, Taiwan and Argentina have shut down their plants, due to environmental and economic reasons. Since 2000, the installed capacity in the world has increased almost 1,000 MWe. Since 2000, additional plants have been installed in Costa Rica, France on Guadeloupe in the Caribbean, Iceland, Indonesia, Kenya, Mexico, and the Phillipines. In 2004, Germany installed a210-kWe binary plant at Neustadt Glewe and a 6-MWe plant has been installed on Papua New Guinea to generate electricity for a remote mine. Russia has completed a new 50-MWe plant on Kamchatka. More recently, a 200 kWe binary plant using 74C geothermal water and 4C cooling water was installed at Chena Hot Springs Resort in Alaska (Lund, 2006). The operating capacity in the United States has increased since 1995 due to completion of the two effluent pipelines injecting treated sewage water at The Geysers. In an attempt to bring production back, the Southeast Geysers Effluent Recycling Project is now injecting 340 L/s of treated wastewater through a 48km long pipeline from Clear Lake, adding 77 MWe. A second, 66-km long pipeline from Santa Rosa was placed on-line in 2004, injecting 480 L/s that are projected to add another 100 MWe to The Geysers capacity. One of the more significant aspects of geothermal power development is the size of its contribution to national and regional capacity and production of countries.
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A typical type of electric power generation by GEOTHERMAL Resource DIRECT UTILIZATION Direct-use of geothermal resources is primarily for direct heating and cooling. The main utilization categories are: (1) swimming, bathing and balneology; (2) space heating and cooling including district energy systems; (3) agricultural applications such as greenhouse and soil heating; (4) aquaculture application such as pond and raceway water heating; (5) industrial applications such as mineral extraction, food and grain drying; and, (6) geothermal (ground-source) heat pumps (GHP), used for both heating and cooling.Directuse of geothermal resources normally uses temperatures below 150degree C as illustrated in Figure 10. The main advantage of using geothermal energy for direct use projects in this low- to intermediatetemperature range is that these resources are more widespread and exists in at least 80 countries at economic drilling depths. In addition, there are no conversion efficiency losses and projects commonly use
conventional water-well drilling and off-theshelf heating and cooling equipment (allowing for the temperature and chemistry of the fluid). Most projects can be on line in less than a year. Projects can be on a small scale such as for an individual home, single greenhouse or aquaculture pond, but can also be a large scale operation such as for district heating/cooling and for food and lumber drying, and mineral ore extraction. It is often necessary to isolate the geothermal fluid from the user side to prevent corrosion and scaling. Care must be taken to prevent oxygen from entering the system (geothermal water normally is oxygen free), and dissolved gases and minerals such a boron, arsenic, and hydrogen sulfide must be removed or isolated as they are harmful to plants and animals. On the other hand, carbon dioxide, which often occurs in geothermal water, can be extracted and used for carbonated beverages or to enhance growth in greenhouses. The typical equipment for a directuse system is illustrated in Figure 11, and includes, downhole and circulation pumps,
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heat exchangers (normally the plate type), transmission and distribution lines (normally insulated pipes), heat extraction equipment, peaking or back-up plants (usually fossil fuel fired) to reduce the use of geothermal fluids and reduce the number of wells required, and fluid disposal system (injection wells). Geothermal energy can usually meet 95% of the annual heating or cooling demand, yet only be sized for 50% of the peak load. Geothermal heat pumps include both open (using ground-water or lake water) and closed loop (either in horizontal or vertical configuration) systems. The world direct utilization of geothermal energy is difficult to determine; as, there are many diverse uses of the energy and these are sometimes small and located in remote areas. Finding someone, or even a group of people in a country who are knowledgeable on all the direct uses is difficult. In addition, even if the use can be determined, the flow rates and temperatures are usually not known or reported; thus, the capacity and energy use can only be estimated. This is especially true of geothermal waters used for swimming pools, bathing and balneology. Thus, it is difficult to compare changes from one report to the next. This was especially true of Japan and Hungary in the WGC 2000 country updates, as a significant portion of this use was not reported, and was obtained from other sources. For this reason, the values reported in Lund and Freeston (2001) have been updated for this paper based on data for WGC2005. One of the significant changes for WGC2005 was the increase in the number of countries reporting use. Fourteen countries were added to the list in the current report as compared to 2000. In addition, the author is aware of four countries (Malaysia, Mozambique, South Africa, and Zambia) that have geothermal
direct-uses, but did not provide a report for WGC2005. Thus, there are at least 76 countries with some form of direct utilization of geothermal energy. New Zealand 1,969 308 industrial uses Another significant change from 2000 is the large increase in geothermal (ground-source) heat pump installations. The equivalent number of 12-kWt units installed (the average size) is approximately 1,500,000. The equivalent number of fullload heating operating hours per year varies from 1,200 in the U.S., to over 6,000 in Sweden and Finland, with a worldwide average of 2,200 full-load hours/year. A summary of directuse installed capacity and annual energy use are as follows: geothermal heat pumps 56.5% and 33.2%; bathing/swimming/spas 17.7% and 28.8%, space heating (including district heating) 14.9% and 20.2%; greenhouse heating 4.8% and 7.5%; aquaculture 2.2% and 4.2%; industrial 1.8% and 4.2%; agricultural drying 0.6% and 0.8%, cooling and snow melting 1.2% and 0.7%; and others 0.3% and 0.4%. District heating is approximately 80% of the space heating use. In terms of the contribution of geothermal direct-use to the national energy budget, two countries stand out: Iceland and Turkey. In Iceland, it provides 89% of the countrys space heating needs, which is important since heating is required almost all year and saves about 100 million US$ in imported oil. Turkey has increased their installed capacity over the past five years from 820 MWt to 1,495 MWt, most for district heating systems. Switzerland has installed 30,000 geothermal heat pumps = one/two km2, and 1,000 boreholes are drilled annually. Drain water from tunnels are used to heat nearby villages and they have also developed several geothermal projects to melt snow and ice on roads
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United States has installed 700,000 geothermal heat pump units, mainly in the midwestern and eastern states, with a 15% annual growth. Installation of these units is around 50,000 to 60,000 per year.
ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS
Geothermal resources are considered renewable and green (Rybach, 2007); however, there are several environmental impacts that must be considered during utilization that are usually mitigated. These are emission of harmful gases, noise pollution, water use and quality, land use, and impact on natural phenomena, wildlife and vegetation. 1)Emissions: These are usually associated with steam power plant cooling towers that produce water vapor emission (steam), not smoke. The potential gases that can be released, depending upon the reservoir type are carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide, nitrous oxides, hydrogen sulfide along with particulate matter. A coal- fired power plant
produces the following kilograms of emissions per MWh as compared to a geothermal power plant: 994 vs. up to 40 for carbon dioxide, 4.71 vs. up to 0.16 for sulfur dioxide, 1.95 vs. 0 for nitrogen oxides, 0 vs. 0.08 for hydrogen sulfide (H2S), and 1.01 vs. 0 for particulate matter. Hydrogen sulfide is routinely treated at geothermal power plants, and converted to elemental sulfur. In comparison, oil-fired power plants produce 814 kg and natural gas fired plants 550 kg of H2S per MWh. Binary power plants and direct-use projects normally do not produce any pollutants, as the water is injected back into the ground after use without exposing it to the atmosphere. 2)Noise: The majority of the noise produced at a power plant or direct-use site is during the well drilling operation, which normally
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shuts down at night. The noise from a power plant is not considered an issue of concern, as it is extremely low, unless you are next to or inside the plant. Most of the noise comes from cooling fans and the rotating turbines. 3)Water use: Geothermal plants use about 20 liters of freshwater per MWh, while binary air-cooled plants use no fresh water, as compared to a coal plant that uses 1,370 liters per MWh. An oil plant uses about 15% less and nuclear about 25% more than the coal plant. The only change in the fluid during use is to cool it, and usually the fluid is returned to the same aquifer so it does not mix with the shallow groundwater. At The Geysers facility in northern California, 42 million liters of treated wastewater from Santa Rosa are pumped daily for injection into the geothermal reservoir, reducing surface water pollution in the community and increasing the production of the geothermal field. A similar project supplies waste water from the Clear Lake area on the northeast side of the The Geysers. These projects have increased the capacity of the field by over 100 MWe.
are two land use issues that must be considered when withdrawing fluids from the ground. These are usually mitigated by injecting the spent fluid back into the same reservoir. There have been problems with subsidence at the Wairakei geothermal field in New Zealand; however, this has been checked by injection. Neither of these potential problems are associated with direct-use projects, as the fluid use is small and well and pipelines are usually hidden. In addition, utilizing geothermal resources eliminates the mining, processing and transporting required for electricity generation from fossil fuel and nuclear resources. 4)Impact on natural phenomena, wildlife and vegetation: Plants are usually prevented from being located near geysers, fumaroles and hot springs, as the extraction of fluids to run the turbines, might impact these thermal manifestations. Most plants are located in areas with no natural surface discharges. If plants are located near these natural phenomena, the fluid extraction depth is planned from a different reservoir to prevent any impact. Designers and operators are especially sensitive about preserving manifestations considered sacred to indigenous people. Any site considered for a geothermal power plant, must be reviewed and considered for the impact on wildlife and vegetation, and if significant, provide a mitigation plan. Direct use projects are usually small and thus have no significant impact on natural features. In summary, the use of geothermal energy is reliable, providing base load power; is renewable; has minimum air emission and offsets the high air emissions of fossil fuelfired plants; has minimum environmental impacts; is combustion free; and is a domestic fuel source.
3)Land use: Geothermal power plants are designed to blend-in with the surrounding landscape, and can be located near recreational areas with minimum land and visual impacts. They generally consist of small modular plants under 100 MWe as compared to coal or nuclear plants of around 1,000 MWe. Typically, a geothermal facility uses 404 square meters of land per GWh compared to a coal facility that uses 3,632 square meters per GWh and a wind farm that uses 1,335 square meters per GWh. Subsidence and induced seismicity
ENERGY SAVINGS
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Using geothermal energy obviously replaces fossil fuel use and prevents the emission of greenhouse gases. If we assume that geothermal energy replaces electricity generation, the conversion efficiency is estimated at 0.35 (35%). If the replacement energy for direct-use is provided by burning the fuel directly, then about half this amount would be saved in heating systems (35% vs. 70% efficiency). Savings in the cooling mode of geothermal heat pumps is also included in the figures in Table 8. The savings in fossil fuel oil is equivalent to about three days (1%) of the worlds consumption. It should be noted when considering these savings, that some geothermal plants do emit limited amounts of the various pollutants; however, these are reduced to near zero where gas injection is used and eliminated where binary power is installed for electric power generation. Since most direct-use projects use only hot water and the spent fluid injected, the above pollutants are essentially eliminated.
CONCLUSIONS
Geothermal growth and development of electricity generation has increased significantly over the past 30 years approaching 15% annually in the early part of this period, and
dropping to 3% annually in the last ten years due to an economic slow down in the Far East and the low price of competing fuels. Direct-use has remained fairly steady over the 30-year period at 10% growth annually. The majority of the increase has been due to geothermal heat pumps. At the start of this 30-year period, only ten countries reported electrical production and/or direct utilization from geothermal energy. By the end of this period, 72 countries reported utilizing geothermal energy. This is over a seven-fold increase in participating countries. At least another 10 countries are actively exploring for geothermal resources and should be online by 2010. Developments in the future will include greater emphases on combined heat and power plants, especially those using lower temperature fluids down to 100C. This low-temperature cascaded use will improve the economics and efficiency of these systems, such as shown by installations in Germany, Austria and at Chena Hot Springs, Alaska. Also, there is increased interest in agriculture crop drying and refrigeration in tropical climates to preserve products that might normally be wasted. Finally, the largest growth will include the installation and use of geothermal heat pumps, as they can be used anywhere in the world, as shown by the large developments in Switzerland, Sweden, Austria, Germany, Canada, and the United States.
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APPLICATIONS OF SOLAR TECHNOLOGY

Authors: Varsha Bhanu1, Shree Lakshmi2 6th SEM, Mechanical Engineering, Vidya Vikas Institute of Engineering and Technology, Mysore-10
The use of renewable energy is not new. More than 150 years ago, wood, which is one form of biomass, supplied up to 90% of our energy needs. As the use of coal, petroleum, and natural gas expanded, the United States became less reliant on wood as an energy source. Today, we are looking again at renewable sources to find new ways to use them to help meet our energy needs Over half of renewable energy goes to producing electricity. About 9% of U.S. electricity was generated from renewable sources in 2008. The next largest use of renewable energy is the production of heat and steam for industrial purposes. Renewable fuels, such as ethanol, are also used for transportation and to provide heat for homes and businesses. Renewable energy plays an important role in the supply of energy. When renewable energy sources are used, the demand for fossil fuels is reduced. Unlike fossil fuels, non-biomass renewable sources of energy (hydropower, geothermal, wind, and solar) do not directly emit greenhouse gases. In the past, renewable energy has generally been more expensive to produce and use than fossil fuels. Renewable resources are often located in remote areas, and it is expensive to build power lines to the cities where the electricity they produce is needed. The use of renewable sources is also limited by the fact that they are not always available cloudy days reduce solar power; calm days reduce wind power; and droughts reduce the water available for hydropower.
The production and use of renewable fuels has grown more quickly in recent years as a result of higher prices for oil and natural gas, and a number of State and Federal Government incentives, including the Energy Policy Acts of 2002 and 2005. The use of renewable fuels is expected to continue to grow over the next 30 years, although we will still rely on non-renewable fuels to meet most of our energy needs
SOLAR PANELS
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NUCLEAR ENERGY WIND TURBINE
Solar Energy: The Ultimate Renewable Resource
Solar energy has greatest potential of all the sources of renewable energy. Energy comes to the earth from the sun. The solar power where sun hits atmosphere is 1017 watts, where the solar power on earths surface is 1016 watts.
Therefore, the sun gives us 1000 times more power than we need. Originates with the thermonuclear fusion reactions occurring in the sun. Represents the entire electromagnetic radiation (visible light, infrared, ultraviolet, x-rays, and radio waves). ADVATAGES OF SOLAR ENEGY:
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All chemical and radioactive polluting byproducts of the thermonuclear reactions remain behind on the sun, while only pure radiant energy reaches the Earth. Energy reaching the earth is incredible. By one calculation, 30 days of sunshine striking the Earth have the energy equivalent of the total of all the planets fossil fuels, both used and unused!
Putting Solar Energy to Use: Heating Water Two methods of heating water: passive (no moving parts) and active (pumps). In both, a flat-plate collector is used to absorb the suns energy to heat the water. The water circulates throughout the closed system due to convection currents.
SOLAR PANELS USED FOR HEATING WATER
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HEATING LIVING SPACES

Best design of a building is for it to act as a solar collector and storage unit. This is achieved through three elements: insulation, collection, and storage. Efficient heating starts with proper insulation on external walls, roof, and the floors. The doors, windows, and vents must be designed to minimize heat loss. Collection: south-facing windows and appropriate landscaping. Storage: Thermal massholds heat. Water= 62 BTU per cubic foot per degree F. Iron=54, Wood (oak) =29, Brick=25, concrete=22, and loose stone=20
A passively heated home uses about 60-75% of the solar energy that hits its walls and windows. The Center for Renewable Resources estimates that in almost any climate, a well-designed passive solar home can reduce energy bills by 75% with an added construction cost of only 510%. About 25% of energy is used for water and space heating.
SOLAR-THERMAL POWER TOWERS

General idea is to collect the light from many reflectors spread over a large area at one central point to achieve high temperature. An energy storage system allows it to generate 7 MW of electric power without sunlight. Capital cost is greater than coal fired power plant, despite the no cost for fuel, ash disposal, and stack emissions.
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Power Towers
Power tower in Barstow, California.

Capital costs are expected to decline as more and more power towers are built with greater technological advances. One way to reduce cost is to use the waste steam from the turbine for space heating or other industrial processes. Argument that sun provides power only during the day is countered by the fact that 70% of energy demand is during daytime hours. At night, traditional methods can be used to generate the electricity. Goal is to decrease our dependence on fossil fuels. Currently, 75% of our electrical power is generated by coal-burning and nuclear power plants. Mitigates the effects of acid rain, carbon dioxide, and other impacts of burning coal and counters risks associated with nuclear energy. Pollution free, indefinitely sustainable.
FINAL THOUGHT: ADVANTAGES OF USING NATURAL SOURCES OF ENERGY

So the final thought about the advantages of using renewable sources instead of fossil fuels are as below. This helps us to save our present atmosphere from getting polluted. They are inexhaustible they will always be available they are renewable
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They are clean and will not damage the Earth There are several types so one or more of them is present in each country Most natural sources can be used on a small scale and serve local needs therefore cutting costs of transmitting the energy
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ROBOTICS (INDUSTRIAL ROBOTS)

Authors: Swanand Patwardhan1, Bharath2 6 SEM, Mechanical Engineering, Vidya Vikas Institute of Engineering and Technology, Mysore-10
th
STRUCTURE
The structure of a robot can is be usually called mostly mechanical and
faeces (human, animal); may be interesting in a military context as feces of small combat groups may be reused for the energy requirements of the robot assistant. still untested energy sources radioactive source
a kinematic chain (its functionality being similar to the skeleton of the human body). The chain is formed of links (its bones), actuators (its muscles), and joints which can allow one or more degrees of freedom. Most contemporary robots use open serial chains in which each link connects the one before to the one after it. These robots are called serial robots and often resemble the human arm. Other structures, such as those that mimic the mechanical structure of humans, various animals, and insects, are comparatively rare. However, the development and use of such structures in robots is an active area of research (e.g. biomechanics). Robots used as manipulators have an end effector mounted on the last link. This end effector can be anything from a welding device to to manipulate a the mechanical hand used environment.
ACTUATION
Actuators are like the "muscles" of a robot, the parts which convert stored energy into movement. By far the most popular actuators are electric motors, but there are many others, powered by electricity, chemicals, and compressed air.
Motors: The vast majority of robots use electric motors, including brushed and brushless DC on many robots and CNC machines, as their main can specify how much to turn, for more precise control, rather than a "spin and see where it went" approach. Piezo motors: A recent alternative to DC motors are piezo motors or ultrasonic motors. These work on a fundamentally different principle, whereby tiny piezoceramic elements, vibrating many thousands of times per second, cause linear or rotary motion. There are different mechanisms of operation; one type uses the vibration of
POWER SOURCE
At present; mostly (lead-acid) batteries are used, but potential power sources could be:
pneumatic (compressed gases) hydraulics (compressed liquids) flywheel energy storage organic garbage (through anaerobic digestion)
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the piezo elements to walk the motor in a circle or a straight line. Another type uses the piezo
When the artificial skin touches an object the fluid path around the electrodes is deformed, producing impedance changes that map the forces received from the object. The researchers expect that an important function of such artificial fingertips will be adjusting robotic grip on held objects. In 2009, scientists from several European
elements to cause a nut to vibrate and drive a screw. The advantages of these motors are nanometer resolution, speed, and available force for their size.These motors are already available commercially, and being used on some robots. Elastic promising, nanotubes: These early-stage are a
countries and Israel developed a prosthetic hand, called SmartHand, which functions like a real one, allowing patients to write with it, type on a keyboard, play piano and perform other fine movements. The prosthesis has sensors which enable the patient to sense real feeling in its fingertips.
experimental
technology. The absence of defects in nano tubes enables these filaments to deform elastically by several percent, with energy storage levels of perhaps 10 J/cm for metal nanotubes. Human biceps could be replaced with an 8 mm diameter wire of this material. Such compact "muscle" might allow future robots to outrun and outjump humans.
3
MANIPULATION
Robots which must work in the real world require some way to manipulate objects; pick up, modify, destroy, or otherwise have an effect. Thus the 'hands' of a robot are often referred to as end effectors, while the arm is referred to as a manipulator. Most robot arms have replaceable effectors, each allowing them to perform some small range of tasks. Some have a fixed manipulator which cannot be replaced, while a few have one very general purpose manipulator, for example a humanoid hand.
SENSING
Touch Current robotic and prosthetic hands receive far less tactile information than the human hand. Recent research has developed a tactile sensor array that mimics the mechanical properties and touch receptors of human fingertips. The sensor array is constructed as a rigid core surrounded by conductive fluid contained by an elastomeric skin. Electrodes are mounted on the surface of the rigid core and are connected to an impedance-measuring device within the core.
Mechanical Grippers: One of the most common effectors is the gripper. In its simplest manifestation it consists of just two fingers which can open and close to pick up and let go of a range of small objects. Fingers can for example
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be made of a chain with a metal wire run trough it. See Shadow Hand. Vacuum Grippers: Pick and place robots for electronic components and for large objects like car windscreens, will often use very simple vacuum grippers. These are very simple astrictive devices, but can hold very large loads provided the prehension surface is smooth enough to ensure suction. General purpose effectors: Some advanced robots are beginning to use fully humanoid hands, like the Shadow Hand, MANUS, and the Schunk hand. These highly dexterous manipulators, with as many as 20 degrees of freedom and hundreds of tactile sensors.
For the definitive guide to all forms of robot endeffectors, their design, and usage consult the book "Robot Grippers".
the total inertial forces (the combination of earth's gravity and the acceleration and deceleration of walking), exactly opposed by the floor reaction force (the force of the floor pushing back on the robot's foot). In this way, the two forces cancel out, leaving no moment (force causing the robot to rotate and fall over). Hopping Dynamic Balancing Passive Dynamics
CONTROL
The mechanical structure of a robot must be controlled to perform tasks. The control of a robot involves three distinct phases - perception, processing, and action (robotic paradigms). Sensors give information about the
LOCOMOTION
For simplicity, most mobile robots have four wheels. However, some researchers have tried to create more complex wheeled robots, with only one or two wheels.
environment or the robot itself (e.g. the position of its joints or its end effector). This information is then processed to calculate the appropriate signals to the actuators (motors) which move the mechanical. The processing phase can range in complexity. At a reactive level, it may translate raw sensor information directly into actuator commands. Sensor fusion may first be used to estimate parameters of interest (e.g. the position of the robot's gripper) from noisy sensor data. An immediate task (such as moving the gripper in a certain direction) is inferred from these estimates. Techniques from control
Two-wheeled balancing Ballbot Track Robot ZMP Technique: The Zero Moment Point (ZMP) is the algorithm used by robots such as Honda's ASIMO. The robot's onboard computer tries to keep
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theory convert the task into commands that drive the actuators. At longer time scales or with more sophisticated tasks, the robot may need to build and reason with a "cognitive" model. Cognitive models try to represent the robot, the world, and how they interact. Pattern recognition and computer vision can be used to track objects. Mapping techniques can be used to build maps of the world. Finally, motion planning and other artificial intelligence techniques may be used to figure out how to act. For example, a planner may figure out how to achieve a task without hitting obstacles, falling over, etc.
In space the Space Shuttle Remote Manipulator System also known as Canadarm or SSRMS and its successor Canadarm2 are examples of multi degree of freedom robotic arms that have been used to perform a variety of tasks such as inspections of the Space Shuttle using a specially deployed boom at the and with end cameras effector retrieval and sensors attached
and satellite deployment Shuttle.
manoeuvres from the cargo bay of the Space
The robot arms can be autonomous or controlled manually and can be used to perform a variety of tasks with great accuracy. The robotic arm can be fixed or mobile (i.e. wheeled) and can be designed for industrial or home applications.
ROBOTIC ARM
A robotic arm is a robot manipulator, usually programmable, with similar functions to a human arm. The links of such a manipulator are connected by joints allowing either rotational motion (such as in an articulated robot) or translational (linear) displacement. The links of the manipulator can be considered to form a kinematic chain. The business end of the kinematic chain of the manipulator is called the end effector and it is analogous to the human hand. The end effector can be designed to perform any desired task such as welding, gripping, spinning etc., depending on the application. For example robot arms in automotive assembly lines perform a variety of tasks such as welding and parts rotation and placement during assembly.
PICK AND PLACE ROBOTS

In manufacturing industry and nuclear industry, a large fraction of the work is repetitive and judicious application of automation will most certainly result in optimum utilization of machine and manpower. A pneumatic `Pick and Place' Robot has been developed to achieve automation in applications where great sophistication is not needed and simple tasks like picking up of small parts at one location and placing them at another location can be done with great ease. Specific applications are: The machine will be of great use to perform repetitive tasks of picking and placing of small parts (up to 500 gms) in an industrial production line.
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Its use can be extended and exploited by few modifications to do difficult and hazardous tasks for nuclear applications. As a basic tool for automation. It can be used to do small assembly work effectively due to its great added accuracy for placement of parts. The machine provides motion to the end effector in the theta and Z directions. The end effector can be a pair of pneumatic grippers, a set of multiple grippers, magnetic pick-up, vacuum pick-up etc. The device has its own in-built logic and all the movements of the device are controlled by the combination of control valve and reversible valve which form the vital part of the machine. A single pulse of air given to the control valve activates the reversible valve and admits air alternately to the two pneumatic cylinders during one cycle. This causes to and fro linear motion of the common rack which is converted into the rotary motion of the pinion and ultimately imparts angular sweep (theta) and vertical motion (Z) at the end of each stroke to the head carrying the pick up arm with the end effector. Angular sweep (theta) as well as the vertical motion (Z) are adjustable by means of mechanical stoppers. The operating speed of the pick up arm can be varied to suit the requirement by operating the flow control valves provided on the two cylinder heads. During one operating cycle the pick up arm carrying the end effector starts from its home position, goes to the other end, picks up the part and returns to its original home position. The picked up part is delivered to the home position when the next cycle is triggered.
the weld and handling the part. Processes such as gas metal arc welding, while often automated, are not necessarily equivalent to robot welding, since a human operator sometimes prepares the materials to be welded. Robot welding is commonly used for resistance spot welding and arc welding in high production applications, such as the automotive industry. Robot welding is a relatively new application of robotics, even though robots were first introduced into US industry during the 1960s. The use of robots in welding did not take off until the 1980s, when the automotive industry began using robots extensively for spot welding. Since then, both the number of robots used in industry and the number of their applications has grown greatly. Cary and Helzer suggest that, as of 2005, more than 120,000 robots are used in North American industry, about half of them pertaining to welding. Growth is primarily limited by high equipment costs, and the resulting applications. Robot arc welding has begun growing quickly just recently, and already it commands about 20% of industrial robot applications. The major components of arc welding robots are the manipulator or the mechanical unit and the controller, which acts as the robot's "brain". The manipulator is what makes the robot move, and the design of these systems can be categorized into several common types, such as the SCARA robot and cartesian coordinate robot, which use different coordinate systems to direct the arms of the machine. restriction to high-production
ROBOT WELDING
Robot welding is the use of mechanized programmable tools (robots), which completely automate a welding process by both performing
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The
technology
of signature
image
In modern CNC systems, end-to-end component design is highly The automated programs using CAD/CAM programs.
processing has been developed since the late 1990s for analyzing electrical data in real time collected from automated, robotic welding, thus enabling the optimization of welds.
produce a computer file that is interpreted to extract the commands needed to operate a particular machine via a post processor, and then loaded into the CNC machines for production. Since any particular component might require
CNC
Numerical control (NC) refers to the automation of machine tools that are operated by abstractly programmed commands encoded on a storage medium, as opposed to manually controlled via handwheels or levers, or mechanically automated via cams alone. The first NC machines were built in the 1940s and '50s, based on existing tools that were modified with motors that moved the controls to follow points fed into the system on paper tape. These early servomechanisms were rapidly augmented with analog and digital computers, creating the modern computed revolutionized the design process. numerically controlled (CNC) machine tools that have
the use of a number of different toolsdrills, saws, etc.modern machines often combine multiple tools into a single "cell". In other cases, a number of different machines are used with an external controller and human or robotic operators that move the component from machine to machine. In either case, the complex series of steps needed to produce any part is highly automated and produces a part that closely matches the original CAD design.
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A STUDY ON LIGNITE-BIOMASS CO-FIRING GASIFIERS

Authors: Kushal Prasad1, Shreyas M.N.2 6th SEM, Mechanical Engineering, Vidya Vikas Institute of Engineering and Technology, Mysore-10
ABSTRACT:
The present study is to evaluate the performance of the existing biogasifer on addition of lignite to biomass feed. Experiments were conducted on a downdraft fixed bed bio-gasifier (100 KW). Lignite (2, 5, 8, 15 and 20 %by weight) was co-fueled with wood. Temperature variations were measured at various zones of the gasifier by K type thermocouple for each co-firing ratio of lignite and wood. The heating values of the syngas produced were estimated based on the composition mainly CO, CH4 and H2. The composition of the syngas was measured using Chemito Gas Chromatograph, at a column temperature of 35 C. The optimum lignite that can be added was found to be in the range of 8-15%. It was well established from the study that lignite can be co-fired with wood to improve the efficiency of existing biomass gasifiers. Key words: Bio-gasifier, lignite, syngas.
1. INTRODUCTION
With the depleting non-renewable energy resources, there is an urgent need to develop alternative means of efficient energy production. One such widely harnessed energy resource is biomass. It is estimated that India has a potential to produce 19,000 MW power form biowaste / biomass of which only 220 MW power is being generated [1]. Stand alone bio-gasifiers are increasingly being set up since biomass is a carbon neutral fuel and the amount of carbon dioxide emitted during combustion process equals carbon dioxide which was assimilated in the plants during their period of growth over a relatively small period of time. Present day needs a technology to enhance the efficiency of the biomass plants for production of electrical energy. The biogasifiers need higher grade biomass for efficient power output. In general more than 90% biomass is of low grade and only 10% of this is utilized in power production. Hence cogasification is seen as one of the best technologies to produce syngas using lower / higher grade biomass along with coal or lignite. Much research work has been done on cofiring biomass with coal (primary fuel) for coal power plants across the globe, however no or a few studies on co-firing lignite with biomass as the primary fuel has been carried out. The objective of the paper was to evaluate the effect of lignite and optimize lignite-wood cofiring ratio to obtain higher heating value syngas and thus increase the power production in the existing biogasifer.
2. EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES
Biomass was used as a main / primary fuel in the existing gasifier along with lignite from Neyveli, as an additional fuel. The proximate analysis of the as received sample of lignite was conducted according to the ASTM standards-D3174 (test method for ash in the analysis sample of coal), D2013 (test method for preparing coal samples for analysis), D3173 (test method for moisture in the analysis sample of coal) and D3172 (practice for proximate analysis of coal) and the results obtained are given in Table 1. Table 1: Proximate analysis of Neyveli Lignite Moisture Volatile Fixed Ash Content Mater Carbon 14-18% 44-50% 21-23% 1416% The performance analysis for both fuels was conducted on 100 KW bio-gasifier system at RV College of Engineering, Bangalore. Lignite of size approximately 10mmX10mm was mixed in percentages of 2, 5, 8, 15 and 20 by
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wt with wood of size 50mmX50mm manually and the same mixture was fed into gasifier. For each co-firing ratio of wood and lignite the different zone temperatures of the gasifier was measured using the calibrated K type thermocouple (1200 C 5 C). Also the combustible gas exiting at the bottom of the reactor called the syngas is analyzed for CO, CH4, H2, O2, CO2, and N2 using gas chromatograph. Gas Chromatography test This technique has strong separation power and hence complex mixture like syngas can be resolved into its constituents easily. The carrier gas used in these experiments were hydrogen for the separation of CO, CH4, O2 , CO2, N2 and nitrogen for separation of H2. The test samples in the amount of 0.5 cc were introduced into Pora Pak Q and Molecular sieve 5A columns of length 2 meter. The Thermal conductivity detection (TCD) principle is made use in the qualitative and quantitative separation of the syngas into its constituents at controlled temperatures. Under a given set of conditions for a given column the retention time for a standard calibrated gas mixture is found initially. Then without changing any conditions the test sample is injected into the GC. The peaks traced by the two procedures are compared to give the volume composition of the constituent gases in the syngas. The heating values of the syngas for Various co-firing ratios of lignite and wood is computed by taking into account the composition of the combustible components namely CO, CH4 and H2 . The formula used is as below. HV of syngas = Sum [ (x1) (HV1) + (x2) (HV2) + (x3) (HV3) + ... ] HVn = heating value of gas component n, in kJ/m3 x = (percentage/100) of gas component n
The calorific values of the constituent gases as adopted from literature are given in the Table 2. Table 2: Calorific values of the constituent gases [3] Higher heating value Fuel Btu/ft3 (MJ/m3 ) Hydrogen 319.4 (11.89) Carbon 316 (11.76) monoxide Methane 994.7 (37.03)
3. RESULTS & DISCUSSION

3.1 Effect of lignite on temperature distribution The effect on temperature distribution along the height of the wood-gasifier with increase in lignite content is as shown in Fig 1. The temperature distribution curve can be divided into four zones namely Reduction zone (R zone), combustion zone (C zone), pyrolysis zone, (P zone) and drying zone (D zone) as shown. Drying zone It derives heat mainly from the pyrolysis zone by radiation and convection. The biomass is dried and most of the moisture is driven out as water vapour. There is no significant difference in temperatures for wood and wood-lignite blended fuels in this zone. Pyrolysis zone In the pyrolysis zone a thermal decomposition of the fuel takes place at temperatures over 400C for wood and wood/lignite blended fuels. The average temperature of this zone is around 500 C for all type of fuels. In the pyrolysis zone all volatile materials are burnt out. It is seen that the temperature for wood in this zone is greater than that for other co-firingCombustion zone All five types of fuels (pure wood and lignitewood blends) shows the maximum temperature in C zone only with different magnitude. In combustion zone the expected reaction is C+O2CO2+393,800 kJ/kmol (1)
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The reaction is exothermic in nature and is responsible for high temperature in the combustion zone. The combustion temperature increases with increasing lignite content. The maximum temperature is seen for 20% lignite blended fuel. As per Van Krevelen diagram [4] higher the oxygen content of fuel, lower is its heating value. Wood has higher oxygen / carbon ratio than that of lignite hence the lignite blended fuels show the maximum temperature in this zone. Although the blends show higher temperature than that for wood fuel, NOx formation rate becomes insignificant when the flame temperature is lower than 1800 K. [5] Reduction zone The most important reactions that take place in the reduction zone of a gasifier between the different gaseous and solid reactants are given below.
The main reduction reactions show that heat is consumed (endothermic) during the reduction process. Hence, the temperature of gas decreases in this stage. If complete reduction takes place, all the carbon is burned or reduced to carbon monoxide, a combustible gas. The remains are ash and some char (unburned carbon). As the gas exits from the bottom, char/tar particles is decomposed to light hydrocarbons and the outgoing gas under ideal conditions is tar-free. The temperature of wood 395-500 C is seen between 0 to 0.22 m height and 500 650 C seen between 0.22 to 0.34 m. For the methane formation according to the given chemical equation minimum temperature required 500 C. 500 C C + 2H2 CH4 (-75000 KJ/Kg)
The wood fuel gives this temperature between 0.22 to 0.34 m only i.e. about 0.12 m, hence the possibility of methane formation is less compared to other co-fuels. Little difference is seen in 2% lignite based co-fuel and wood. Other co-fuels (5, 8 and 20 % of lignite) show about 0.34m for reduction reaction which means more time for conversion hence higher methane can be converted. In the reduction zone there is a clear recognizable pattern of increase in temperature with the increase in lignite content. GC result analysis The plot of syngas composition by volume for various wood and wood-lignite blended fuels is as shown in Fig. 2 and Fig. 3. It is seen from Fig. 2 that the oxygen and nitrogen show similar trend of increase in volume with the increasing lignite addition. It is seen clearly that the hydrogen and methane production is highest for 8% lignite blended fuel and a minimum for wood. Carbon monoxide shows highest production for wood and relatively lower values for other blends. Fig. 3 gives the variation of the combustible components with the increasing lignite mixture. The heating value of the gas is the sum total of heating values of all its constituent gases hence the heating values are calculated and are as shown in Fig. 4. It can be seen that the 8 % lignite blend shows maximum heating value of syngas and the blends upto 15 % show relatively higher heating values than that for wood.
4. CONCLUSION
The fall in temperature in the reduction zone for wood -lignite blends is greater than that for wood. This shows that the reactions consuming heat (reduction reactions) are more forward. Thus facilitating the formation of higher calorific value syngas. The temperature characteristics show that the temperatures increase with increasing lignite content but this does not support the useful endothermic
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reactions which lead to the production of carbon monoxide and hydrogen. Thus it can be concluded that a range of 8-15 % lignite mixed with 92-85 % wood fuel enhances the quality of the syngas and thus the power production increases. Further study in the direction of computing the flow rate and the wastage calculation needs to be carried out.
We sincerely acknowledge the sponsorship for the project by Central Mine Planning & Design Institute Ltd. Ranchi, Ministry of Coal, New Delhi and Neyveli Lignite Corporation Ltd. Neyveli.
REFERENCES
1. Ministry of non conventional resources, India website. energy
2. India energy-India Core Information on Indian Infrastructure & Core Sectors.htm 3. Perry and Green, Handbook of Chemical Engineering, The Mc Graw-Hill companies. 4. Peter A Thrower, Ljubisa R Radovic Chemistry and Physics of Carbon: Volume 26: A Series of Advances 5. Hiroshi Tsuji High temperature air combustion:
from energy conservation to pollution reduction
Acknowledgement:
R Zone
C Zone
P zone
D zone
Temperature, C
Height of the reactor in Meters Fig. 1 Temperature distribution as a function of Height of the reactor for wood and wood/lignite fuels co-firing ratio.
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% of gas by volume % of Lignite Fig. 3 Chemical Composition of syngas for various co-firing ratio of Heating value of syngas,
3
% of gas by volume % of Lignite Fig. 2 Chemical Composition of syngas for various co-firing ratio of lignite / wood fuels. Percentage of lignite in the lignite-wood fuel blend Fig.4 heating value of syngas with varying co-firing ratios
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TIDAL ENERGY AND THEIR APPLICATIONS

Author: Vinay Kumar M 4th SEM, Mechanical Engineering, Vidya Vikas Institute of Engineering and Technology, Mysore-10
INTRODUCTION
Tides are generated through a combination of forces exerted by the gravitational pull of the sun and the moon and the rotation of the earth. The relative motion of the three bodies produces different tidal cycles which affect the range of the tides. In addition, the tidal range is increased substantially by local effects such as shelving, funnelling, reflection and resonance. Energy can be extracted from tides by creating a reservoir or basin behind a barrage and then passing tidal waters through turbines in the barrage to generate electricity. Tidal energy is extremely site specific requires mean tidal differences greater than 4 metres and also favourable topographical conditions, such as estuaries or certain types of bays in order to bring down costs of dams etc
about 1200 MW in the Gulf of Kachchh and less than 100 MW in Sundarbans. The Kachchh Tidal Power Project with an installed capacity of about 900 MW is estimated to cost about Rs. 1460/- crore generating electricity at about 90 paise per unit. The techno-economic feasibility report is now being examined
ENGINEERING APPROACHES
Since tidal stream generators are an immature technology (no commercial scale production facilities are yet routinely supplying power), no standard technology has yet emerged as the clear winner, but a large variety of designs are being experimented with, some very close to large scale deployment. Several prototypes have shown promise with many companies making bold claims, some of which are yet to be independently verified, but they have not operated commercially for extended periods to establish performances and rates of return on investments
TIDAL ENERGY IN INDIA AND ITS CAPACITY TO PRODUCE ELECTRICITY:

ince India is surrounded by sea on three sides, its potential to hamess tidal energy has been recognised by the Government of India. Potential sites for tidal power development have already been located. The most attractive locations are the Gulf of Cambay and the Culf of Kachchh on the west coast where the maximum tidal range is 11 m and 8 m with average tidal range of 6.77 m and 5.23 m respectively. The Ganges Delta in the Sunderbans in West Bengal also has good locations for small scale tidal power development. The maximum tidal range in Sunderbans is approximately 5 m with an average tidal range of 2.97 m. The identified economic tidal power potential in India is of the order of 8000-9000 MW with about 7000 MW in the Gulf of Cambay
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Schematic view of generation of electricity through tides
MAIN COMPONENTS OF A TIDAL ENERGY PLANT

A Tidal Containment Wall - encloses an interior body of water The Piles - which the secure the Support Columns to the sea bed The Panels - which separate the Artificial
Tidal Lagoon from the surrounding ocean Locking Posts which secure the Panels to the Support Columns. Turbines which turn its motion caused by the tidal waves into electricity
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The various types of turbines used in tidal energy plant: Axial Turbines Vertical and horizontal axis cross flow turbines
Oscillating devices: Oscillating devices do not have a rotating component, instead making use of aerofoil sections which are pushed sideways by the flow. Oscillating stream power extraction was proven with the omni- or bi-directional Winged Pump windmill. During 2003 a 150 kW oscillating hydroplane device, the Stingray, was tested off the Scottish coast. The Stingray uses hydrofoils to create oscillation, which allows it to create hydraulic power. This hydraulic power is then used to power a hydraulic motor, which then turns a generator. Energy calculations The energy available from a barrage is dependent on the volume of water. The potential energy contained in a volume of water is
A is the horizontal area of the barrage basin, is the density of water = 1025 kg per cubic meter (seawater varies between 1021 and 1030 kg per cubic meter) and g is the acceleration due to the Earth's gravity = 9.81 meters per second squared.
THE POWER GENERATED

Various turbine designs have varying efficiencies and therefore varying power output. If the efficiency of the turbine "" is known the equation below can be used to determine the power output. The energy available from these kinetic systems can be expressed as:
where: where:
h is the vertical tidal range,
= the turbine efficiency P = the power generated (in watts) = the density of the water (seawater
is 1025 kg/m)
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A = the sweep area of the turbine (in m) V = the velocity of the flow
energy. It produces energy for free, once the initial costs are recovered
COST
Tidal range energy projects require normally higher capital investment at the outset, having relatively long construction periods and long payback periods. Consequently, the electricity cost is highly sensitive to the discount rate used In terms of long term costs, once the construction of the barrage is complete, there are very small maintenance and running costs and the turbines only need replacing once around every 30 years. The life of the plant is indefinite and for its entire life it will receive free fuel from the tide.
DISADVANTAGES
The altering of the ecosystem Damages through reduced flushing, winter icing and erosion can change the vegetation of the area and disrupt the balance. Only available in a small number of regions. Requires a basin or a gulf that has a mean tidal amplitude (the differences between spring and neap tide) of at least 7 meters or above. It leads to the the displacement of wild life habitats. It can only be used where there is suitable tidal flow or wave motion. So it can not be used inland. It only produces electricity during tidal surges. Barrage systems require salt resistant parts and lots of maintenance. The frames of the turbines can disrupt the movement of large marine animals and ships through the channels on which the barrage is built. The barrage systems have the disadvantages of disrupting fish migration and killing fish passing through the turbines, therefore, there is also the risk of destruction of ecosystem that rely on the coming and going of tides. The ecosystem is disrupted during the construction of building the tidal fence. This affects the fishes and also the fishermen who depends their life on it. Tidal energy can only be created on a coast with a good tidal differential. Worthless for a landlocked country, has to be converted to something else to be transported It is limited because the tide never speeds up or slows down, and occurs on 6 hour cycles. The cost for constructing and running the facility
ADVANTAGES
Tides rise and fall every day in a very consistent pattern. Economic life of a tidal power plant. A plant is expected to be in production for 75 to 100 years Tidal energy does not require any fuel. It reduces the dependence upon fossil fuels Tidal and wave energy is free, renewable, and clean source of energy It produces clean electricity, with no production of greenhouse gas or pollution. Tidal and wave energy generation and consumption creates no liquid or solid pollution Highly efficient resource (compared with coal and oil at 30%, tidal power efficiency is about 80%) Energy capturing and conversion mechanism may help protect the shoreline Energy capturing and conversion mechanism has little visual impact About 60 billion watts of energy from tides can be used for electricity generation Tides are active 24 hours a day, 365 days a year Tidal power is a renewable source of
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Construction of strong, cheap and efficient conversion devices may be problematic
IMPACT ON THE ENVIRONMENT.
Changing tidal flows by damming a bay or estuary could, however, result in negative impacts on aquatic and shoreline ecosystems, as well as navigation
WIND ENERGY
Authors: Akshay S. Bhat1, S.D. Supreeth Dev2 th 2 SEM, Mechanical Engineering, Vidya Vikas Institute of Engineering and Technology, Mysore-10
INTRODUCTION
Power generation from wind has emerged as one of the most successful programmes in the renewable energy sector, and has started making meaningful contributions to the overall power requirements of some States. Wind turbines today are up to the task of producing serious amounts of electricity. Turbines vary in size from small 1 kW structures to large machines rated at 2 MW or more. Energy is a major input for overall socioeconomic development. Use of fossil fuels is expected to fuel the economic development process of a majority of the world population during the next two decades. However, at some time during the period 2020-2050, fossil fuels are likely to reach their maximum potential, and their price will become higher than other renewable energy options on account of increasingly constrained production and availability. Therefore, renewables are expected to play a key role in accelerating development and sustainable growth in the second half of the next century, accounting then to 50 to 60% of the total global energy supply.
Wind resource evaluation is a critical element in projecting turbine performance at a given site. The energy available in a wind stream is proportional to the cube of its speed, which means that doubling the wind speed increases the available energy by a factor of eight. Furthermore, the wind resource itself is seldom a steady, consistent flow. It varies with the time of day, season, height above ground, and type of terrain. Proper siting in windy locations, away from large obstructions, enhances a wind turbine's performance. In general, annual average wind speeds of 5 meters per second (11 miles per hour) are required for grid-connected applications. Annual average wind speeds of 3 to 4 m/s (7-9 mph) may be adequate for non-connected electrical and mechanical applications such as battery charging and water pumping. Wind resources exceeding this speed are available in many parts of the world. Wind Power Density is a useful way to evaluate the wind resource available at a potential site. The wind power density, measured in watts per square meter, indicates how much energy is available at the site for conversion by a wind turbine. Classes of wind power density for two standard wind measurement heights are listed in the table
PRINCIPLES
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below. Wind speed generally increases with height above ground.
For the operation of wind turbine to be commercially feasible, average wind speed should be in the range of 13-30 mi/hr. at 2530 mi/hr, a turbine operates at full capacity, and at higher wind speeds the turbine should be shut down to avoid damage. There are two primary physical principles by which energy can be extracted from the wind; these are through the creation of either drag or lift force (or through a combination of the two). The basic features that characterize lift and drag are: drag is in the direction of airflow lift is perpendicular to the direction of airflow generation of lift always causes a certain amount of drag to be developed with a good aerofoil, the lift produced can be more than thirty times greater than the drag lift devices are generally more efficient than drag devices The tip speed ratio is defined as the ratio of the speed of the extremities of a windmill rotor to the speed of the free wind. It is a measure of the 'gearing ratio' of the rotor. Drag devices always have tip speed ratios less than one and hence turn slowly, whereas lift devices can have high tip speed ratios and hence turn quickly relative to the wind. Tip speed ratio = blade tip speed/wind speed Solidity is usually defined as the percentage of the circumference of the rotor which contains material rather than air. High solidity machines carry a lot of material and have coarse blade angles. They generate much higher starting torque than lowsolidity machines but are inherently less efficient than low-solidity machines. The extra materials also cost more money. However, low-solidity machines need to be
made with more precision which leads to little difference in costs. The proportion of the power in the wind that the rotor can extract is termed the coefficient of performance (or power coefficient or efficiency; symbol Cp) and its variation as a function of tip speed ratio is commonly used to characterize different types of rotor. It is physically impossible to extract all the energy from the wind, without bringing the air behind the rotor to a standstill.
POTENTIAL
Huge potential exists,Available potential can contribute five times the world energy demand,0.4% contribution to total energy Wind energy is freely available, widely distributed, renewable and also naturefriendly. Wind has huge potential. It is estimated that if all the available wind energy is harnessed, it can contribute about five times the total energy demands of the world at present Wind energy is the fastest growing renewable energy source in the world. The world wide installed capacity is growing at a rapid pace of over 30% per year. Factors: declining cost (4-6 cents k/wh) technological advances revenue for landowners & tax jurisdictions consumer demand World wide wind generating capacity is less than 5000 MW in 1995 and is 39000MW in 2003, an increase of nearly eight fold. Wind energy is the fastest growing renewable energy source in the world. The world wide installed capacity is growing at a rapid pace of over 30% per year.
TECHNOLOGY
Over 5,000 years ago, the ancient Egyptians used wind power to sail their ships on the Nile River. Later, people built windmills to grind their grain.
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In 1891, the first electrical output wind machine was developed incorporating the aerodynamic design principles.
VAWT
Drag is the main force Nacelle is placed at the bottom Yaw mechanism is not required Lower starting torque Difficulty in mounting the turbine Unwanted fluctuations in the power output However, a disadvantage of most VAWT configurations is the fact that they have either low or insignificant starting torque, so that in the case of Darrieus devices, for example, the rotor must be brought up to speed either by using the generator as a motor or by means of a small secondary rotor, such as a Savonius, mounted on the Darrieus main shaft.
HAWT
Lift is the main force Much lower cyclic stresses 95% of the existing turbines are HAWTs Nacelle is placed at the top of the tower Yaw mechanism is required Upwind turbines are used mostly..Because wind velocity increases at higher altitudes, the backward force and torque on a horizontal axis wind turbine (HAWT) blade peaks as it turns through the highest point in its circle. The tower hinders the airflow at the lowest point in the circle, which produces a local dip in force and torque. These two effects combine to produce a cyclic twist on the main bearings of a HAWT. The combined
twist is worst in machines with an even number of blades, where one is straight up when another is straight down. To improve reliability, teetering hubs are used which allow the main shaft to rock through a few degrees, so that the main bearings do not have to resist the torque peaks. Counter rotating turbines can be used to increase the rotation speed of the electrical generator. When the counter rotating turbines are on the same side of the tower, the blades on the one in front are angled forwards slightly so as to never hit the rear ones. They are either both geared to the same generator or, more often, one is connected to the rotor and the other to the field windings. Counter rotating turbines geared to the same generator have additional gearing losses. Counter rotating turbines connected to the rotor and stator are mechanically simpler; but, the field windings need slip rings which adds complexity, wastes some electricity and wastes some mechanical power. As of 2005, no large practical counter-rotating HAWTs are commercially sold. Counter rotating turbines can be on opposite sides of the tower. In this case it is best that the one at the back be smaller than the one at the front and set to stall at a higher wind speed. This way, at low wind speeds, both turn and the generator taps the maximum proportion of the wind's power. At intermediate speeds, the front turbine stalls; but, the rear one keeps turning, so the wind generator has a smaller wind resistance and the tower can still support the generator. At high wind speeds both turbines stall, the wind resistance is at a minimum and the tower can still support the generator. This allows the generator to function at a wider wind speed range
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than a single-turbine generator for a given tower. To reduce sympathetic vibrations, the two turbines should turn at speeds with few common factors, for example 7:3 speed ratio. Overall, this is a more complicated design than the singleturbine wind generator, but it taps more of the wind's energy at a wider range of wind speeds. Winds at a height of a few kilometers are quite constant and very fast (often over 40 m/s). Theoretically, flying wind turbines could tap into the energy in these winds. One design has four turbines linked together forming a kind of kite. Winds keep the construction in the air, while causing the blades on the turbines to rotate. The kite wire would carry the electrical energy to the ground. This approach would require no-flyzones around the deployment site, and might require electrical energy to remain aloft if the winds would ever die down One of the best construction materials available (in 2001) is graphite-fibre in epoxy. Graphite composites can be used to build turbines of sixty meters radius, enough to tap a few megawatts of power. Smaller household turbines can be made of lightweight fiberglass, aluminum, or sometimes laminated wood. Wood and canvas sails were originally used on early windmills. Unfortunately they require much maintenance over their service life. Also, they have a relatively high drag (low aerodynamic efficiency) for the force they capture. For these reasons they were superseded with solid airfoils. Wind power intercepted by the turbine is proportional to the square of its bladelength. The maximum blade-length of a turbine is limited by both the strength and stiffness of its material.
The wind blows faster at higher altitudes because of the drag of the surface (sea or land) and the viscosity of the air. The variation in velocity with altitude, called wind shear is most dramatic near the surface. Typically, the variation follows the 1/7th power law, which predicts that wind speed rises proportionally to the seventh root of altitude. Doubling the altitude of a turbine, then, increases the expected wind speeds by 10% and the expected power by 34%. Doubling the tower height generally requires doubling the diameter as well, increasing the amount of material by a factor of eight. For HAWTs, tower heights approximately twice the blade length have been found to balance material costs of the tower against better utilisation of the more expensive active components. The speed at which wind turbines rotate must be controlled for several reasons: Maintenance; because it is dangerous to have people working on a wind turbine while it is active, it is sometimes necessary to bring a turbine to a full stop. Noise reduction; As a rule of thumb, the noise from a wind turbine increases with the fifth power of the relative wind speed (as seen from the moving tip of the blades). In noise-sensitive environments (nearly all onshore installations), noise limits the tip speed to approximately 60 m/s. High efficiency turbines may have tip speed ratios of 56, which, for onshore turbines, limits high efficiency operation to winds of just 10 m/s. Centripetal force reduction; as the rotational speed increases, so does the centripetal force working on the central hub or axis. When it exceeds safe limits blades could snap off, and the turbine would fail dramatically.
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On a pitch controlled wind turbine the turbine's electronic controller checks the power output of the turbine several times per second. When the power output becomes too high, it sends an order to the blade pitch mechanism which immediately pitches (turns) the rotor blades slightly out of the wind. Conversely, the blades are turned back into the wind whenever the wind drops again. (Passive) stall controlled wind turbines have the rotor blades bolted onto the hub at a fixed angle. The geometry of the rotor blade profile, however has been aerodynamically designed to ensure that the moment the wind speed becomes too high, it creates turbulence on the side of the rotor blade which is not facing the wind as shown in the picture on the previous page. This stall prevents the lifting force of the rotor blade from acting on the rotor. An increasing number of larger wind turbines (1 MW and up) are being developed with an active stall power control mechanism. Technically the active stall machines resemble pitch controlled machines, since they have pitchable blades. In order to get a reasonably large torque (turning force) at low wind speeds, the machines will usually be programmed to pitch their blades much like a pitch controlled machine at low wind speeds. (Often they use only a few fixed steps depending upon the wind speed). When the machine reaches its rated power , however, you will notice an important difference from the pitch controlled machines: If the generator is about to be overloaded, the machine will pitch its blades in the opposite direction from what a pitch controlled machine does. In other words, it will increase the angle of attack of the rotor blades in
order to make the blades go into a deeper stall, thus wasting the excess energy in the wind. One of the advantages of active stall is that one can control the power output more accurately than with passive stall, so as to avoid overshooting the rated power of the machine at the beginning of a gust of wind. Another advantage is that the machine can be run almost exactly at rated power at all high wind speeds. A normal passive stall controlled wind turbine will usually have a drop in the electrical power output for higher wind speeds, as the rotor blades go into deeper stall. The pitch mechanism is usually operated using hydraulics or electric stepper motors. That part of the rotor which is closest to the source direction of the wind, however, will be subject to a larger force (bending torque) than the rest of the rotor. On the one hand, this means that the rotor will have a tendency to yaw against the wind automatically, regardless of whether we are dealing with an upwind or a downwind turbine. On the other hand, it means that the blades will be bending back and forth in a flapwise direction for each turn of the rotor. Wind turbines which are running with a yaw error are therefore subject to larger fatigue loads than wind turbines which are yawed in a perpendicular direction against the wind. Sensor:It simply consists of a ball resting on a ring. The ball is connected to a switch through a chain. If the turbine starts shaking, the ball will fall off the ring and switch the turbine off. There are many other sensors in the nacelle, e.g. electronic thermometers which check the oil temperature in the gearbox and the temperature of the generator.
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OVERSPEED PROTECTION
It is essential that wind turbines stop automatically in case of malfunction of a critical component Aerodynamic Braking System: Tip Brakes The primary braking system for most modern wind turbines is the aerodynamic braking system, which essentially consists in turning the rotor blades about 90 degrees along their longitudinal axis (in the case of a pitch controlled turbine or an active stall controlled turbine ), or in turning the rotor blade tips 90 degrees (in the case of a stall controlled turbine ). Aerodynamic braking systems are extremely safe.
MECHANICAL SYSTEM
BRAKING
The mechanical brake is used as a backup system for the aerodynamic braking system WARP system amplifies the ambient wind speed, through its multi-tasking aerodynamic modules or wind frames, to simple, standardized commodity horizontal axis (propeller-type) wind turbines. Each modular wind frame provides highly amplified wind flow fields from over 50% to 80% over free air wind speed to each conventional, small diameter wind turbine of no more than 1 meter to 3 meters in diameter. Each module also serves as a support for the wind turbines, a yaw assembly and protective housing for the core support tower and other internal subsystems. Rotatable shutters mounted on a circular disk automatically open when directed into the wind, irregardless of the wind's direction. Pairs of upper and lower shutters are geared together. The lower shutter acts as a counterweight to the
upper shutter. The bottom shutter opens in the downward direction and its weight helps to lift the upper shutter in the upward direction, as the wind applies an opening force against both shutters. When the shutters reach the vertical position, stops prevent them from opening further and the force of the wind is transferred from the open shutters to the circular disk. And the circular disk is attached to the vertical axis for power output. The circular disk, shutters, and outer vertical axis rotate together. The outer vertical axis is mounted via bearings over an inner vertical axis that is stationery. The shutters are blown closed by the wind (no stops in the opposite direction) as they reverse direction during their rotation and move into the wind on the opposite side of the wind turbine. When the wind is not blowing, the shutters open by gravity because the lower shutter is weighted to be slightly heavier than the upper shutter and it therefore can cause the upper shutter to open via the force of gravity as the two shutters are geared together. Wind blows against the open shutters and the open shutters with stops apply a force against the disk, but the open shutters with no stops (opposite side going into the wind) merely close due to the force of the wind (not applying a force against the disk) and the wind turbine begins spinning no matter what direction the wind comes from. Operation of the turbine is remarkably quiet as compared to the appearance of the video due to biasing members that absorb the shock of the opening and closing and provide useful energy output. Conventional turbines must be very tall in order to create leverage by having very long blades to sweep a very large area. Hunt's vertical axis creates
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leverage by increasing its width instead of height. This allows the vertical turbine to be used in many applications, in which horizontal axis turbines cannot be used, such as flat building rooftops or just above the rooftop of a house or portable office building, as a sailboat wind turbine over a cabin area, attached to cellular telephone towers, on top of advertisement billboards, on the top of water towers, at the top of power line towers, etc.
ECOMOMICS
Some of the factors determining the economics of the utility scale wind energy are: Costs depend very much on the wind speed at that site since the power varies as cube of the wind speed. Turbine design and construction: more than 60% of total costs are contributed by the turbine costs Rated capacity of the turbine: larger wind farms are known to be more economical than small wind farms. Exact location and orientation of the turbine greatly affects the economics of the wind energy. Improvements of turbine design: for example, use of light weight material Wind energy is a capital intensive source of energy.
TYPICAL CONCERNS
Aesthetic concerns may be addressed through the use of modern turbines -tubular towers and sleek, minimalist features contribute to a more attractive appearance. Further, some developers try to arrange a wind plant's turbines in an orderly fashion, giving a more purposeful and efficient appearance. Following the contours of a ridge, for example, helps turbines blend into the surroundings. Avoiding construction of conspicuous roads and clearings, burying transmission lines, and hiding
buildings and structures behind ridges or vegetation are also prudent steps. Finally, educating nearby communities prior to construction about wind energy and its benefits can reduce opposition to visual effects. For wind plants currently experiencing bird conflicts, the immediate task is to find practical measures to reduce bird deaths and injuries. Mitigation proposals include changing the color of wind turbine blades, using tubular towers with diagonal stringers, eliminating places for birds to perch on the towers (especially perches near uninsulated electricity transmission lines) and using radar to alert wind project operators to the passage of large flocks of birds. Federal and state agencies and environmental organizations are collaborating on a research program to address the bird issue. Most rotors are upwind: A wind turbine can be either "upwind" (that is, where the rotor faces into the wind) or "downwind" (where the rotor faces away from the wind). A downwind design offers some engineering advantages, but when a rotor blade passes the "wind shadow" of the tower as the rotor revolves, it tends to produce an "impulsive" or thumping sound that can be annoying. Today, almost all of the commercial wind machines on the market are upwind designs, and the few that are downwind have incorporated design features aimed at reducing impulsive noise (for example, positioning the rotor so that it is further away from the tower). Towers and nacelles are streamlined: Streamlining (rounding or giving an aerodynamic shape to any protruding features and to the nacelle itself) reduces any noise that is created by the wind passing the turbine. Turbines also
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incorporate design features to reduce vibration and any associated noise. Soundproofing in nacelles has been increased: The generator, gears, and other moving parts located in the turbine nacelle produce mechanical noise. Soundproofing and mounting equipment on sound-dampening buffer pads helps to deal with this issue. Gearboxes are specially-designed for quiet operation: Wind turbines use special gearboxes, in which the gear wheels are designed to flex slightly and reduce mechanical noise. In addition, special sound-dampening buffer pads separate the gearboxes from the nacelle frame to minimize the possibility that any vibrations could become sound.
use that are silently and not-so-silently mounting every day. The major technology developments enabling wind power commercialization have already been made. There will be infinite refinements and improvements, of course. One can guess (based on experience with other technologies) that the eventual push to full commercialization and deployment of the technology will happen in a manner that no one can imagine today. There will be a "weather change" in the marketplace, or a "killer application" somewhere that will put several key companies or financial organizations in a position to profit. They will take advantage of public interest, the political and economic climate, and emotional or marketing factors to position wind energy technology (developed in a long lineage from the Chinese and the Persians to the present wind energy researchers and developers) for its next round of development.
FUTURE
In the near future, wind energy will be the most cost effective source of electrical power. In fact, a good case can be made for saying that it already has achieved this status. The actual life cycle cost of fossil fuels (from mining and extraction to transport to use technology to environmental impact to political costs and impacts, etc.) is not really known, but it is certainly far more than the current wholesale rates. The eventual depletion of these energy sources will entail rapid escalations in price which -- averaged over the brief period of their use -- will result in postponed actual costs that would be unacceptable by present standards. And this doesn't even consider the environmental and political costs of fossil fuels
CONCLUSION
Wind energy is pollution free and nature friendly Wind energy has very good potential and it is the fastest growing energy source The future looks bright for wind energy because technology is becoming more advanced and windmills are becoming more efficient
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GEOTHERMAL ENERGY RESOURCES

Authors: Mouna H.N.1, Priyanka N.2 Electrical Engineering, Vidya Vikas Institute of Engineering and Technology, Mysore-10
ABSTRACT:
Geothermal power is power generated from the heat stored underground in the Earth. Although not viable in every location, where it is present it is considered one of the most environmentally-friendly and costeffective energy solutions over the long run. It is one of a handful of energy solutions looked to by advocates of environmental sensitivity as an alternative to fossil fuels, along with other renewable sources such as wind energy, tidal energy, solar energy, and occasionally hydropower.
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Geothermal (from the Greek roots geo, meaning earth, and thermos, meaning heat) power is power extracted from heat stored in the earth. This geothermal energy originates from the original formation of the planet, from radioactive decay of minerals, and from solar energy absorbed at the surface. Worldwide, geothermal plants have the capacity to generate about 10 gigawatts of electricity as of 2007, and in practice supply 0.3% of global electricity demand. An additional 28 gigawatts of direct geothermal heating capacity is installed for district heating, space heating, spas, industrial processes, desalination and agricultural applications.
from the first true binary power plant, 680 kWe using 81C water at Paratunka on the Kamchatka peninsula the lowest temperature, at that time. Iceland first produced power at Namafjall in northern Iceland, from a 3 MWe non-condensing turbine. These were followed by plants in El Salvador, China, Indonesia, Kenya, Turkey, Philippines, Portugal (Azores), Greece and Nicaragua in the1970s and 80s. Later plants were installed in Thailand, Argentina, Taiwan, Australia, Costa Rica, Austria, Guatemala, Ethiopia, with the latest installations in Germany and Papua.
1.2.GEOTHERMAL CONVERSION:
ENERGY
1.2 HISTORY
The first use of geothermal energy for electric power production was in Italy with experimental work by PrinceGionori Conti between 1904 and 1905. The first commercial power plant (250kWe) was commissioned in 1913 at Larderello, Italy. An experimental 35 kWe plant was installed in the Geysers (California) in 1932, and provided power to the local resort. These developments were followed in New Zealand at Wairakei in1958; an experimental plant at Pathe, Mexico in 1959; and the first commercial plant at the Geysers in the United States in 1960. Japan followed with 23 MWe at Matsukawa in 1966. All of these early plants used steam directly from the earth (dry steam fields), except for New Zealand, which was the first touse flashed or separated steam for running the turbines. The former USSR produced power
The heat obtained from high pressure steam in the earths crust is called geothermal energy. It is natural heat of the earth. It is the high potential renewable source of energy. The normal temperature gradient range from 8-15C per kilometer depth. Fig shows typical geothermal field. It consists of heat sources at 715km depth and this molten mass solidifies into igneous rock. The hot molten magma transfers heat to this igneous rock by conduction. Water in contact with this rock through fissures, will be heated due to heat transfer. The heated water flows up convectively into the permeable reservoir exist above the igneous rock. Layer of low permeable solid rock traps hot water from the reservoir. Fissures present in the solid layer forms vent for giant under ground boiler. These vents on the surface are called hot springs. A well on the surface traps steam from the fissures and this steam is used in geothermal power plant.
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2.1 TYPES OF GEOTHERMAL RESOURCES

Geothermal energy comes from the natural generation of heat primarily due to the decay of the naturally occurring radioactive isotopes of uranium, thorium and potassium in the earth. Because of the internal heat generation, the Earths surface heat flow averages 82 mW/m2 which amounts to a total heat loss of about 42 million megawatts. The estimated total thermal energy above mean surface temperature to a depth of 10 km is 1.3 x 1027 J, equivalent to burning 3.0 x 1017 barrels of oil. On average, the temperature of the Earth increases about 30C/km above the mean surface ambient temperature. Thus, assuming a conductive gradient, the temperature of the earth at 10 km would be over 300C. However, most geothermal exploration and use occurs where the gradient is higher, and thus where drilling is shallower and less costly. These shallow depth geothermal resources occur due to: (1) intrusion of molten rock (magma) from depth, bringing up great quantities of heat; (2) high surface heat flow, due to a thin crust and high temperature gradient; (3) ascent of groundwater that has circulated to depths of several kilometers and been heated due to the normal temperature gradient; (4) thermal blanketing or insulation of deep rocks by thick formation of such rocks as shale whose thermal conductivity is low; and. (5) anomalous heating of shallow rock by decay of radioactive elements, perhaps augmented by thermal blanketing. Geothermal resources are usually classified as shown in Table .These geothermal resources range from the mean annual ambient temperature of around 20C to over 300C. In general, resources above 150C are used for electric power generation. Resources below 150C are usually used in direct-use projects for heating and cooling. Ambient temperatures in the 5 to 30C range can be used with geothermal (ground-source) heat pumps to provide both heating and cooling. Convective hydrothermal resources occur where the Earths heat is carried upward by convective circulation of naturally occurring hot water or steam. Some high temperature convective hydrothermal resources result from
deep circulation of water along fractures. Geothermal Resource Types Resource Type Temperature Range (C) Convective hydrothermal resources Vapor dominated Hot-water dominated 350+ Other hydrothermal resources Sedimentary basin Geopressured Radiogenic Hot rock resources Solidified(hotdry rock) Partstill (magma) 3. Hydro thermal resources 1) Dry steam cycle or vapor dominated system. 2) Flash steam power plant or Liquid dominated system. 3) Binary cycle. 20 to 150 90 to 200 30 to 150 240 20to
90 to650 molten >600
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3.1VAPOR DOMINATED SYSTEM (DRY STEAM OPEN SYSTEM):
3.2 FLASH PLANT
STEAM
POWER
This system is best suitable for electric power generation as steam from the geothermal field is directly fed to power generation. The high pressure dry steam passes up the production well and through a rock catcher; a series of mesh filters which catch any rocks, stones or other debris, which would damage the turbine blades. The steam then passes through a steam turbine that drives an electrical generator, which produces electricity for the grid. The steam exits the low pressure stage of the turbine and into the turbine condenser that is under a vacuum and from the condensate is pumped through cooling towers that remove the gases which are noncondensable. From here it is pumped on to the water cooling towers, where the condensate is cooled and any remaining incondensable gasses are re-circulated to the cooling tower before being re-injected with the cooled condensate down the injection well back into the geothermal reservoir.
Flash steam power plants force water down into an injection well by a groundwater pump. The well must be sunk deep enough to reach subterranean rocks at a temperature higher than the boiling point of water. The water filters through the rocks where it becomes heated and rises back up through the nearby production well. The hot water from the production well enters a flash tank where the reduced pressure causes the water to boil rapidly or "flash" into vapor. Water that remains liquid in the flash tank is returned to the groundwater pump to be forced down into the earth again. . The vapor from the flash tank drives a steam turbine, which turns the shaft of an electric generator. After passing through the turbine, the steam is cooled in a condenser. This returns the water vapor to the liquid state, and this liquid is forced by the groundwater pump back down into the earth along with the diverted water from the flash tank.
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3.3 BINARY CYCLE:
4.1HOT DRY ROCK (PETRO THERMAL SYSTEM):
Basically its a Rankine cycle and consists of an organic fluid. The binary cycle concept isolate turbine from all corrosive and erosive materials. The water from the geothermal reservoir never comes into direct contact with the blades of the turbine generator and is uses water-based geothermal resources of approximately 200 to 360 degrees F. In the binary cycle system, warm geothermal water is pumped to the surface and passed through a heat exchanger that contains a fluid such as a butane or pentane hydrocarbon with a much lower boiling point than water. The heat from the geothermal water causes this secondary or binary' fluid to flash into vapor. The vapor created by heating the pentane is what spins the turbine powering the generator, while the cooled steam from the geothermal source is injected back into the formation where it heats up again and is available to eventually recirculate through the heat exchanger.
It is a type of concentrated geothermal energy in which hot solid rocks occurring at moderate depths contains heat. Either due to absence of ground water or due low permeability of rock(or both),water does not have access to these hot rocks. The heat is to be transferred to the surface by artificially injecting the water through specially formed paths. In addition, the rock may be fractured to utilize this energy resource. This allows water to make good contact with hot rocks and the resulting hot water or steam is used at the surface. The temperature gradient of HDR ranges from 150-180C per km.
4. GEO PRESSURED RESOURCES

In these resources high temperature and high pressure water (or brine) is present in the reservoir. A substantial amount of methane (CH4-natural gas)is dissolved in the pressurized water. When pressure decreases, this methane will be released. Geo pressured water is at 160 degrees C and under high pressure and is trapped at depths ranging from 2400 to 9000m and it could be used for power generation.
4.2 MAGMA RESOURCES (MAGMATIC OR MOLTEN ROCK CHAMBER SYSTEM):

The geothermal energy content of these resources is large, but these resources are restricted to very few locations. These magma resources are made up of partially or completely molten rock at temperature greater than 650C and exist especially in recently active volcanic regions. The extraction of energy is difficult task due to high temperature. The heat extraction from hot magma at temperature of about 1450C is studied and estimated that operation of a
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100MW plant would require 400m2 of heat exchanger surface area at a heat rate of 250KW/M2.
5.GEOTHERMAL THE WORLD
PLANTS
IN
being produced from non-conventional energy sources such as wind, solar and biomass. Due to technical and logistic problems with other nonconventional energy sources, present industrialists mood is upbeat and IPPs are showing keen interest in developing geothermal based power projects. India has around 340 known thermal areas of hot springs. So far 113 are discovered. Among them, 46 are high temperature type (above 150 degree C).
6.POWER GENERATING CAPACITY OF INDIAN GEOTHERMAL PROVINCES

Province Heat Flow Himalaya 468 Cambay 80-93 Westcoast 75-129 SONATA 120-290 Godavari 93-104 Surface To C Reservoir ToC Thermal gradient >90 100 40-90 70 46-72 47-59 60 - 95 60-90 50-60 60 260
150-175
Many countries have developed the technology for power generation from geothermal sources. Italy, USA and newzealand have received greater attention towards the power generation. Geothermal energy is used for electric power generation and direct utilization in the United States. The present installed capacity for electric power generation is 3,064 MWe with only 2,212 MWe in operation due to reduction at The Geysers geothermal field in California; producing approximately16,000 GWh per year. Geothermal electric power plants are located in California, Nevada, Utah and Hawaii. The two largest concentrations of plants are at The Geysers in northern California and the Imperial Valley in southern California. Power plants in newzealand are mokai(binary operation), Kawerau New, ohaaki, Wairakei where power generation ranges from 36MW to 100MW.
102-137
105-217
175-215
Heat flow: mW/m2; Thermal gradient: o C/km.
7. ENERGY SAVINGS
Using geothermal energy obviously replaces fossil fuel use and prevents the emission of greenhouse gases. If we assume that geothermal energy replaces electricity generation, the conversion efficiency is estimated at 0.35 (35%). If the replacement energy for direct-use is provided by burning the fuel directly, then about half this amount would be saved in heating systems (35% vs. 70% efficiency). The savings of fossil oil is equivalent to about three days (1%) of the worlds consumption.
5.1
GEOTHERMAL ENERGY SOURCES IN INDIA
Indian geothermal provinces have the capacity to produce 10,600 MW of power- a figure which is five times greater than the combined power
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7.1BENEFITS OF GEOTHERMAL

geothermal source is renewable, in exhaustible and posses highest energy density
Emissions are low. Reduced cost of fuel to generate electricity. Reduced reliance on imported oil and exposure to the volatile world oil price market. Risk management through diversifying the portfolio of electricity generation options. Job creation and economic benefits. Environmental benefits, including reduced pollution, reduced global warming, and the threat of oil spills from transporting fossil fuels to the various Hawaiian Islands. State-owned geothermal resource generates geothermal royalties to the state.
8.CONCLUSION
Geothermal growth and development of electricity generation has increased significantly over the past 30 years approaching 15% annually in the early part of this period, and dropping to 3% annually in the last ten years due to an economic slow down in the Far East and the low price of competing fuels. Direct-use has remained fairly steady over the 30-year period at 10% growth annually. At the start of this 30-year period, only ten countries reported electrical production and/or direct utilization from geothermal energy. By the end of this period, 72 countries reported utilizing geothermal energy. This is over a seven-fold increase in participating countries. At least another 10 countries are actively exploring for geothermal resources and should be online by 2010. Developments in the future will include greater emphases on combined heat and power plants, especially those using lower temperature fluids down to 100C. This low-temperature cascaded use will improve the economics and efficiency. Also, there is increased interest in agriculture crop drying and refrigeration in tropical climates to preserve products that might normally be wasted.
7.2 SCOPE OF GEOTHERMAL ENERGY

There is a vast scope to use geothermal energy for various applications like space heating, geothermal heat pump, and industrial process heating. Also its varied application and versatility makes the source suitable for many purposes like aquaculture, horticulture etc... .This source of energy for electric generation has proved most economical. It is cheaper, less pollutant and has highest load factor. The
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ROBOTICS FOR BIOLOGICAL AND MEDICAL APPLICATIONS

Authors: Megha G.S.1, Keerthana M.J.2 4th SEM, Information Science, Vikas Institute of Engineering and Technology, Mysore-10, 2 th 4 SEM, Computer Science Engineering, Vidya Vikas Institute of Engineering and Technology, Mysore-10
1
We born, we live our lives and at the end we die. That's the truth. However, the quality of our lives often correlates with our health. Generally the healthier we are the more we can achieve thus the happier we can be.
That's why health has always been an issue to deal with. Nowadays medicine has gone a very long way compared to the time of Hippocrates. Now humans are able to do very complicated surgeries, invent cures for various illnesses and so on. The question arises - can medicine go further and in what ways? The answer on the first part of the question is "definitely". However the answers to the second part can differ. There are many notable fields which could change the course of medical history for example stem cells. Still, I'm sure that the field of robotics and robotics-related fields such as medical bionics and biomechatronics will play a big role in medicine in near future. Actually, many exciting things are happening in these fields right now. So, in this section of my site I will try to shed some light on questions about medical robots and robotics related fields in medicine.
Definition of Robotics
bio-mechanical device that can perform autonomous or preprogrammed tasks. Robots may be used to perform tasks that are too dangerous or difficult for humans, such as radioactive waste clean-up, or may be used to automate production. Medical robots have computer-integrated technology and are comprised of complicated programming languages, controllers and advanced sensors. They also possess powerful control units, a programming terminal, and process-oriented software for various medical applications. As robots have become more advanced and sophisticated, experts and academics have increasingly explored the questions of what ethics might govern robots' behavior, and whether robots might be able to claim any kind of social, cultural, ethical or legal rights. One scientific team has said that it is possible that a robot brain will exist by 2019. Others predict robot intelligence breakthroughs by 2050.Recent advances have made robotic behavior more sophisticated.
WHY ROBOTS IN BIOLOGY AND MEDICINE ?

Biological Applications
Robotics` is the science and technology of robots, their design, manufacture, and application. A person working in the field is a roboticist. Although the appearance and capabilities of robots vary vastly, all robots share the features of a mechanical, movable structure under some form of autonomous control. A robot is an electro-mechanical or
The primary purpose for use of robotics in biology is to achieve high throughput in experiments related to research and development of life science. Those experiments involve the delivery and dispensation of biological samples/solutions in large numbers each with very small volumes. Typical applications include highMecholites 2010
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throughput systems for large-scale DNA sequencing, single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) analysis, haplotype mapping, compound screening for drug development, and bio-solution mixing and dispensing for membrane protein crystallization. Without robots and automation, biosamples/solutions must be handled manually by human hands,
which is not only tedious but also slow. Various robotic systems have been developed in laboratories that are either specially developed for a particular application or integration of commercially available robots, general purpose tools and sensors.
High-throughput sequencing.
systems
for
DNA
The second purpose of robotics for biological applications is for effective handling and exploration of molecular and cell biology. This type of application includes immobilization of individual cells, cell manipulation, and cell injection for pronuclei DNA insertion. Special tools fabricated using different technologies have to be developed such as lasers for microsensing and manipulating, electroactive polymer for cell manipulation, and microneedles for cell penetration. Another interesting area of application is robotics-inspired algorithms for molecular and cellular biology. This includes the work for predicting protein folding, and for structural biology.
Medical Applications
Research on robotics for medical applications started fifteen years ago and is very active today. The purpose is three-fold. First it is for robotic surgery. Robotic surgery can accomplish what doctors cannot because of precision and repeatability of robotic systems. Besides, robots are able to operate in a contained space inside the human body. All these make robots especially suitable for non-invasive or minimally invasive surgery and for better outcomes of surgery. Today, robots have been demonstrated or routinely used for heart, brain, spinal cord, throat, and knee surgeries at many hospitals in the United States. The fig below shows doctors performing knee surgery using a robotic system. Since robotic surgery improves consistency and quality, it is becoming more and more popular.
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Medical robots that can do surgeries sounds marvelous, right? All existing surgery robots on this day are actually cleverly made manipulators controlled by competent doctors. There are some issues with the level of Artificial Intelligence needed to do surgeries independently but that can be achieved some day. Nowadays, there are two fields where surgical robots are being developed and tested. One is telerobotics which enables a doctor to do a surgery at a distance. The other field is minimally invasive surgery - surgery done without making large cuts. The da Vinci robot surgery system is one great example of robotics use for surgery purposes. More than thousand units are being used world-wide.
The da vinci Robotic surgery system used in laproscopic operation. . The second use of robotics in medicine is diagnosis. Robotic diagnosis reduces invasiveness to the human body and improves the accuracy and scope of the diagnosis. One example is the robotic capsular endoscope that has been developed
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for non-invasive gastrointestinal tract.
diagnosis
of
Robotic gascular Endoscope for examination of Gastrointestinal tract. The third use of robotics is for providing artificial components to recover physical functions of human beings such as robotic prosthetic legs, arms and hands. For example, at the Technical University of Berlin there is work on powered leg orthoses using electromyographic signals for control and on prosthetic hands. In addition, rehabilitation robotics can help patients
recover physical functions more effectively after injury by replacing or supplementing the work of physical therapists. Robotic devices and systems can also help elderly people move around; this includes intelligent wheeled chairs, walkingassistance machines, and limb-empowering robotic devices. For example, a new type of powered walker was developed at Waseda University.It is capable of sensing pressure from both the left and right arms.
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Medical Robot facilities at the Berlin center for Mechatronical medical devices.
Robots in hospitals Hospitals are a bit like factories. There are many mundane tasks. For example - carrying things around, moving samples from one apparatus to another, cleaning. There are also tasks that require some strength. For example lifting and moving patients. I assume you got the point - there are many tasks which could be done by medical robots. There has been some development in this field - there are robots intended for laboratory uses, there are AGV's (Automated Guided Vehicle) intended for hospital use. As far as I know most of these are in a testing stage. Many general surgical procedures can now be performed using the state of the art robotic surgical system. In medical fields like, General surgery In 2007, the University of Illiis at Chicago medical team, lead by Prof. Pier Cristoforo Giulianotti, performed the world's first ever robotic pancreatectomy and also the Midwests fully robotic Whipple surgery, which is the most complicated and demanding procedure of the abdomen. The same team of surgeons performed the world's first fully minimally invasive liver resection for living donor transplantation,
Furthermore the patient can also leave with less pain than a usual surgery due to the four puncture holes and not a scar by a surgeon. Cardiothoracic surgery Robot-assisted MIDCAB and Endoscopic coronary artery bypass (TECAB) surgeries are being performed with the da Vinci system. Mitral valve repairs and replacements have been performed. The procedures combined robotic revascularization and coronary stenting and further expanded the role of robots in coronary bypass to patients with disease in multiple vessels. Cardiology and electrophysiology The Stereotaxis Magnetic Navigation
System (MNS) has been developed to increase precision and safety in ablation procedures for atrial fibrillation while reducing radiation
exposure for the patient and physician. The system allows for automated 3-D mapping of the heart and vasculature, and MNS has also been used in interventional cardiology for guiding stents and leads in PCI and CTO procedures, proven to reduce contrast usage and access tortuous anatomy unreachable by manual
navigation.
removing 60% of the patient's liver, yet allowing him to leave the hospital just a couple of days after the procedure, in very good condition.
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Multiple types of procedures have been performed with either the Zeus or da Vinci robot systems, including bariatric surgery. Gynecology Robotic surgery in gynecology is one of the fastest growing fields of robotic surgery. This includes the use of the da Vinci surgical system in gynecology and gynecologic
oncology. Robotic surgery can be used to treat fibroids, abnormal periods, endometriosis,
ovarian tumors, pelvic prolapse, and female cancers. Using the robotic system, gynecologists Stereotaxis Magnetic Navigation System (MNS) The Hansen Medical Sensei robotic catheter system uses a remotely operated system of pulleys to navigate a steerable sheath for catheter guidance. It allows precise and more forceful positioning of catheters used for 3-D mapping of the heart and vasculature. The system provides doctors with estimated force feedback information and feasible manipulation within the left atrium of the heart. The Sensei has been associated with mixed acute success rates compared to manual, commensurate with higher procedural complications, longer Orthopedics The "Acrobot Sculptor", a robot that constrains a bone cutting tool to a pre-defined volume. Another example is the CASPAR robot, which is used for total hip replacement, total knee replacement and anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction. Neurosurgery Several systems for stereotactic can perform hysterectomies, myomectomies, and lymph node biopsies. The need for large abdominal incisions is virtually eliminated. Robot assisted hysterectomies and cancer
staging are being performed using da Vinci robotic system.
intervention are currently on the market. MD Robotic's NeuroArm is the worlds first MRIcompatible surgical robot.
procedure times but lower fluoroscopy dosage to the patient. Gastrointestinal surgery
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Pediatrics Surgical robotics has been used in many types of pediatric surgical procedures including: morgagni's hernia repair, congenital
Radiosurgery The Cyber Knife Robotic Radiosurgery System uses image-guidance and computer controlled robotics to treat tumors throughout the body by delivering multiple beams of highenergy radiation to the tumor from virtually any direction. Urology The da Vinci robot is commonly used to remove the prostate gland for cancer, repair
diaphragmatic hernia repair, and others. On January 17, 2002, surgeons at Children's Hospital of Michigan in Detroit performed the nation's first advanced computer-assisted robotenhanced surgical procedure at a children's hospital. The Center for Robotic Surgery at Children's Hospital Boston provides a high level of expertise in pediatric robotic surgery. Specially-trained surgeons use a high-tech robot to perform complex and delicate operations through very small surgical openings. The results are less pain, faster recoveries, shorter hospital stays, smaller scars, and happier patients and families. In 2001, Children's Hospital Boston was the first pediatric hospital to acquire a surgical robot. Today, surgeons use the technology for many procedures and perform more pediatric robotic surgeries than any other hospital in the world. Children's Hospital physicians have developed a number of new applications to expand the use of the robot, and train surgeons from around the world on its use.
obstructed kidneys, repair bladder abnormalities and remove diseased kidneys. New minimally invasive robotic devices using steerable flexible needles are currently being developed. Robotic Tools, Devices and Systems
Robotics for biological and medical applications uses many tools, devices, and systems of both general purpose and specially designed types. The former includes robot manipulators for picking and placing, and micro actuators for dispensing biosample solutions such as the one shown in fig below. In robotic surgery, commercially available robots are often a part of an integrated system.
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Off- theshelf robot is a part of biosolution dispensing system. Special-purpose devices and systems come in many varieties depending on the purpose of applications. For example, special systems are developed for highthroughput preparation of bio-solutions such as the one developed by the University of Washington. Special purpose sensors have even more types including visual, force, and neuro sensing. Biosensors often are very small and so microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) technology is used to fabricate such elements as the microforce sensor. Special tools using nontraditional principles are also developed to handle biosolutions or to manipulate cells. Besides tools and devices, software and algorithms are also an important part of robotics for biological and medical applications. In robotic surgery, for example, effective algorithms for modeling and analysis of human body components are an important topic of research. The purpose is to develop
patient-specific models precise surgery.

Key Technologies
for
performing
Key technologies for robotics in biological and medical applications include the following: a) MEMS (micro electro mechanical systems) technologies that can fabricate tools and devices suitable for microsensing, microactuation and micromanipulation of biosamples/solutions and bio-objects such as cells. These technologies use either ICfabricating methods or use micromachining methods. b) Special robotic systems that can perform surgery precisely and at low cost. The challenge is to program motion of robots efficiently based on patient-specific modeling and analysis. c) Modeling and analysis algorithms that is precise and fast for individual patients. d) Reliable and efficient system integration of off-the-shelf components and devices for specific biological and medical operations.
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e) Engineering modeling of biological systems. The purpose is to develop mathematical models for explaining the behavior and structure of biological systems as engineers do for artificial physical systems. This has been proved extremely challenging because of the complexity of biological systems. f) Solid understanding of life science. To develop an effective robotic or automation system for biological and medical applications, it is necessary for engineers to have a deep understanding of life science.
Nano-robots Maybe this will be possible in the future. The idea is to develop devices as small as a few nanometers, hence the name nano-robots. These little devices could then be used in different mind-blowing ways. For example, to fix a broken bone or to deliver medication to the exact place needed or to exterminate cancer cells. The possibilities are limited only by imagination. By now, nano-robots are in research and development stage so it actually IS imagination. Conclusions
Research on robotics for biological and medical applications is still young. Scientists in the U.S. are more active in identifying and developing new applications of robotics for the two applications. Many significant
results have been achieved, and some have been commercialized to become useful devices and systems such as the da Vinci surgical system. In the U.S., the number of institutions involved in the research of robotics for both applications is significantly higher than any other country while the quality of research is equally good. On the other hand, approaches for robotics for biological and medical applications, especially for the former, are evolutionary, not revolutionary. Still there are many opportunities for collaboration between engineers and biologists, and between engineers and doctors. It is believed that any new breakthrough in biology and in medicine may need revolutionary tools, perhaps in robotics, to take place. Although the U.S. is still leading the world in the two applications, more and more countries are participating and making impressive progress. After all, the field has potential to bring great economic impact. Research is going on in the field of medical robotics that will create new robotic technologies and benefit the healthcare industry. The use of Wi-Fi technology in the medical robots allows a medical expert to visually examine and communicate with a patient from anywhere in the world. There are many doctors, who are using medical robotic technologies in their regular clinical practice. Doctors believe that it is a revolutionary concept, which opens new avenues for telemedicine research and integrates technology with healthcare while establishing necessary interface between patients, clinicians, and teaching staff.
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THE ART OF HR MANAGEMENT

Authors: Varun Kumar1, Abhijit2 4th SEM, Mechanical Engineering, Vidya Vikas Institute of Engineering and Technology, Mysore-10
ABSTRACT
In a country like ours, there is abundance in one resource and this will never deplete in the coming years. This resource is our Human resource. India is believed to become the super power of the world only on the basis of its human resource and uncanny potential this resource has. The major duty of an HR manager in any firm is to increase the productivity of its employees. Through this paper we air to examine the impact of human resource management (HRM) practices and technology on worker productivity. We see the various stages a company adopt to manage their subordinates. We identify the basic roles of an HR manager. Then we throw some light on the labour relations. We find that there are large differences on the impact of human resource practices on labour productivity across levels of technological investment. We cover the key HR practices and processes adopted on International levels for recruitment, selection and training. Hence through this paper we give an in-depth analysis of HR management and the art of managing a difficult resource like Human. A companys progress and on the whole the progress of a country like India depends on how well it manages its most important and volatile resource i.e., Human Resource.
INTRODUCTION
Human resource management (HRM) is the strategic and coherent approach to the management of an organization's most valued assets - the people working there who individually and collectively contribute to the achievement of the objectives of the business. The terms "human resource management" and "human resources" (HR) have largely replaced the term "personnel management" as a description of the processes involved in managing people in organizations. In simple words, HRM means employing people, developing their capacities, utilizing, maintaining and compensating their services in tune with the job and organizational requirement. Its features include: Organizational management
Personnel administration Manpower management Industrial management
Torrington and Hall (1987) define personnel management as being: a series of activities which: first enable working people and their employing organizations to agree about the objectives and nature of their working relationship and, secondly, ensures that the agreement is fulfilled". While Miller (1987) suggests that HRM relates to: ".......those decisions and actions which concern the management of employees at all levels in the business and which are related to the implementation of strategies directed towards creating and sustaining competitive advantage"
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DIFFERENT STRATEGIES IN HR MANAGEMENT

Companies can apply one of the four approaches to managing and staffing their employees: 1) The Domestic Stage 2) The Multidomestic Stage 3) The Multinational Stage 4) The Global Stage The basics of each stage are explained in detail below. 1) DOMESTIC STAGE: The major requirement of any company following this strategy is to focus on domestic markets, exporting goods abroad as a means of seeking new markets and exporting the goods without altering them for foreign markets. The basically aim to provide customer satisfaction at local markets and look forward to export and extend their market abroad. 2) MULTIDOMESTIC STAGE: The firm aims at developing expertise in the international market. In this stage usually a subsidiary to the HR management is set up. For these organizations cultural sensitivity is important to grow at the local centers and markets. Adaptive International HRM Strategies are developed that are consistent with the local environment, laws and practices. 3) MULTINATIONAL STAGE: Multinational Stage involves standardizing the products all over the world in order to gain efficiency. The HR will be standardized across its subsidiaries all over the world. This strategy usually adopts Exportive IHRM Approach which ensures cost reduction, the consistency of a companys corporate policies all over the world, control over companys subsidiaries.
4) GLOBAL STAGE: This stage of HR management strategy involves introduction of culturally sensitive products/ services with least amount of cost. A geocentric perspective in conjunction with an Integrative IHRM approach is adapted by the companys management at this stage. Integrative IHRM includes home HR practices with the local HR practices. The major features of Global Stage Strategy are: a) The best HR policies and practices will be transferred to the subsidiaries. b) Sound foreign practices will be learnt and transferred to the headquarters. c) The decision making regarding the policies and practices of HR will lie jointly in the hands of headquarters and foreign subsidiaries. The major challenge in this strategy is that the HR managers at the headquarters must has geocentric or global perspective, should be culturally sensitive, should be able to strategically move HR resources and find a balance between stability and uncertainty.
MAJOR CHALLENGE OF HR MANAGEMENT: WORKFORCE DIVERSITY

HR Challenges due to diverse Workforce in India include accommodation and integration of: 1) Older workers 2) Gender Issues 3) Employees with disabilities 4) Culture and employees ethnically different
EMPLOYEMENT LEGISLATION: a) Complex provincial and federal employment legislation framework.
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b) HR managers encounter host country legislation in case of European Union. KEY CHALLENGES: a) Implementation of employment policies b) Implementation of processes and practices in International Indian organizations.
STRATEGIC INTERNATIONAL HR PLANNING

Major Considerations: 1) Projecting global competence supply. 2) Forecasting global competence needs. 3) Developing a blueprint to establish global competence pools within companies.
ROLES AND CHARACTERISTICS OF AN HR MANAGER

Roles: 1) Ensuring the success of expansion within or beyond national borders. 2) Necessary staffing. 3) Development of organizational goals and objectives. 4) Integration in organizational strategic decision making process. Characteristics: 1) Flexibility: Flexibility includes the ability to respond to the demands from a dynamic competitive environment. It is extremely challenging for an HR to follow the changes in the international competitive environment. Advanced International HRM systems obtain a high level of fit by developing a strategic approach towards management of international workforces. 2) Strategy Development: It is extremely important for an HR manager to frame strategies according to the demand of the international market. Human resource management issues, functions, policies and practices that result from the strategic activities of multinational enterprises and that affect the international concerns and goals of those enterprises.
KEY HR PRACTICES PROCESSES WITHIN

I.
AND
RECRUITMENT
Individuals are recruited following major basis: 2) on the
1) Home-Country Nationals (HCNs) Parent Country Nationals (PCNs) 3) Third Country Nationals (TCNs)
HOME-COUNTRY NATIONALS (HCNs):

Individuals from the subsidiary country who know the foreign cultural environment well. ADVANTAGES: Well versed in companys needs and norms. DISADVANTAGES: Unfamiliar with cultural norms of the host country. Blocking of HCNs career progression Costs of relocating abroad.
PARENT-COUNTRY NATIONALS (PCNs):

Individuals from the headquarters who are familiar with firms products and services, as well as their corporate culture. ADVANTAGES: Familiar with the host countys culture.
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DISADVANTAGES: Limited familiarity with the firms own operations. PCNs at headquarters may lack the understanding of the demands of the subsidiarys needs and corporate strategies.
The manager is also undertaking a decisionmaking exercise--choosing among choices. It is important to always keep in mind that the manager is selecting the person who can best meet the needs of the organization.
ORIENTATION
Besides having the requisite knowledge, skills, and abilities to perform on the job, new hires must be socialized to the organizations culture (orientation) and trained to do the job (training). Orientation is a process whose major objectives are to reduce the anxiety level that all new employees feel; to familiarize them with the job, the work unit, and the organization; and to embed organizational values, beliefs, and accepted behaviours. Successful orientation maximizes new hire on-the-job success and minimizes turnover.
THIRD-COUNTRY NATIONALS (TCNs):

Third-Country Nationals (TCNs) Individuals from the subsidiary country who know the foreign cultural environmental well Recruitment ADVANTAGES: Use of TCNs is often part of a strategy that entails the use of employees from many nationalities (including HCNs and PCNs) increasing the overhead for expatriate relocation across the entire firm TCNs. DISADVANTAGES: Cross culture required. preparation may be
TRAINING DEVELPOMENT
AND
Lack of knowledge of the Corporate culture Using TCNs to the exclusion of HCNs may create the same problem of blocked career advancement that occurs when PCNs are used in this manner
II. SELECTION PROCESS

After the completion of the recruitment process, the manager needs to decide who to hire. Selection is essentially both a prediction exercise and a decision-making exercise. In the prediction exercise, the manager is predicting which applicant will be successful on the job is hired.
Training and development is important to ensure that people continue to learn skills, etc. to help the company be successful. Employee training is a learning experience that seeks a relatively permanent change in employees such that their ability to perform at their current job improves. This may mean changing what employees know, how they work, or their attitudes toward their jobs, co-workers, managers, and the organization. Management is responsible for deciding when employees are in need of training and development and what form it should take.
PERFORMANCE MANAGEMENT
It is important for managers to help their employees achieve the results expected.
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This is done through managing the performance of the employees the manager is responsible for. In managing performance, the manager identifies and communicates the expected performance standards and then evaluates or measures the performance against the standard. There are a variety of ways to assess a persons performance which we will review next. Integration of management practices that includes a formal review of employee performance How often should this take place? Includes establishing performance standards and reviewing the performance Means to ensure organizational goals are being met
administer, and yields results that can be quantified. Behaviorally anchored rating scales BARS combine the critical incidents and graphics rating scale approaches. The appraiser rates employees on items along a continuum. The points along the scale are examples of actual onthe-job behaviour rather than general descriptions or traits. Multiperson comparisons are relative measuring devices. Group order ranking requires the rater to place employees into a particular classification, such as the top one-fifth. Individual ranking orders employees from best to worst. Paired comparisons rank each employee with all other employees and rates each as either the weaker or superior member of the pair. MBO, which was discussed in Chapter 5, assesses employees on how well they accomplish a specific set of objectives that have been determined to be critical in the successful completion of their jobs. Because MBO emphasizes ends rather than means, this method allows managers to choose the best path for achieving their goals. A 360-degreereview seeks feedback for the person being rated from a variety of sources: such as peers, supervisors, and customers. Research shows that 360-degree appraisals offer more accurate feedback, empower employees, reduce subjective factors in evaluation, and develop leadership in an organization.
PERFORMANCE METHODS
REVIEW
There are several ways in which managers can evaluate or measure the performance of their employees. Written essays that describe an employees performance and suggestions for improvement require no complex forms or extensive training. But a good or bad appraisal may depend as much on the writing skill of a manager as on the actual performance of an employee. With the critical incidents method, the appraiser writes down what an employee did that was especially productive or counterproductive. The key is to cite specific and key behaviours. With graphic rating scales, performance factors are listed such as quantity and quality of work, depth of knowledge, or initiative. The appraiser then rates each factor on an incremental scale. This method cannot provide the depth of information of essays or critical incidents, but it is less time consuming to develop and
COMPENSATION MANAGEMENT
How does management decide who will get paid $12.65 an hour and who will receive $325,000 per year? The answer lies in compensation administration: the process of determining a cost-effective pay structure that attracts and retains competent employees, provides incentives for hard work, and ensures that pay levels will be perceived as fair.
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The primary determination of pay is the kind of job an employee performs: that is, the higher the skills, knowledge, and abilitiesand the greater the authority and responsibilitythe higher the pay. Other factors which influence employee compensation are the nature of the business, the environment surrounding the job, geographic location, and employee performance levels and seniority. Regardless of these factors, there is one other most critical factor: managements compensation philosophy. Some organizations dont pay employees any more than they have to while other organizations want to pay people above are salary levels.
something that each employee can value. Some of the benefits are required by legislation such as Canada Pension Plan while others are voluntarily provided such as life insurance coverage. The scope of these benefits varies considerably.
HEALTH MEASURES
AND
SAFETY
Both employers and employees have an obligation to follow health and safety legislation. There is a growing concern for safety on the job because no organization is immune from workplace violence. Companies want to prevent violence from occurring. But because the circumstances of each incident are different, a specific plan of action for companies is difficult to detail. However, several suggestions can be made. First, the organization must develop a plan to deal with the issue. Furthermore, organizations must train managers to identify troubled employees before the problem results in violence. Organizations should also implement stronger security measures.
FACTORS COMPENSATION MANAGEMENT
AFFECTING
There are a number of factors that can influenced compensation levels. This slide (Exhibit 9-7) displays the various factors. For example, private-sector jobs typically provide higher rates of pay than comparable positions in public and not-for-profit jobs. Likewise, employees who have been with an organization for a long time may have had a salary increase each year. Because skill levels tend to affect work efficiency and effectiveness, many organizations have implemented skill-based or competencybased pay systems. These types of systems reward employees for the job skills and competencies they can demonstrate. These systems also tend to mesh nicely with the changing nature of work and todays work environment. But the most critical factor is managements compensation philosophy.
LABOUR RELATIONS
Labour relations refers to the relationship that exists between an organization and a union. It has evolved over time and is governed by legislation. The role of the union is to be the voice of employees, particularly during collective bargaining. Collective bargaining produces a collective agreement which is a legal document outlining the terms and conditions of employment. If an employee or union feels that the company is violating the collective agreement, a grievance may be initiated.
EMPLOYEES BENEFIT
In addition to the salary or wage an employee receives, the employee will usually have some employee benefits. As indirect financial rewards intended to enrich employees lives, todays employee benefits programs seek to provide
CASE STUDY: RECRUITMENT PROCESSES IN MNCs:
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MNCs usually Employees:
employee
two
kinds
of
1) Full time employees 2) Part time employees.
most widely-used selection tool is the interview. However, interviews are often neither reliable nor valid. Therefore, the person with the best interview skills often gets the job, even though he or she may not be the most qualified. Interviews are valuable for assessing an applicants intelligence, level of motivation, and interpersonal skills. Unstructured interviews are conducive to interviewer biases: favouring applicants who share their values, giving undue weight to negative information, and allowing the order in which applicants are interviewed to influence evaluations. Structured interviews provide standardized sets of questions, uniform methods of recording information, and standardized ratings of the qualifications of applicants. If interviews are not well structured and standardized, they can be biased. There have been a number of research findings on interviews which can be summarized as follows: Prior knowledge about the applicant will bias the interviewer. Interviewers hold stereotypes about what represents good applicants. Interviewers favour applicants who share their own attitudes. The order in which applicants are interviewed affects assessments of candidates. Negative information is given unduly high weight. Interviewers determine an applicants suitability in the first five minutes of the interview. Interviewers forget much of an interviews content within minutes after it has been ended. Interviews are most valid in determining an applicants intelligence, motivation, and interpersonal skills. Structured, well organized interviews are more effective than those that are loosely organized.
FULL TIME EMPLOYEES:

Many companies are finding new employees through the Internet. Organizations that are looking for people with a high-level of technological skills may focus their recruitment efforts by using the Internet. The web sites of organizations frequently have a link for enabling the browser to submit a resume. The source that is used should reflect the labour market, the type or level of position, and the size of the organization. Are certain recruiting sources better than others? Recent studies have demonstrated that employee referrals generally produce the best candidates. This is because current employees screen applicants before referring them. Second, current employees believe that their reputations with the firm will be reflected in the candidates that they recommend; so, they refer only those who they believe will not make them look bad. Employee referrals, however, may not generate the diversity and mix of employees that is desirable. Full time employees are basically selected through the following methods:
1) Campus recruitment 2) Campus pools 3) Off-campus recruitment 4) Advertisements 5) Private consultancies/

Agencies
Employment
CAMPUS RECRUITMENT:
Managers can use a number of selection techniques to make good hiring decisions. The
CAMPUS POOLS:
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Campus pools are basically the method of selecting the best candidates according to the requirements of the firm from various colleges in the city. This method is adopted to obtain maximum potential stored within the students all over the city. This method is unbiased and right method of selecting the best from the rest. This saves time and energy and covers the maximum students in the whole city.
PRIVATE CONSULTANCIES/ EMPLOYEMENT AGENCIES:

This is another method of selecting previously tested and certified candidates. These candidates are trained previously and hence are more prepared for facing the interview and other rounds. About 25% of recruitment takes place every year through this media. PERCENTAGE RECRUITMENT IN AN YEAR
OFF-CAMPUS RECRUITMENT:
This job placement program is for students from other institutions. This program will be conducted in a common place (it may be in a college or in some public place) where students from different colleges will take part. Off campus placement includes: Project Placement Companies recruit students to do their academic project in the industrial environment. Student Internship Placement Companies recruit the students as interns. Internship will be during their student period. Objective The major objective of campus placement is to identify the talented and qualified professionals during they pursue an educational program. This process reduces the time for an industry to pick the candidates according to their need.
II.PART-TIME EMPLOYEES:
The following graph explains the amount of Part-time employees recruited by companies. The major share of part-timers are either: 1) Regular people 2) Voluntary retirees 3) Former full timers 4) Retirees
ADVERTISEMENTS:
Advertising in a national daily or local daily is a common method to attract students from all over the country, state or city as applicable. Every year more than 30% of recruitment takes place through such advertisements.
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CONCLUSION
In a country like ours, there is abundance in one resource and this will never deplete in the coming years. This resource is our Human resource. India is believed to become the super power of the world only on the basis of its human resource and uncanny potential this resource has. The major duty of an HR manager in any firm is to increase the productivity of its employees. An HR manager is a person responsible for the performance based development of a firm. His soul motive is to reach the goals set by the company and use the most lavishly available resource in this world, especially our country, people. The various roles of an HR manager is to strategically manage his employees to deliver 100% potential. His basic duties are to recruit, select, train, enhance and satisfy employees. He uses many techniques to obtain these goals like orientation programmes, domestic programmes, i.e., family oriented approach, performance measurement over the entire
financial year, health care of his employees, etc. This is not just a process followed at companies, it is an art which can be mastered by a few HR managers.
REFERENCES
1) The Brave New World of eHR: Human Resources in the Digital Age by Hal Gueutal, Dianna L. Stone, Eduardo Salas 2) The HR Answer Book: An Indispensable Guide for Managers and Human Resources Professionals by Shawn A. Smith, Rebecca A. Mazin 3) Research paper on Strategic Internation HRM by Arun DSouza & Shankar Gowri 4) Research paper on HR management policies by Prem Kapoor & Shyam Sundar WEBSITES: 1) www.hr-guide.com 2) www.managementhelp.org 3) www.shrm.org
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94DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
SPACE SOLAR POWER USING BEAMED TRANSMISSION

Authors: Nishan Nanajappa1, Asha Rani2 Electrical Engineering, Vidya Vikas Institute of Engineering and Technology, Mysore-10
1. INTRODUCTION
The desire of the modern man for more and more amenities and sophistication led to the extensive exploitation of natural treasure. Though nature has provided abundant source of resources. It is not unlimited. Hence the exhaustion of the natural resources is eminent. The only exception to this is sunlight. Scientist who had understood the naked truth had thought of exploiting the solar energy and started experimenting in this direction even from 1970. But the progress was very slow. Much headway is yet to be made in this direction. However as the impotents source of nonconventional energy and due to the limited source of conventional energy emphasis has given for the better utilization of solar energy. But the application of solar cell, photovoltaic cell etc, we are able to concert only a small percentage of solar energy into electrical energy. But by using beamed power transmission from solar power satellite we can achieve a higher percentage of conversion. By beamed power transmission, we can extend the present system of two dimensional transmission network to three dimensional, if does not have any environmental problem as well.
2. NEED FOR SOLAR POWER SATELLITE CONCEPT

As the needs of our planet's ever-increasing population grow to unprecedented heights, the search for a new and more efficient way of powering our industries, businesses, and homes is becoming a very pressing priority. The techniques we use today to generate power are simply detrimental in the long run; burning fossil fuels or splitting atoms generate a lot of power, but also damage the planet with pollution, and alternatives like wind and hydro power can be limited both geographically and seasonally. Instead of manipulating existing elements of Earth, this inventive proposal plans to collect solar energy from space and transmit it back to the surface using solar power satellites (SPS). Directly harnessing the energy of the sun allows mankind to preserve the well-being and resources of Earth while producing enough energy to satisfy the needs of the growing human race hundreds of times over. Solar power satellites are attractive ventures for many reasons. Foremost, by using the sun, humans could acquire all the
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necessary energy without causing pollution, threatening species, or generally damaging the Earth. Second, the sun's power is limitless and perpetual. By carefully placing the satellites on certain points over the equator, they would be exposed to sunlight 24 hours a day, ensuring a constant reception and flow of energy. The power output would then only depend on how many satellites were in space; a whole network could potentially generate exponential amounts of usable energy. A third reason due to which solar power is attractive is because the constant energy flow and bulky, expensive storage facilities would no longer be needed, minimizing costs and increasing availability. Fourth, since there are no weather or atmospheric disturbances in space, the solar panels would be exposed to more sunlight and have a greater efficiency than panels placed anywhere on the Earth's surface.
orbit. 24 hour orbit that is synchronous with earth rotation. So the satellite placed there will stay stationary overhead from earths receiving antenna. At first, solar power satellites were nothing more than hopeful dreams of scientists, but recent advances have propelled them into the reaches of reality. Satellite technology has developed to the point where telecommunication companies use satellites for everything from cell phones to television transmission. Though energy conversion efficiencies from electrical energy to microwaves and then back to electricity are currently around 54%, WPT transmissions to a helicopter, a small aircraft, and a satellite from a launched rocket have all been successful, demonstrating that WPT can indeed be used to power or receive power from flying bodies. Computing technology is also advanced enough to control satellites and allow them to change position without interrupting a running microwave beam. Unlike x-rays or ultraviolet radiation, microwaves are nonionizing and are one million times too weak to cause harm (SUNSAT Energy). The only perceivable effect is heating, but since the power density of the beam near the receivers on Earth is about 20 mill watts per square centimeter, one-fourth of natural sunlight, the heat generated is so slight that a person walking through would feel nothing. Manufacturing costs are not a problem either, since materials would be negligible Photovoltaic cells, satellite technology and microwave beams have all been explored and researche.Sufficiently to operate solar power satellites. Fig.1. below shows a rough idea of the various components of the solar power satellite system.
3. SOLAR POWER SATELLITE

First proposed in 1968 by Dr. Peter Glaser of NASA, these satellites would use large solar panels in space to collect the sun's light energy. Once collected, the energy would go through two conversion phases. First, it would be sent through onboard photovoltaic cells to be converted into electrical energy. Afterwards, the electrical energy would be channeled into large microwave generators where, using the principles behind the wireless power transmission of energy (WPT), it would be converted into controllable microwaves and beamed down to earth. On the surface, large antennas would pick up the beam and reconvert the microwaves into electrical power, which could then be plugged into the local power grid to use. The satellite would be placed in geostationary or earth synchronous
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4. SOLAR POWER IN SPACE

Although solar energy is abundant in the inner solar system, collecting enough of it to provide electricity for a large population of humans is a non-trivial matter. The idea of using solar cells to generate electricity in space was nothing new. Communications satellites had been doing that for years. Indeed, the most distinguishing characteristics of most Earth-orbiting satellites, even today, are their arrangements of solar cells. A common configuration is a cylindrical shape with the entire exterior covered in purplish-blue solar cells. Noncylindrical satellites have large "wings" covered with solar panels. The difference between existing satellites and Solar Power Satellites (SPS) is that an SPS would generate more power-much more power--than it requires for its own operations. Their single most distinguishing characteristic is that they
were huge-with up to 60 square miles of surfaces covered with solar cells. A common goal of designers was to put enough solar cells on a structure in space to generate 10 gig watts, approximately equal to the output of ten nuclear power plants. The idea was not entirely farfetched; advantages over Earth-based solar power facilities were that the GEO locations typically proposed for SPS were almost always in sunlight and rarely eclipsed, and the amount of energy available to a unit area of solar panels is seven to ten times greater than for the same area of solar panels on Earth, because sunlight in space is not filtered by atmosphere. Once having generated electricity in space, however, it is necessary to get the power to where it is needed on Earth's surface. The solution selected in the 1970 and still valid today, was to convert power into microwave energy that could be beamed to Earth's surface. Microwaves pass through atmosphere,
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clouds, and precipitation with no loss of energy. The antennas designed to transmit the huge amounts of SPS power were, however, huge. Typical designs were a half mile or kilometer across. A highly concentrated power beam would be a tough sell for people concerned about airplanes being zapped out of the sky or entire migratory flocks of birds being cooked en route. Large antennas in geosynchronous orbit, combined with the physics of an expanding microwave beam, resulted in receiving antenna (rectenna) designs six to eight miles across (10 to 13 kilometers), with maximum intensity at the center of the microwave beam less than five times greater than standards for kitchen emissions from a microwave oven. These facilities would convert the microwaves back to energy, and contribute their power to the energy grid in the same manner as a hydroelectric dam, coal-fired plant, nuclear reactor, ground-based solar facility,
geothermal generators.
plant,
or
field
of
wind
The mild radiation environments under these widely-dispersed beams would enable air traffic, radio, TV, and birds to continue their normal activities with no impediments. Because the rectenna structures would be ten to twelve feet off the ground and designed to capture all of the microwave energy in the beam, the land under the rectenna would be available for agriculture.
5. PRINCIPLES SYSTEM
DC TO MICROWAVE CONVERSION
OF
MICROWAVE
POWER
TRANSMISSION
RECEPTION CONVERSIO N TO DC
BEAM FORMING ANTENNA
FREE SPACE TRANSMISSIO N
70 90 % 70 97 % 5 95 % 85 92 % MAXIMUM POSSIBLE DC TO DC EFFICIENCY ---- 76% EXPERIMENTAL DC TO DC EFFICIENCY ----- 54% Fig.2.The basic parts of a microwave power transmission system: 1) DC to microwave conversion (2) a beam forming antenna (3) free space transmission and (4) reception and reconversion to DC. type electron tube, which uses the 5.1 MICROWAVE POWER interaction of magnetic and electric field in GENERATION the complex cavity to produce oscillation The DC power must be of very high peak power. It employs radial converted to microwave power at the electric field, axial magnetic field, anode transmitting end of the system. The structure and a cylindrical cathode. nucleus of high voltage system is the magnetron tube. The magnetron is diode
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The cylindrical cathode is surrounded by an anode with cavities and thus a radial electric field will exist. The magnetic field due to two permanent magnets which are added above and below the tube structure is axial. The upper magnet is North Pole and lower magnet is South Pole. The electron moving through the space tends to build up a magnetic field around itself. The magnetic field on right side is weakened because the self-induced magnetic field has the effect of subtracting from the permanent magnetic field. So the electron trajectory bends in that direction resulting in a circular motion of travel to anode. This process begins with a low voltage being applied to the cathode, which causes it to heat up. The temperature rise causes the emission of more electrons. This cloud of electrons would be repelled away from the negatively charged cathode. The distance and velocity of their travel would increase with the intensity of applied voltage. Momentum is provided by negative 4000 V DC. This is produced by means of voltage doubler circuit. The electrons blast off from cathode like tiny rocket. As the electrons move towards their objective, they encounter the powerful magnetic fields. The effect of permanent magnet tends to deflect the electrons away from the anode. Due to the combined affect of electric and magnetic field on the electron trajectory they evive to a path at almost right angle to their previous direction resulting in an expanding circular orbit around the cathode, which eventually reaches the anode. The whirling cloud of electrons forms a rotating pattern. Due to the interaction of this rotating space chare wheel with the configuration of the surface of anode, an alternating current of very high frequency is produced in the resonant cavities of the anode. The output is taken
from one of these cavities through waveguide. The low cost and readily available magnetron is used in ground.
5.2 TRANSMITTING ANTENNA

The transmitting antennas are large active electronically steer able phased array. These arrays are composed of radiation module that consists of a high gain phased locked magnetron and directional amplifier that supplies microwave power to slotted waveguide array. The antenna must have the ability to match the transmission line (source impedance) and load (atmosphere 377). If impedance match is correct, the energy being transferred will be radiated into the atmosphere. An antenna is used to convert high frequency current into electromagnetic waves. A co-axial cable is used to connect the microwave source to a waveguide adaptor. The adaptor is connected to a ferrite circulator, which protects the microwave source from reflected power. A phase shifter is used to produce a difference in shift between the radiation modules. Phase reference at each module is adjusted to some integral multiple of 360o relative to the source of reference. The slotted waveguide antenna consists of 8 waveguide section with 8 slots on each section. These 64 slots radiate power uniformly through space to antenna on ground.
5.3 FREE SPACE TRANSMISSION

There is no economic burden for the transmission through space. The transmitting and receiving apertures are needed for transmission. The size and expense of this aperture has a direct relationship with the wave length that is being used, the distance over which energy is being sent and the desired efficiency of transmission. When the radiation area may be limited and a particular intensity of the
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incident microwave illumination is desired; we use the expression P = A Pt / 2 D 2 P is the power density at the center of receiving location. Pt is the radiated power from transmitting antenna To achieve a desired valve of power at the receiver site, while constrained by a transmitted power level, the transmitting aperture area varies as the square of the wavelength of radiation. When area available for transmitting is limited the short wavelength are attractive.
Advantages of Space Solar Power
regardless of cloud cover, daylight, or wind speed. Unlike nuclear power plants, space solar power does not provide easy targets for terrorists. Unlike coal and nuclear fuels, space solar power does not require environmentally problematic mining operations. Space solar power will provide true energy independence for the nations that develop it, eliminating a major source of national competition for limited Earth-based energy resources.
Unlike oil, gas, ethanol, and coal plants, space solar power does not emit greenhouse gases.
6. PROPERTIES OF MICROWAVE POWER TRANSMISSION SYSTEM

As a mean of transferring energy from one point to another, beamed microwave power transmission has the following features. No mass either in the form of wire. Energy can be transferred at velocity of light. The direction of energy transfer can be rapidly changed. No energy is lost in its transfer through vacuum of space and little is lost in the earth atmosphere at the longer microwave length. The mass of power converters at the system terminal can be low because of operation at microwave frequency. Every transfer between points is independent of difference in gravitational potential between these points.
Unlike coal and nuclear plants, space solar power does not compete for or depend upon increasingly scarce fresh water resources. Unlike bio-ethanol or bio-diesel, space solar power does not compete for increasingly valuable farm land or depend on natural-gas-derived fertilizer. Food can continue to be a major export instead of a fuel provider. Unlike nuclear power plants, space solar power will not produce hazardous waste, which needs to be stored and guarded for hundreds of years. Unlike terrestrial solar and wind power plants, space solar power is available 24 hours a day, 7 days a week, in huge quantities. It works
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7. APPLICATIONS
>High Altitude Long Endurance aircraft. Platforms for cellular voice and data services. Electric powered inter orbital vehicles. Satellite station keeping and maneuvering. Industries in orbital and on the moon. The demand for wireless power is likely to unfold according to the following Ground to special satellite. Ground to inter orbital vehicle. Power utility satellite to inter orbital vehicle. Power utility satellite to industry in space. Power utility satellite to earth based consumers. It is hoped that this technology, which at present has an efficiency of 56%, will emerge as an effective substitute for the existing technology in the near future.
8. CONCLUSION
The Beamed Power Transmission will surely shower the mankind with an inexhaustible energy source and at the same time will lead to development of in-space industries. As per the proposed design, SPS and Rectenna array are quiet efficient and would posses no threat to ecological imbalance. There is no significant advance in this technology till now in spite of the major research works. Once the technology is developed Power Satellites will become the premier energy source for Earth. The sooner, the better.
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SOLAR ENERGY: SOLID STATE AIRCRAFTS

Authors: Michael Stanley1 , Vijay G2
1 th
8 SEM, Elecronics & Communication, Vidya Vikas Institute of Engineering and Technology, Mysore-10 2 th 4 SEM, Mechanical Engineering, Vidya Vikas Institute of Engineering and Technology, Mysore-10
1. THE INTRODUCTION
Due to recent advances in polymers, photovoltaics, and batteries, the
storage, and control into one seamless design with no conventional mechanical moving parts. The integration of these components comprises the Solid State aircraft concept that has wide implication for terrestrial and planetary flight applications.
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development of a revolutionary type of unmanned aircraft may now be feasible. This flight vehicle would integrate airfoil, propulsion, energy production, energy
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The Solid State Aircraft has no moving parts and no fuel on board. The key material of this concept is an ionic polymeric-metal composite (IPMC) that provides source of control and propulsion. This material has the unique capability of deforming in an electric field and returning to its original shape when the field is removed. Combining the IPMC with thinfilm batteries and thin-film photovoltaics provides both energy source and storage in the same structure
Combining the unique characteristics of these materials enables flapping of the aircraft wing to generate the main propulsive force. With a flight profile similar to that of a hawk or eagle, the Solid State Aircraft will be able to soar for long periods of time and utilize flapping to regain lost altitude. During Phase I work on this concept, analysis was performed on the glide duration, flap duration, wing length, and wing motion of travel. It was determined that a versatile, robust, advanced aeronautical
This futuristic plane is so far just a concept in the minds of a small research team. As currently envisioned, the ultraslim vehicle would be unmanned, solar-powered, and made of strong, lightweight materials. Its size could range from a few meters across to perhaps a hundred meters, depending on its mission.
2. THE PRINCIPLE
By considering two basic aspects of bird flight: the shape of the wings andhow they flap. Wing shape is instrumental in getting the bird aloft and keeping it there. In this respect, birds and traditional airplanes are similar. The engines of a fixed-wing plane move the craft forward, forcing air to flow over and under its wings. Because the top and bottom surfaces of the wing are curved differently, air rushes over them at different speeds, creating a pressure
difference between the two surfaces. This pressure effectknown as Bernoulli's
architecture can be produced taking into account these parameters. This architecture would enable flight over a broad flight envelope comprised of a range of latitudes and times of the year on Earth, Venus, and Mars. No turbines or propellers, no flaps or rudders interrupt the smooth surface of the plane's flattened body, and it emits barely a whisper as it sweeps past.
principleis what lifts the plane. Birds rely on the same effect. As they flap, air flows past the wings and a pressure difference forms, pushing the birds aloft. In both planes and birds, different wing shapes yield different types of flight. The Global Hawk surveillance drone, like the albatross, has wings that are long, thin,
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and narrow, ideal for long-distance, lowspeed flight. Planes that need to maneuver at high speeds, like the F-16 Fighting Falcon, have stubbier, swept-back wings, which produce enough lift but with less drag. Eagles and hawks, likewise, have shorter wings for greater agility. But birds and planes control their flight very differently. Conventional
set up an electric field about the IPMC (synthetic muscles )material This electric field causes the IPMC
to move thereby causing a flapping motion of the wing. grids This flapping motion produces lift
and thrust for the aircraft. The electric field generated by the is controllable, therefore
airplanes maneuver by means of moving surfaces: flaps and ailerons on the wings, horizontal sections called elevators on the tail, and also the rudder. Birds, on the other hand, can bend, twist, and deform their wings and bodies to turn, change their speed, and adapt to unforeseen conditions such as wind gusts. If planes could do the same, they would have more lift and less drag, gaining agility and consuming less fuel.
the shape and motion of the wing is controllable on each flap. Because the solid-state aircraft is powered by the sun, the amount of power available will depend on where and when it is flying, as well as on the characteristics of its solar cells. Using high-performance solar cells, with a high specific power rating of 1 kilowatt per kilogram and a conversion efficiency of 10 percent, the calculations showed that the maximum available power on Earth at an altitude from 1 to 35
3. THE AIRCRAFT OPERATION

and The aircraft operates by collecting converting sun light to
kilometers would be 90 watts per square meter of solar cell. The aircraft's power needs, on the other hand, depend on its size and weight, the wing's shape and motion, and the power
electricity through a thin film photovoltaic array. This electricity is then stored in a
required
by
onboard
systems.
Key
battery. At specified intervals the energy is
parameters in this calculation are the wings' lift and determined drag in coefficients (which our we
discharge to the anode and cathode grids to
computational-fluid-
dynamics analysis) and the plane's weight (2

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kilograms per square meter for the IPMC, for example).
4. BUT WHY FLY LIKE A BIRD?
Energy efficiency is the main reason. The solid-state aircraft will fly like an albatross, which can glide great distances and circle over the same area for long periods of time, flapping only to regain altitude. Another advantage is control. To maneuver, the solid-state aircraft will adjust its wings into complex shapes, much as birds do, rather than using flaps or other moving surfaces. Birds are extremely agile fliers, controlling their flight by subtly changing their wings cross section, length, area,
sweep, and inclination. The wings on our plane, too, would be able to adjust some of these characteristics. 5. AIRCRAFT CONSTRUCTION AND CONTROL The unique structure combines
airfoil, propulsion, energy production and storage and control. To control the motion of the wing a
control grid will be used. This grid will enable various voltages to be sent to different sections of the wing, thereby causing varying degrees of motion along the
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wing surface. The amount of control on the wing will depend on the fineness of this control grid. A central processor will be used to control the potential of each of the sections. This control enables the wing to flap,
long duration flight times ITNES sample battery. Long shelf life with little self Ideal for stowage during
discharge:
interplanetary transit Operate over a wide temperature
provide differential lift (which is used for steering), and alter the camber of the wing to maximize lift under a given operational condition. 5.1 Thin Film Photovoltaic Array Light Weight: Active material is on the order of 1 to 2 microns thick. Highly Flexible: Ideal for the flexing and motion of a flapping wing. Substrate: Can be made of most materials, presently the best candidate is Kapton (or other polymers). Potentially the Battery or IPMC can be utilized as the substrate. Specific Power: 1 kW/kg near term, 2 kW/kg projected
range: Enables the batteries to operate under various environmental conditions. The batteries have the capability to
provide high pulse currents: Ideal for short duration power loading such as flapping the wings.
5.2 Thin film battery Rechargeable, Lightweight and
Flexible. Configurable in any series / parallel
combination. Rapid charging / discharging
6. BATTERY CONSTRUCTION
Types of Lithium ion thin-film batteries differ in the cathode material they use.
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capability. Can be charged / discharged 1000s
of times with little loss in capacity : Enables
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Ex. Magnesium Oxides, Cobalt Oxides, Yttrium Oxide The depositing battery (through is produced sputtering by or
layers that make up the components (cathode, electrolyte, anode and current collector) onto a substrate.
evaporation techniques) the various material
7.
IONIC
POLYMER-METAL
have been modeled as both capacitive and resistive element actuators. This is the core material of the aircraft. It
COMPOSITE(IPMC)
7.1 IPMC properties Ion-exchange composites (IPMC) are polymer-metal highly active
provides the propulsion and control for the vehicle. The IPMC material has the unique
actuators that show very large deformation in the presence of low applied voltage and exhibit low impedance. They operate best in a humid environment and can be made as a self-contained encapsulated actuators to operate in dry environments as well. They
capability to deform when an electric field is present across it. The amount and force of the
deformation is directly related to the strength of the electric field.
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The deformation is not permanent
electrodes can be used to tailor the bending of the material to any shapeOutwardly, it looks like ordinary plastic, but its core is made of perfluorinated sulfonic acid, a compound that works as an ion-exchange membrane.
and returns to its original shape once the electric field is eliminated. The material can be manufactured in
any size and initial or base shape. 7.2 IPMC Material Constructed of an Ion Exchange Membrane that is surface coated with a conductive medium such as Platinum. Placement of the
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7.3 IPMC Motion
Under an electric field of a few tens of volts per millimeter, the ion exchange membrane enables the migration of ions which allows water molecules and hydrated cations to migrate toward the negative pole. This internal movement of water molecules is responsible for creating internal strains within the material which enable it to move. The deformation is proportional to the 7.4 IPMC Material Characteristics
electric field's strength, and once the field is removed, the sheet returns to its original shape For the IPMC material to operate it must be sufficiently hydrated. Leakage and operation in dry environments may require sealing or redesign of the material for efficient long term use.
Young's Modulus, E
Up to 2 GPa
Shear Modulus, G
Up to 1 GPa
Poisson's ratio, v
Typical: 0.3-0.4
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Power density (W/mass) Efficiency (electromechanical)
Up to 100 J/kg Up to 6 % (frequency dependent) for actuation Up to 90% for sensing
Max force density (Cantilever Mode) Up to 40 Kgf/Kg Max displacement/strain Up to 4% linear strain
Bandwidth (speed)
Up to 1 kHz in cantilever vibratory mode for actuations Up to 1 MHz for sensing
Resolution (force and displacement control )
Displacement accuracy down to 1 micron Force resolution down to 1 mg
Density
Down to 1.8 g/cm 3
8.
ANODE
AND
CATHODE
thousands of electrodes. A computer control system will supply voltage to the electrodes. By applying different voltage levels to different portions of the sheet, we can make it change its shape to flap. 8.1 Bending of IPMC
GRIDS
The solid-state aircraft will have wingshaped sheets of the material sandwiched between two metal grids: an anode grid on the bottom and a cathode grid on top, each containing thousands or even tens of
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9.
LIFT
AND
THRUST
GENERATION
The propulsion force and lift generation of the aircraft are accomplished by the flapping of the wings.
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10.ENVIRNMENTAL
By altering the shape and angle of attack of the wing the amount of lift and the direction of this lift force can be controlled This is the same method birds use to generate lift and thrust. The lift and lift vector generated can vary between each wing as well as along the wing span itself. This provides a significant amount of control and provides a means for maneuvering.
PROPERTIES
10.1 Potential Operational Environments The analysis is set up so that the environments of either Venus, Earth or Mars can be easily selected All the relevant environmental conditions are expressed in equation format for easy use in the analysis A single variable is used to select the planet of operation. All subsequent environmental information is changed to the selected planets environment
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10.2 Earth Environment Gravitational Force 9.81 m/s2 Solar Intensity 1352 W/m2 Atmospheric composition is approximately 80% Nitrogen, 20% Oxygen The majority of Earths weather occurs within the Troposphere which
Rotation Period (Day) of Venus is Longer the Revolution Period (Year) Potentially Enabling Continuous Flight Atmosphere is mainly Carbon Dioxide (96.5%) Also contains trace amounts of corrosive Compounds (Hydrochloric,
hydrofluoric & Sulfuric Acids) Atmospheric Density Equals Earth Surface Density at ~50 km Incident Solar Intensity is ~2600 W/m2 Very high wind speeds above the cloud tops ~ 100 m/s Clouds On Venus Extend Upwards to ~64 km 10.5 Environmental Considerations On The Structure The SSA must be capable of withstanding the environmental conditions at the various proposed operational locations. Resistance to corrosive atmospheric
extends to approximately 12 km. Wind speeds generally increase from the surface up to a maximum around the top of the Troposphere (Jet Stream 10.3 Mars Environment The atmosphere on Mars is very thin. At the Surface the density is similar to 30 km on Earth The atmosphere is composed mostly of Carbon Dioxide The temperature on Mars is on average much colder then on Earth Although at certain times of the year and locations the temperature will rise above freezing, most of the time temperatures are well below the freezing point of water. The gravitational force on Mars (3.57 m/s2)is about 1/3 what it is on Earth. Solar intensity at Mars is ~590 W/m2 There are few clouds but dust storms are fairly common 10.4 Venus Environment
compounds (ex, sulfuric acid on Venus). Resistance to water evaporation from IPOC within arid environments. Low temperature operation. Erosive effects of dust (especially for Mars operation). The selection and evaluation of coatings to resist these environmental
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10.6 ENVIRONMENTAL PROPERTIES

Constants: Mean Solar Intensity Eccentricity Day Length
The aircraft would be unmanned. Solar-powered. And made of strong lightweight materials. Its size could range from a few meters across to perhaps a hundred meters, depending on its mission.
11. SOLID STATE AIRCRAFT APPLICATIONS ADVANTAGES

11.1 Applications Mars Because of its projected relatively There is sufficient solar intensity for
AND
Rather than a metal framework covered by riveted plates and
hydraulically actuated
parts, the
planes body and wings would consist of a plastic like material called an ionic polymer-metal
this aircraft to operate on Earth, Venus or
composite.
small mass and flexibility, the aircraft is ideal for planetary exploration. These characteristics allow the aircraft to be easily stowed and launched at a minimal cost. Potentially, a fleet of these aircraft could be deployed within a planets atmosphere and used for comprehensive scientific data gathering, as an quickly deployable quiet observation platform or as a
12. CONCLUSION
With a flight profile similar to that of an eagle, the proposed solid-state aircraft could soar for long periods, flapping its wings to regain altitude.
Using thin-film solar arrays and an ionic polymer-metal composite material that can deform in an electric field like an artificial muscle and return to its original shape when the field is removed, the vehicle would be able to flap its wings without using conventional mechanical parts. Designed to complement other types of exploration vehicles, the solid-state aircraft could provide high-resolution data on a larger scale than the Mars rovers.
communications platforms. The unique configuration of the SSA
& its thin light flexible structure pose a unique challenge for the communications system. 11.2 Advantages
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SUNFLOWER - AN INNOVATIVE HCPV SYSTEM

Authors: Gururaj B.S.1, Pramod Adi2 6th SEM, Mechanical Engineering, Vidya Vikas Institute of Engineering and Technology, Mysore-10
Renewable energy--"Renewable Energy is energy that is derived from natural processes that are replenished constantly. In its various forms, it derives directly or indirectly from the sun, or from heat generated deep within the earth."
store this energy for use when demand is high. We also need to move much greater amounts of energy more efficiently and reliably from where it is produced to where it is consumed.
First thing that come in mind when renewable energy is mentioned would be the Solar energy. Solar is one of the most talked-about alternative energy sources in the world today. Enough energy comes from sun in one hour to power the global population for a year. Even though the amount of sunlight varies around the world, sunlight is a totally renewable resource, unlike oil, coal and natural gas. As long as life exists on earth, sunlight will play a role.
Meeting future energy responsible needs way in an environmentally requires Innovative materials and concepts are needed to efficiently separate and harvest electric charges from solar radiation.
SUNFLOWER Smart HCPV)
(Fully-integrated, concentrated
scientific breakthroughs to efficiently generate, store, transmit, and use large amounts of power. We need cost-effective methods for capturing and converting energy from the sun, and because of the intermittent nature of solar and other renewable energy sources, we must be able to
Highly
photovoltaic (HCPV)
system integrates
photovoltaic modules, advanced tracking, unique power optimization, an embedded controller and wireless communication into one elegant solution to produce cost-
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competitive solar power while reducing installation and maintenance costs.
less land and have a lower cost of energy than comparable PV or Thin Film CPV
installations.
These
important
WHY CONCENTRATED PV?

In bright sunny locations, concentrated photovoltaic installations use
advantages enable better power density, streamlined installation and ultimately
greater return on your solar investment.
WHY SUNFLOWER?
The Sunflower Highly Concentrated PV (HCPV) system has been designed from the ground up to be the highest performance and lowest cost system available today. From our world-leading 29% efficient module to our pre-assembled 2-axis tracker and mounting system, to our wireless communications and built-in performance
monitoring, every element of the Sunflower system was designed with lowest cost of energy in mind.
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High Concentration
The
Sunflower
module
uses
proprietary optical system to focus the sun's rays 1,200:1 onto a very small piece of photovoltaic material. Traditional CPV
solutions concentrate the sun 500:1 or less. These systems use 2.4 times the expensive triple junction cell material.
Sunflower system is incredibly easy to assemble and maintain. Each module is mounted on a pre-assembled frame structure that makes installation and maintenance nearly plug and play. There are no holes to dig, concrete to pour or cranes required as is the case with traditional large, multimodule tracker-based CPV systems.
Advanced Optical Design At the heart of the Sunflower module is the advanced optical system. The unique optical path allows for an astonishing +/- 0.9 degree acceptance angle. The optical path is composed of Fresnel lens and advanced secondary optics. Fresnel lens is a composite structure constructed with the latest Silicone on Glass (SoG) technology. This creates the highly attractive combination of a very durable and yet highly accurate. it produces a very uniform distribution of light energy allowing the cell to run cooler and more efficient. It also provides a significantly wider acceptance angle than traditional prism based systems.
Sunflowers low profile frame assembly consists of two rows assembled together, creating a simple yet highly rigid space frame to support the modules. This selfballasting system simply rests on graded soil and standard electrical connectors complete the assembly. Sunflowers differentiated approach to HCPV represents the way forward for high solar resource
environments.
KEY FEATURES
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Built-in Performance Monitoring By directly measuring the output of each module, the Sunflower system
eliminates the need for costly sensors and their associated need for calibration and maintenance. In addition, the sophisticated Sunflower performance monitoring system can now provide module level performance data, making troubleshooting and
maintenance more efficient. Micro-Converter Technology The Sunflower system uses MicroConverter technology to improve energy delivery by conditioning modules power Triple Junction Cells These PV cells are called triple junction cells and were originally developed for the demanding performance needs of the satellite industry. These cells are among the most efficient in the world with over 38% efficiency. They are composed of three photovoltaic output and optimizing maximum power point. A Micro-Converter optimizes
Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) over only 5 modules versus up to several thousand modules in traditional single inverter MPPT architecture. This provides more precise and effective MPPT and therefore more usable energy. This
junctions, each of which responds to a different wavelength of light, enabling the cells to produce more energy than traditional silicon or thin film modules. Each cell is backed by a set of aluminum cooling fins that use natural air flow to keep the cell at a low operating temperature despite the concentration levels.
architecture reduces electrical losses within the array and increases the energy produced, under low light conditions such as sunrise and sunset when traditional inverters would shut down due to under voltage conditions.
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LOCATION
Concentrating solar systems respond best to direct rays of the sun. The Sunflower will be most advantageous in high solar resource locations such as those areas on the map that are represented by 5.0 kWh/m2/day or greater of direct normal solar radiation.
The Sunflower is designed for the specific needs of large commercial and utility scale installations. The mounting structure is well suited for field mount and is easily adapted
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for
large,
industrial
roof
or
carport
Uses most advanced, efficient, nonsilicon solar cells. Less expensive than traditional PV. Integrated installation time. mounting reduces
installations. Sunflower is not designed for residential applications.
ADVANTAGES
Produces more energy than fixed systems.
SOLAR ENERGY- ENERGY FOREVER!!

Authors: Krishna B.S.1, Anthony Michael M.J.2 2nd SEM, Mechanical Engineering, Vidya Vikas Institute of Engineering and Technology, Mysore-10
What is renewable energy? Renewable energy is the energy produced continuously in nature and are essentially inexhaustible at least in the frame of human society. Types of renewable energy, o Solar energy o Wind energy o Tidal energy o Hydal energy
o Geothermal energy Why do we renewable energy? Switching to renewable energy is urgent. It is because there are problems with all fossil fuels: Oil: world oil production will peak, most likely sometime in the next 20 years (peak oil). Electricity: 75% of electricity comes
from coal (dirty and implicated in global warming).
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Solar energy: The sun is considered to be a sphere of intensely hot gaseous matter continuously generating heat by thermonuclear fusion reactions which convert hydrogen atoms to helium atoms. Fueled by thermonuclear fusion the radiant energy, called solar energy produced in the sun is transmitted to earth through space in quanta of energy called photons. This represents the entire
In 1910, the first patent involving a solar collector was awarded. The 1930s saw the first widespread use of solar power for heating. Actually, the first solar water heating collector appears to have been built in the 18th Century by a Swiss scientist who constructed a simple wooden box with a glass top and a black base. It trapped solar energy, and the collector reached a
temperature of 190 degrees Fahrenheit.
electromagnetic radiation (visible light, infrared, ultraviolet, x-rays,) and radio waves. HOW WAS SOLAR USED IN THE PAST? People have been trying to harness the power of the sun for centuries. In 1877, air blowing over sun heated iron was used to heat homes.
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Solar collector for Heating water
PV systems are like any other electrical power generating systems, except the
equipment used to generate the power is different. Specific components required, and may include major components such as a DC-AC power inverter, batteries, auxiliary energy sources, sometimes the specified electrical FEW FACTS load (appliances), wiring, surge protection and other hardware. Every day the earth receives thousands of times more energy from the sun than is consumed in all other resources. If a 140x140 mile parcel of land in Arizona was covered with solar cells, the electricity needs of the entire United States could be met. The sunlight falling on a typical house can provide from 1/3 to 1/2 of the heating needs of that house. Today solar energy accounts for only 1% of Batteries are often used in PV systems for the purpose of storing energy produced by the PV array during the day, and to supply it to electrical loads as needed (during the night and periods of cloudy weather). Also to keep the system at full operational power
Solar cells the basic building blocks of a PV systemconsist of
semiconductor materials. When sunlight is absorbed by these materials, the solar energy knocks electrons loose from their atoms. This phenomenon is called the "photoelectric effect." These free electrons then travel into a circuit built into the solar cell to form electrical current.
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Solar water heating systems include storage tanks and solar collectors. There are two types of solar water heating systems: active, which have circulating pumps and controls, and passive, which don't. It is both ecological and can save money: usually a 40-50% reduction in fossil fuels burned. The investment return is usually 4 to 6 years, depending on the system cost & type of back-up water heating used. Most solar water heaters require a wellinsulated storage tank. Solar storage tanks have an additional outlet and inlet connected to and from the collector. In two-tank systems, the solar water heater preheats water before it enters the conventional water heater. In one-tank systems, the back-up heater is combined with the solar storage in one tank. Three types of solar collectors are used for residential applications: Flat-plate collector
Glazed
flat-plate
collectors
are
insulated, weatherproofed boxes that contain a dark absorber plate under one or more glass or plastic(polymer) covers. Unglazed flat plate collectorstypically used for solar pool heatinghave a dark absorber plate, made of metal or polymer, without a cover or enclosure.
Integral collector-storage systems Also known as ICS or batch systems, they feature one or more black tanks or tubes in an insulated, glazed box. Cold water first passes through the solar collector, which preheats the water. The water then continues on to the conventional backup water heater, providing a reliable source of hot water. They should be installed only in mild-freeze climates because the outdoor pipes could freeze in severe, cold weather.
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hours. At night, traditional methods can be used to generate the electricity. Advantages : Photovoltaic (PV) systemshave very little impact on the Goal is to decrease our dependence on fossil fuels. Currently, 75% of our electrical power is generated by coal-burning and nuclear power plants. no air Mitigates the effects of acid rain, carbon dioxide, and other impacts of burning coal and counters risks associated with nuclear energy. Pollution free, indefinitely sustainable.
environment, making them one of the cleanest power-generating
technologies available . Solar power produces
pollution. Solar power produces no greenhouse gases, so it does not contribute to global warming. Final thought: Argument that sun provides power only during the day is countered by the fact that 70% of energy demand is during daytime
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HYDROGEN FUEL CELL

Authors: Radhavendra K.S.1, Sanju Lakshmesh2 6th SEM, Mechanical Engineering, Vidya Vikas Institute of Engineering and Technology, Mysore-10
THE ALTERNATIVE RENEWABLE ENERGY

Now-a-days, all over the world, due to uncontrollable use of non-renewable energy, they (non-renewable energy) are diminishing drastically. So there is a strong need for alternative renewable resource of energy to replace it. And in developing countries, energy demand can be met by using renewable energy sources. As we all know, solar energy is the best alternative.
In addition to it, Fuel Cell is an alternative energy which can be used in place of nonrenewable energy. WHAT IS A FUEL CELL? A fuel cell is an ELECTROCHEMICAL ENERGY CONVERSION DEVICE (EECD) which converts hydrogen and oxygen to water and in the process produces Electricity. It differs from batteries, in that they consume reactants, which must be replenished. Generates electric power using a fuel and an oxidant Unlike a battery, chemicals are not stored in the fuel cell; they must be replenished.
HISTORY OF FUEL CELL
The principle of fuel cell was discovered by German scientist Christian Friedrich Scobey in 1838 and journal published in January 1839 edition of the "Philosophical Magazine". The first fuel cell was developed by Welsh scientist Sir William Robert Grove in 1843. It wasn't until 1959 that British engineer Francis Thomas Bacon successfully developed a 5 kW stationary fuel cell. UTC's (United Technologies Corporation) power subsidiary was the first company to manufacture and commercialize a large, stationary fuel cell system for use as a cogeneration power plant in hospitals, universities and large office buildings. UTC Power continues to be the sole supplier of fuel cells to NASA for use in space vehicles and is developing fuel cells for automobiles, buses, and cell phone towers. POSSIBLE FUEL SOURCES: Hydrogen, Alcohols, hydrocarbons, Gasoline Possible oxidants: oxygen, Chlorine, chlorine dioxide, refueling of an internal Combustion engine, efficient and quiet like a battery. Parts of Fuel Cell: Anode It is the negative post of the fuel cell. It conducts the electrons that are freed from
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the hydrogen molecules so that they can be used in an external circuit. Etched channels disperse hydrogen gas over the surface of catalyst. Cathode It is the positive post of the fuel cell. The etched channels distribute oxygen to the surface of the catalyst. It conducts electrons back from the external circuit to the catalyst, then it recombine with the hydrogen ions and oxygen to form water. Electrolyte Proton exchange membrane (PEM) Specially treated material, only conducts positively charged ions. Proton Exchange Membrane blocks electrons. Catalyst Special material that facilitates reaction of oxygen and hydrogen Usually platinum powder very thinly coated onto carbon paper or cloth. Rough & porous maximizes surface area exposed to hydrogen or oxygen. The platinum-coated side of the catalyst faces the PEM.
Operation or Working of Fuel Cell Pressurized hydrogen gas (H2) enters cell on anode side (+ve). Gas is forced through catalyst by pressure. When Hydrogen molecule comes contacts platinum catalyst, it splits into two H+ ions and two electrons (e-). Electrons are conducted through the anode making their way through the external circuit (doing useful work such as turning a motor or light a bulb) and return to the cathode side of the fuel cell. On the cathode side, oxygen gas (O2) is forced through the catalyst. Oxygen then forms two oxygen atoms, each with a strong negative charge. Negative charge attracts the two H+ ions through the membrane, which combines with an oxygen atom and two electrons from the external circuit to form a water molecule (H2O).
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lighter, cheaper and more efficient materials for the catalysts and membranes. EFFICIENCY This fuel cell has efficiency of 40%, in converting methanol to hydrogen in
reformer to obtain pure hydrogen. It also has 80% efficiency for inverter/motor that converts electrical to mechanical energy and 80% of hydrogen energy content
converted to electrical energy. Overall efficiency of 24-34%, as compared to Gasoline having 21% and Electric battery having 26% efficiency. We can be more Simpler about how fuel cell works, The polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) fuel cell, also known as a proton-exchange membrane cell, a catalyst in the anode separates hydrogen atoms into protons and electrons. The membrane in the center transports the protons to the cathode, leaving the electrons behind. The electrons flow through a circuit to the cathode, forming an electric current to do useful work. In the cathode, another catalyst helps the electrons, hydrogen nuclei and oxygen from the air recombine. When the input is pure Advantages Economic crisis has greatly slowed technological advancements. Past predictions for 2010 seem unlikely. Hydrogen cannot be the only alternative fuel source to solve the energy crisis. Many more years of research before mass production will be possible. Hydrogen fuel cells are efficient, and clean Also expensive, and require specific humidity, temperature, pressure With more technological advancements, could be used in mass production for various applications. Disadvantages Here, Platinum is main catalyst used in PEM fuel cells and is very expensive and highly sensitive to poisoning.
hydrogen, the exhaust consists of water vapor. In fuel cells using hydrocarbon fuels, the exhaust is water and carbon dioxide. Cornell's new research is aimed at finding
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New platinum/ruthenium catalysts being researched for use in hydrogen fuel cells. Reaction requires lower temperatures and high humidity and pressure. Fuel cells require specific humidity, pressure, etc. Difficult to produce hydrogen and to store optimum amounts of Hydrogen. Very few cars currently running on hydrogen, and requires advancement in technology.
APPLICATIONS
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Little-to-no pollution doesnt need to be recharged. 2500 fuel cell systems have been installed globally. Used to power landfills and water treatment plants. 50 fuel cell buses. Every major automotive
Higher demand = cheaper. Economic crisis can be greatly slowed using technological
advancements. With more technological
advancements, could be used in mass production for various applications.
manufacturer has designed a fuel cell-powered vehicle. Mercedes-Benz projects 40%
CONCLUSION SO, WE CAN CONCLUDE THAT, THERE IS A STRONG NEED FOR ALTERNATIVE RESOURCE OF REPLACE IT, RENEWABLE ENERGY AND TO FUEL CELL IS AN
efficiency in compact cars running on Hydrogen fuel cells. Hydrogen Fuel Initiative (2003). Used to power personal electronic devices: cell phones, iPods, and laptops. Enough energy to run for days, or weeks (instead of hours). FUTURE OF FUEL CELLS Potentially power all cars, airplanes, ships, etc. 60 million tons of carbon dioxide could be eliminated from yearly greenhouse gas production Development of cheaper and more reliable catalysts.
ALTERNATIVE ENERGY WHICH CAN BE USED IN PLACE OF NON-
RENEWABLE ENERGY. FUEL CELLS CAN OPERATE CONTINUOUSLY AS LONG AS THE NECESSARY INPUT FLOWS. THEY HAVE VERY VAST
APPLICATIONS IN MANY FIELDS OF OUR DAILY LIFE. FUEL CELLS ARE VERY USEFUL AS ALTERNATIVE
POWER SOURCES AND MAINLY,IT CAN ELIMINATE GREEN HOUSE
EFFECT VERY CONSIDERABLY.
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TIDAL ENERGY
Authors: Karthik R1, Srinidhi Rao K2 4th SEM, Mechanical Engineering, Vidya Vikas Institute of Engineering and Technology, Mysore-10
INTRODUCTION Tidal power, sometimes also called tidal energy, is a form of hydropower that converts the energy of tides into electricity or other useful forms of power. Although not yet widely used, tidal power has potential for future electricity generation. Tides are more predictable than wind energy and solar power. Historically, tide mills have been used, both in Europe and on the Atlantic coast of North America.
A few years ago, "tidal power" meant "tidal barrage". But these days there are other options as well. THE CURRENT SITUATION Tidal Energy is sustainable, clean, reliable, widely distributed, and can offer significant benefits to many marine nations. Tidal Energy can be captured in an efficient and cost-effective way. Tidal Energy is not yet recognized by the United Nations as an energy resource that should receive support and funding for its development. Tidal Energy is a clean, renewable source of energy--such as solar, wind, biofuels, and low-head hydro-- and deserves official international support and funding for its development. The Worldwide Distribution of Tidal Energy
The tide moves a huge amount of water twice each day, and harnessing it could provide a great deal of energy - around 20% of Britain's needs. Although the energy supply is reliable and plentiful, converting it into useful electrical power is not easy. There are eight main sites around Britain where tidal power stations could usefully be built, including the Severn, Dee, Solway and Humber estuaries. Only around 20 sites in the world have been identified as possible tidal power stations.
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World Map of the Distribution of Tidal
Energy
Developing Nations that could receive significant benefits from Tida Indian Ocean: Comoros, Madagascar, Maldives, Seychelles. Asia: China, India, Philippines, Vietnam. Indonesia, Korea,
GENERATION ENERGY
OF
TIDAL
Pacific Ocean: Fiji, Kiribati, Micronesia, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Timor, Tuvalu, Vanuatu. Central and South America: Argentina, Brazil, Ecuador, Guyana, Panama, Surinam. Atlantic Ocean: Cape Verde. All coastal nations with tidal energy potential pass between coral reefs or offshore islands.
Tidal power is the only form of energy which derives directly from the relative motions of the EarthMoon system, and to a lesser extent from the EarthSun system. The tidal forces produced by the Moon and Sun, in combination with Earth's rotation, are responsible for the generation of the tides. Other sources of energy originate directly or indirectly from the Sun, including fossil fuels, conventional hydroelectric, wind, biofuels, wave power and solar. Nuclear is derived using radioactive material from the Earth, geothermal power uses the Earth's internal heat which comes from a combination of residual heat from planetary accretion (about 20%) and heat produced through radioactive decay (80%).
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due to viscous dissipation at the seabed and in turbulence. This loss of energy has caused the rotation of the Earth to slow in the 4.5 billion years since formation. During the last 620 million years the period of rotation has increased from 21.9 hours to the 24 hours[4] we see now; in this period the Earth has lost 17% of its rotational energy. While tidal power may take additional energy from the system, increasing the rate of slowdown, the effect would be noticeable over millions of years only, thus being negligible. HOW IT WORKS : Tidal Barrages
Tidal energy is generated by the relative motion of the water which interact via gravitational forces. Periodic changes of water levels, and associated tidal currents, are due to the gravitational attraction by the Sun and Moon. The magnitude of the tide at a location is the result of the changing positions of the Moon and Sun relative to the Earth, the effects of Earth rotation, and the local shape of the sea floor and coastlines. Because the Earth's tides are caused by the tidal forces due to gravitational interaction with the Moon and Sun, and the Earth's rotation, tidal power is practically inexhaustible and classified as a renewable energy source. A tidal generator uses this phenomenon to generate electricity. The stronger the tide, either in water level height or tidal current velocities, the greater the potential for tidal electricity generation. Tidal movement causes a continual loss of mechanical energy in the EarthMoon system due to pumping of water through the natural restrictions around coastlines, and
These work rather like a hydro-electric scheme, except t bigger.A huge dam (called a "barrage") is built across a ri tide goes in and out, the water flows through tunnels in the d The ebb and flow of the tides can be used to turn a turbine, or it can be used to push air through a pipe, which then turns a turbine. Large lock gates, like the ones used on canals, allow ships to pass. If one was built across the Severn Estuary, the tides at Weston-super-Mare would not go out nearly as far - there'd be water to play in for most of the time.
But the Severn Estuary carries sewage and other wastes fr

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currents (common in the UK, China Bristol & Gloucester) out to sea. A tidal barrag and Korea), a significant water level hang around Weston-super-Mare an awful lot longer! differential out, meter) 80,000+ birds that feeds on the exposed mud flats when the tide goes(23 then will appear between you have a problem, because the tide won't be going out properly both sides of the dam. Efficient technology to capture Tidal Energy is already cost-effective. Tidal Energy can be captured Tidal stream systems make use of the kinetic energy of moving water to power turbines, in a similar way to windmills that use moving air. This method is gaining in popularity because of the lower cost and lower ecological impact compared to barrages. Barrages make use of the potential energy in the difference in height (or head) between high and low tides. Barrages are essentially dams across the full width of a tidal estuary, and suffer from very high civil infrastructure costs, a worldwide shortage of viable sites, and environmental issues. Dynamic tidal power exploit a combination of potential and kinetic energy: by constructing long dams of 3050 km in length from the coast straight out into the sea or ocean, without enclosing an area. Both the obstruction of the tidal flow by the dam as well as the tidal phase differences introduced by the presence of the dam (which is not negligible in length as compared to the tidal wavelength) lead to hydraulic head differences along the dam. Turbines in the dam are used to convert power (615 GW per dam). In shallow coastal seas featuring strong coast-parallel oscillating tidal efficiently and inexpensively using the helical turbine
CATEGORIES OF TIDAL POWER Tidal power can be classified into three main types:
Prof. Alexander Gorlov of Northeastern University with the helical turbine he invented and perfected . Schematic view of the helical turbine mounted in a frame.
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BARRIAGE TIDAL POWER
Features of the Helical Turbine: Basic Concept Designed for hydroelectric applications in free-flowing water operates in ocean, tidal, and river currents operation: self-starting with flow as low as 0.6 m/s smooth-running Rance tidal power plant
The largest tidal power station in the world (and the only one in Europe) is in the Rance estuary in northern France, near St. Malo. It was built in 1966.
rotates in same direction regardless of the direction of flow, making it ideal for tidal applications. Installation Cost: dollars/kw
A major drawback of tidal power stations is that they can only generate when the tide is flowing in or out - in other words, only for 10 hours each day. However, tides are totally predictable, so we can plan to have other power stations generating at those times when the tidal station is out of action.
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An artistic impression of a tidal barrage, including embankments, a ship lock and caissons housing a sluice and two turbines. With only a few operating plants globally, a large 240 MW plant on the Rance River, and two small plants, one on the Bay of Fundy and the other across a tiny inlet in Kislaya Guba, Russia), and a suggested Severn barrage across the River Severn, from Brean Down in England to Lavernock Point near Cardiff in Wales, the barrage method of extracting tidal energy involves building a barrage across a bay or river, as in the case of the Rance tidal power plant in France. Turbines installed in the barrage wall generate power as water flows in and out of the estuary basin, bay, or river. These systems are similar to a hydro dam that produces Static Head or pressure head (a height of water pressure). When the water level outside of the basin or lagoon changes relative to the water level inside, the turbines are able to produce power. The largest such installation has been working on the Rance river, France, since 1966. The basic elements of a barrage are caissons, embankments, sluices, turbines, and ship locks. Sluices, turbines, and ship locks are housed in caissons (very large concrete blocks). Embankments seal a basin where it is not sealed by caissons. The sluice gates applicable to tidal power are the flap gate, vertical rising gate, radial gate, and rising sector. Barrage systems are affected by problems of high civil infrastructure costs associated with what is in effect a dam being placed across estuarine systems, and the environmental problems associated with changing a large ecosystem.
turbines generate until the head is again low. Then the sluices are opened, turbines disconnected and the basin is filled again. The cycle repeats itself. Ebb generation (also known as outflow generation) takes its name because generation occurs as the tide changes tidal direction. Another option is to use offshore turbines, rather like an underwater wind farm. This has the advantage of being much cheaper to build, and does not have the environmental problems that a tidal barrage would bring. There are also many more suitable sites.
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1) Various turbine designs have varying efficiencies and therefore varying power output. If the efficiency of the turbine "" is known the equation below can be used to determine the power output. The energy available from these kinetic systems can be expressed as:
where: = the turbine efficiency P = the power generated (in watts) = the density of the water (seawater is 1025 kg/m) A = the sweep area of the turbine (in m) V = the velocity of the flow Relative to an open turbine in free stream, depending on the geometry of the shroud shrouded turbines are capable of as much as 3 to 4 times the power of the same turbine rotor in open flow. BENEFITS Each dam can accommodate over 8 GW of installed capacity, and the estimated annual power production of each dam is about 23 billion kWh (83 PJ/yr).[65] If two dams are installed at the right distance from one another (about 200 km apart), they can complement one another to level the output (one dam is at full output when the other is not generating power). As compared to conventional barrage tidal power, dynamic tidal power T-dams have much less social and environmental impacts, because the dams dont enclose a coastal area. Because dynamic tidal power doesn't require a very high natural tidal range, more sites are
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ENERGY CALCULATION
The energy available from a barrage is dependent on the volume of water. The potential energy contained in a volume of water is: where :

h is the vertical tidal range, A is the horizontal area of the barrage basin, is the density of water = 1025 kg per cubic meter (seawater varies between 1021 and 1030 kg per cubic meter) and g is the acceleration due to the Earth's gravity = 9.81 meters per second squared.
The factor half is due to the fact, that as the basin flows empty through the turbines, the hydraulic head over the dam reduces. The maximum head is only available at the moment of low water, assuming the high water level is still present in the basin.
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available and the total availability of power is very high in countries with suitable conditions, such as Korea, China, and the UK (the total amount of available power in China is estimated at 80 - 150 GW). Multiple Benefits from Tidal Energy 1) Electrification Communities: . of Isolated
c)automotive alternator. Global environmental impact A tidal power scheme is a long-term source of electricity. A proposal for the Severn Barrage, if built, has been projected to save 18 million tonnes of coal per year of operation. This decreases the output of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. If fossil fuel resources decline during the 21st century, as predicted by Hubbert peak theory, tidal power is one of the alternative sources of energy that will need to be developed to satisfy the human demand for energy. The placement of a barrage into an estuary has a considerable effect on the water inside the basin and on the ecosystem. Many governments have been reluctant in recent times to grant approval for tidal barrages. Through research conducted on tidal plants, it has been found that tidal barrages constructed at the mouths of estuaries pose similar environmental threats as large dams. The construction of large tidal plants alters the flow of saltwater in and out of estuaries, which changes the hydrology and salinity and possibly negatively affects the marine mammals that use the estuaries as their habitat. The La Rance plant, off the Brittany coast of northern France, was the first and largest tidal barrage plant in the world. It is also the only site where a fullscale evaluation of the ecological impact of a tidal power system, operating for 20 years, has been made. Advantages
a)6-blade helical turbine. b)pulley and belt.
Once you've built it, tidal power is free. It produces no greenhouse gases or
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other waste.

Doesn't cause pollution, doesn't need fuel A tidal barrage is very expensive to build Only works when tide is going in or out A tidal barrage affects a large area There are very few places that you could sensibly build a Tidal barrage Underwater turbines may be a better bet than a barrage - they are cheaper and don't have the huge environmental impact.
It needs no fuel.
It produces electricity reliably. Not expensive to maintain. Tides are totally predictable. Offshore turbines and vertical-axis turbines are not ruinously expensive to build and do not have a large environmental impact.

Disadvantages
A barrage across an estuary is very expensive to build, and affects a very wide area - the environment is changed for many miles upstream and downstream. Many birds rely on the tide uncovering the mud flats so that they can feed. Fish can't migrate, unless "fish ladders" are installed. Only provides power for around 10 hours each day, when the tide is actually moving in or out.
CONCLUSIONS Tidal Energy is sustainable, clean, and reliable. Tidal Energy is widely distributed and can offer significant benefits to many coastal nations. Tide Energy can be captured in a practical, efficient, cost-effective way. Tidal Energy deserves to be included on the list of sources of sustainable energy supported and funded by CSD, GEF, UNDP, IEA, UNIDO, CDM, etc.
SUMMARY
Tidal Power is renewable
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ROBOTICS
Author: Sowmya S1 4th SEM, Mechanical Engineering, Vidya Vikas Institute of Engineering and Technology, Mysore-10
Entertainment Robot is a Russian word the meaning is literally a self labor. Definitions A robot is an automatically guided machine, able to do tasks on its own. It performs the work with the Artificial intelligence. It is the science that deals with computer programs that can solve problems creatively; It is an electric machine which has some ability to interact with physical objects and to be given electronic programming to do specific actions. "A reprogrammable, multifunctional manipulator designed to move material, parts, tools, or specialized devices through various programmed motions for the performance of a variety of tasks. History of Robots First commercial robot was introduced in 1950s which was named as unimate and it was installed at a General Motors plant to work with heated die-casting machines. This Robot consists of computer like a large box, And it is having a memory chip. It is having six degrees of freedom Types of robots by application Industrial robots. Domestic or household robots. Medical robots. Service robot Military robots
robots.
Types of robots by locomotion and kinematics

1. Stationary robots (including robotic arms with global axis of movement) Cartesian/Gantry robots Cylindrical Spherical robots SCARA robots Articulated robots (robotic arms) Parallel 2. Wheeled robots Single wheel (ball) robots Two-wheeled robots Three and more wheel robots robots robots
3. Legged robots Bipedal robots (humanoid robots) Tripedal robots Quadrupedal robots Hexapod robots Other numbers 4. Swimming robots 5. Flying robots 6. Mobile spherical robots (robotic balls) of legs
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7. Others Components
1. Power Sources 2. Actuation Devices 1. Motors 2. Stepper Motors 3. Shape Memory Alloys 4. Air muscle 5. Linear Electromagnetic 6. Piezoelectric Actuators 7. Pneumatics/Hydraulics 8. Miniature internal combustion engines 3. Grippers 4. Audio 5. Video
2. Pressure Sensors 3. Ranging Sensors 4. Touch Sensors 2. Feedback sensors tell the robot what it is actually doing, and 3. Communication sensors allow a human or computer to provide a robot other information.
Sensors aren't perfect. When you use a sensor on your robot there will be a lot of times where the sensor acts funny. It could miss an obstacle, or see one where none is. Key to successfully using sensors knows how they function and what they measure.

Real World Sensors Digital image Acquisition
Computer Control
Field of Applications Automotive industry Assembly Medical laboratories Medicine Nuclear energy Agriculture Spatial exploration Underwater inspection Customer service Arts and entertainment
1. Control Architectures 1. Reactive Systems 2. Sense-Plan-Act 3. Brooks' Subsumption Architecture ( w:Subsumption architecture ) 4. Hybrid Systems 5. Swarm Robotics 2. The Interface 1. Personal Computers 2. Single Board Computers and multi chip modules 3. Microcontrollers 4. Remote Control 5. Networks
Sensors Sensors that a robot uses generally fall into three different categories:
Advantages of Robots in industrie It increases the productivity It can perform difficult task Advantages

Increase Productivity with Shorter Cycle Time Increase Quality of Product, Process and Work Environment Increase Manufacturing Flexibility
1. Environment sensors tell the robot what is happening around it 1. Thermal Sensors
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Reduce Costs
Scrap
and
Manufacturing By Reducing
go around by themselves without any human interference 9) They can entertain us and help us in certain tasks Disadvantages 1) People can lose jobs in factories 2) It needs a supply of power 3) It needs maintenance to keep it running 4) it is expensive compare to other machines 5) It can breakdown in critical condition
Compete Better Undesirable Tasks Decrease Floor Space
Improved Worker Safety Automatic Changeover for Different Products Robots can work restless 24/7 Stabilizes Production
6) They can perform tasks faster than humans and much more consistently and accurately 8) Most of them are automatic so they can
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GEOTHERMAL ENERGY SOURCES

Authors: Yogesh R1, Satyanaraya K2 6th SEM, Mechanical Engineering, Vidya Vikas Institute of Engineering and Technology, Mysore-10
GEOTHERMAL ENERGY SOURCES Introduction Geothermal (from the Greek roots geo, meaning earth, and thermos, meaning heat) power is extracted from heat stored in the earth. This geothermal energy originates from the original formation of the planet, from radioactive decay of minerals, and from solar energy absorbed at the surface. Worldwide, geothermal plants have the capacity to generate about 10 gigawatts of electricity as of 2007, and in practice supply 0.3% of global electricity demand. An additional 28 gigawatts of direct geothermal heating capacity is installed for district heating, space heating, spas, industrial processes, desalination and agricultural applications. History
The first use of geothermal energy for electric power production was in Italy with experimental work by PrinceGionori Conti between 1904 and 1905. The first commercial power plant (250kWe) was commissioned in 1913 at Larderello, Italy. An experimental 35 kWe plant was installed in the Geysers (California) in 1932, and provided power to the local resort. These developments were followed in New Zealand at Wairakei in1958; an experimental plant at Pathe, Mexico in 1959; and the first commercial plant at the Geysers in the United States in 1960. Japan followed with 23 MWe at Matsukawa in 1966. All of these early plants used steam directly from the earth (dry steam fields), except for New Zealand, which was the first touse flashed or separated steam for running the turbines. The former USSR produced power from the first true binary power plant, 680 kWe using 81C water at Paratunka on the Kamchatka peninsula the lowest temperature, at that time.
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Iceland first produced power at Namafjall in northern Iceland, from a 3 MWe non-condensing turbine. These were followed by plants in El Salvador, China, Indonesia, Kenya, Turkey, Philippines, Portugal (Azores), Greece and Nicaragua in the1970s and 80s. Later plants were installed in Thailand, Argentina, Taiwan, Australia, Costa Rica, Austria, Guatemala, Ethiopia, with the latest installations in Germany and Papua.
Scope of geothermal energy: There is a vast scope to use geothermal energy for various applications like space heating, geothermal heat pump, and industrial process heating. Also its varied application and versatility makes the source suitable for many purposes like aquaculture, horticulture etc... .This source of energy for electric generation has proved most economical. It is cheaper, less pollutant and has highest load factor. The geothermal source is renewable, in exhaustible and posses highest energy density. Geothermal energy conversion: The heat obtained from high pressure steam in the earths crust is called geothermal energy. It is natural heat of the earth. It is the high potential renewable source of energy. The normal temperature gradient range from 815C per kilometer depth. Fig shows typical geothermal field. It consists of heat sources at 7-15km depth and this molten mass solidifies into igneous rock. The hot molten magma transfers heat to this igneous rock by conduction. Water in contact with this rock through fissures, will be heated due to heat transfer. The heated water flows up convectively into the permeable reservoir exist above the igneous rock. Layer of low permeable solid rock traps hot water from the reservoir. Fissures present in the solid layer forms vent for giant under ground boiler. These vents on the surface are called hot springs. A well on the surface traps steam from the fissures and this steam is used in geothermal power plant.
Types of geothermal resources
Geothermal energy comes from the natural generation of heat primarily due to the decay of the naturally occurring radioactive isotopes of uranium, thorium and potassium in the earth. Because of the internal heat generation, the Earths surface heat flow averages 82 mW/m2 which amounts to a total heat loss of about 42 million megawatts. The estimated total thermal energy above mean surface temperature to a depth of 10 km is 1.3 x 1027 J, equivalent to burning 3.0 x 1017 barrels of oil. On average, the temperature of the Earth increases about 30C/km above the mean surface ambient temperature. Thus, assuming a conductive gradient, the temperature of the earth at 10 km would be over 300C. However, most geothermal exploration and use occurs where the gradient is higher, and thus where drilling is shallower and less costly. These shallow depth geothermal resources occur due to: (1) intrusion of molten rock (magma) from depth, bringing up great quantities of heat; (2) high surface heat flow, due to a thin crust and high temperature gradient; (3) ascent of groundwater that has circulated to depths of several kilometers and been heated due to the normal temperature gradient; (4) thermal blanketing or insulation of deep rocks by thick formation of such rocks as shale whose thermal conductivity is low; and. (5) anomalous heating of shallow rock by decay of radioactive elements, perhaps augmented by thermal blanketing. Geothermal
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resources are usually classified as shown in geothermal (ground-source) heat pumps to provide both heating and cooling. Table .These geothermal resources range from the mean annual ambient temperature Convective hydrothermal resources occur where the Earths heat is carried upward by of around 20C to over 300C. In general, resources above 150C are used for electric convective circulation of naturally occurring power generation. Resources below 150C hot water or steam. Some high temperature are usually used in direct-use projects for convective hydrothermal resources result from deep circulation of water along heating and cooling. Ambient temperatures in the 5 to 30C range can be used with fractures. Geothermal Resource Types Resource Type Temperature Range (C) Convective hydrothermal resources Vapor dominated 240 Hot-water dominated 20 to 350+ Other hydrothermal resources Sedimentary basin 20 to 150 Geopressured 90 to 200 Radiogenic 30 to 150 Hot rock resources Solidified (hot dry rock) 90 to 650 Part still molten (magma) >600 Vapor dominated system (dry steam open 1. Hydro thermal resources system): 1) Dry steam cycle or vapor dominated system. 2) Flash steam power plant or Liquid dominated system. 3) Binary cycle.
This system is best suitable for electric power generation as steam from the geothermal field is directly fed to power generation. The high pressure dry steam passes up the production well and through a rock catcher; a series of mesh filters which catch any rocks, stones or other debris, which would damage the turbine blades. The steam then passes through a steam turbine that drives an electrical generator, which produces electricity for the grid. The steam exits the low pressure stage of the turbine and into the turbine condenser that is under a
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vacuum and from the condensate is pumped through cooling towers that remove the gases which are non-condensable. From here it is pumped on to the water cooling towers, where the condensate is cooled and any remaining incondensable gasses are recirculated to the cooling tower before being re-injected with the cooled condensate down the injection well back into the geothermal reservoir.
Flash Steam Power Plant
Flash steam power plants force water down into an injection well by a groundwater pump. The well must be sunk deep enough to reach subterranean rocks at a temperature higher than the boiling point of water. The water filters through the rocks where it becomes heated and rises back up through the nearby production well. The hot water from the production well enters a flash tank where the reduced pressure causes the water to boil rapidly or "flash" into vapor. Water that remains liquid in the flash tank is returned to the groundwater pump to be forced down into the earth again. . The vapor from the flash tank drives a steam turbine, which turns the shaft of an electric generator. After passing through the turbine, the steam is cooled in a condenser. This returns the water vapor to the liquid state, and this liquid is forced by the groundwater pump back down into the earth along with the diverted water from the flash tank. Binary cycle:
Basically its a Rankine cycle and consists of an organic fluid. The binary cycle concept isolate turbine from all corrosive and erosive materials. The water from the geothermal reservoir never comes into direct contact with the blades of the turbine generator and is uses water-based geothermal resources of approximately 200 to 360 degrees F. In the binary cycle system, warm geothermal water is pumped to the surface and passed through a heat exchanger that contains a fluid such as a butane or pentane hydrocarbon with a much lower boiling point than water. The heat from the geothermal water causes this secondary or binary' fluid to flash into vapor. The vapor created by heating the pentane is what spins the turbine powering the generator, while the cooled steam from the geothermal source is injected back into the formation where it heats up again and is available to eventually re-circulate through the heat exchanger. 2. Geo pressured resources: In these resources high temperature and high pressure water (or brine) is present in the reservoir. A substantial amount of methane (CH4-natural gas) is dissolved in the pressurized water. When pressure decreases, this methane will be released. Geo pressured water is at 160 degrees C and under high pressure and is trapped at depths ranging from 2400 to 9000m and it could be used for power generation. 3. Hot dry rock (petro thermal system): It is a type of concentrated geothermal energy in which hot solid rocks occurring at
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moderate depths contains heat. Either due to absence of ground water or due low permeability of rock (or both),water does not have access to these hot rocks. The heat is to be transferred to the surface by artificially injecting the water through specially formed paths. In addition, the rock may be fractured to utilize this energy resource. This allows water to make good contact with hot rocks and the resulting hot water or steam is used at the surface. The temperature gradient of HDR ranges from 150-180C per km. 4. Magma resources (magmatic or molten rock chamber system): The geothermal energy content of these resources is large, but these resources are restricted to very few locations. These magma resources are made up of partially or completely molten rock at temperature greater than 650C and exist especially in recently active volcanic regions. The extraction of energy is difficult task due to high temperature. The heat extraction from hot magma at temperature of about 1450C is studied and estimated that operation of a 100MW plant would require 400m2 of heat exchanger surface area at a heat rate of 250KW/M2.
Geothermal plants in the world
technology for power generation from geothermal sources. Italy, USA and New Zealand have received greater attention towards the power generation. Geothermal energy is used for electric power generation and direct utilization in the United States. The present installed capacity for electric power generation is 3,064 MWe with only 2,212 MWe in operation due to reduction at The Geysers geothermal field in California; producing approximately16,000 GWh per year. Geothermal electric power plants are located in California, Nevada, Utah and Hawaii. The two largest concentrations of plants are at The Geysers in northern California and the Imperial Valley in southern California. Power plants in newzealand are mokai(binary operation), Kawerau New, ohaaki, Wairakei where power generation ranges from 36MW to 100MW. Geothermal energy sources in India: Indian geothermal provinces have the capacity to produce 10,600 MW of power- a figure which is five times greater than the combined power being produced from nonconventional energy sources such as wind, solar and biomass. Due to technical and logistic problems with other nonconventional energy sources, present industrialists mood is upbeat and IPPs are showing keen interest in developing geothermal based power projects. India has around 340 known thermal areas of hot springs. So far 113 are discovered. Among them, 46 are high temperature type (above 150 degree C).
Many
countries
have
developed
the
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Power generating capacity of Indian geothermal provinces Province Surface To C Reservoir To C Heat Flow Thermal gradient Himalaya Cambay West coast SONATA Godavari >90 40-90 46-72 60 - 95 50-60 260 150-175 102-137 105-217 175-215 468 80-93 75-129 120-290 93-104 100 70 47-59 60-90 60
Heat flow: mW/m2; Thermal gradient: o C/km. ENERGY SAVINGS: Using geothermal energy obviously replaces fossil fuel use and prevents the emission of greenhouse gases. If we assume that geothermal energy replaces electricity generation, the conversion efficiency is estimated at 0.35 (35%). If the replacement energy for directuse is provided by burning the fuel directly, then about half this amount would be saved in heating systems (35% vs. 70% efficiency). The savings of fossil oil is equivalent to about three days (1%) of the worlds consumption. Conclusion: Geothermal growth and development of electricity generation has increased significantly over the past 30 years approaching 15% annually in the early part of this period, and dropping to 3% annually in the last ten years due to an economic slow down in the Far East and the low price of competing fuels. Direct-use has remained fairly steady over the 30-year period at 10% growth annually. At the start of this 30-year period, only ten countries reported electrical production and/or direct utilization from geothermal energy. By the end of this period, 72 countries reported utilizing geothermal energy. This is over a seven-fold increase in participating countries. At least another 10 countries are actively exploring for geothermal resources and should be online by 2010. Developments in the future will include greater emphases on combined heat and power plants, especially those using lower temperature fluids down to 100C. This low-temperature cascaded use will improve the economics and efficiency. Also, there is increased interest in agriculture crop drying and refrigeration in tropical climates to preserve products that might normally be wasted.
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PLANNING IN MANAGEMENT
Authors: Nitin G1, G.C. Aditya2 6th SEM, Mechanical Engineering, Vidya Vikas Institute of Engineering and Technology, Mysore-10
INTRODUCTION: Planning in organizations and public policy is both the organizational process of creating and maintaining a plan; and the psychological process of thinking about the activities required to create a desired goal on some scale. An important, albeit often ignored aspect of planning, is the relationship it holds with forecasting. Forecasting can be described as predicting what the future will look like, whereas planning predicts what the future should look like. Forecasting is the process of making statements about events whose actual outcomes (typically) have not yet been observed. A commonplace example might be estimation of the expected value for some variable of interest at some specified future date. Prediction is a similar, but more general term. Both might refer to formal statistical methods employing time series, cross-sectional or longitudinal data, or alternatively to less formal judgmental methods. Two attitudes to planning need to be held in tension: on the one hand we need to be prepared for what may lie ahead, which may mean contingencies and flexible processes. On the other hand, our future is shaped by consequences of our own planning and actions. Basically Planning is a process for accomplishing purpose. It is blue print of business growth and a road map of development. It is setting of goals on the basis of objectives and keeping in view the resources. Key Words:
Planning, Management, Forecasting, Types of plans or planning Architectural planning Business plan Comprehensive planning Enterprise Architecture Planning Event Planning and Production Family planning Financial planning Infrastructure planning Land use planning Life planning Marketing plan Network resource planning Strategic planning Urban planning An architectural a plan for architecture, documentation of written and and plan is the graphic sketches,
descriptions of the architectural elements of a building project including drawings and details.
A business plan is a formal statement of a set of business goals, the reasons why they are believed attainable, and the plan for reaching those goals. It may also contain background information about the
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organization or team attempting to reach those goals.

Event planning is the process of planning a festival, ceremony, competition, party, or convention. Event planning includes budgeting, establishing dates and alternate dates, selecting and reserving the event site, acquiring permits, and coordinating transportation and parking. In general usage, a financial plan can be a budget, a plan for spending and saving future income. This plan allocates future income to various types of expenses, such as rent or utilities, and also reserves some income for short-term and long-term savings. A financial plan can also be an investment plan, which allocates savings to various assets or projects expected to produce future income, such as a new business or product line, shares in an existing business, or real estate.
PLANNING Planning is a way that a company thinks. Its one of the five essential components in a Management. A management basically has five essential components namely planning, organizing, staffing, leading or directing, and controlling. Organizing: required to enable carrying out of plans. (Implementation) the successful
making optimum use of the resources
Staffing: Job analyzing, recruitment, and hiring individuals for appropriate jobs. Leading/Directing: Determining what needs to be done in a situation and getting people to do it. Controlling/Monitoring: Checking progress against plans, which may need modification based on feedback. Planning is not done offhand. It is prepared after careful and extensive research. For a comprehensive business plan, management has to 1. Clearly define the target / goal in writing. 1. It should be set by a person having authority. 2. The goal should be realistic. 3. It should be specific. 4. Acceptability 5. Easily measurable 2. Identify all the main issues which need to be addressed. 3. Review past performance.
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A marketing plan is a written document that details the necessary actions to achieve one or more marketing objectives. Strategic planning is an organization's process of defining its strategy, or direction, and making decisions on allocating its resources to pursue this strategy, including its capital and people. Various business analysis techniques can be used in strategic planning, including SWOT analysis (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats ), PEST analysis (Political, Economic, Social, and Technological), STEER analysis (Sociocultural, Technological, Economic, Ecological, and Regulatory factors), and EPISTEL (Environment, Political, Informatics, Social, Technological, Economic and Legal).
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4. Decide budgetary requirement. 5. Focus on matters importance. of strategic
3) Action Steps 4) Keeping it going Vision: The vision of the business reflects its aspirations and specifies its intended direction or future destination. Simply put, Vision is something where a company thinks what it wants. Thinking of when the objectives get fulfilled. Current Reality: In Current Reality a company thinks of the position where it is. Here the organization thinks if it can handle the project. What is the current position of that project? Will the company be able to handle the project? Action Steps: Action Steps as the name suggests takes whatever steps necessary to complete the companys vision and being as keeping the current situation as clear as possible. Keeping it going: Keeping it going is where the projects are classified as important and not important. To avoid to focus and to manage those projects which are necessary.
Planning is applied everywhere now. Be it a company or a small organization. A successful plan is the basis for the success of a company. Planning in fact is done by everyone according to their necessities. In organizations Planning concerned is also with a management process, defining goals for
6. What are requirements and how will they be met? 7. What will be the likely length of the plan and its structure? 8. Identify shortcomings in the concept and gaps. 9. Strategies for implementation. 10. Review periodically. A plan is not done materialistically; it follows objectives, policies and strategies. The objectives of the business refer to the ends or activity at which a certain task is aimed. The business's policy is a guide that stipulates rules, regulations and objectives, and may be used in the managers' decision-making. It must be flexible and easily interpreted and understood by all employees. The business's strategy refers to the coordinated plan of action that it is going to take, as well as the resources that it will use, to realize its vision and long-term objectives. It is a guideline to managers, stipulating how they ought to allocate and utilize the factors of production to the business's advantage. Initially, it could help the managers decide on what type of business they want to form. Planning in fact happens in four basic steps: 1) Vision 2) Current Reality
future organizational performance and deciding on the tasks and resources to be used in order to attain those goals. To meet the goals, managers may develop plans such as a business plan or a marketing plan. Planning always has a
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purpose. The purpose may be achievement of certain goals or targets. The planning helps to achieve these goals or target by using the available time and resources. To minimize the timing and resources also require proper planning. The concept of planning is to identify what the organization wants to do by using the four questions which are where are we today in terms of our business or strategy planning? Where are we going? Where do we want to go? How are we going to get there? In public policy Planning refers to the practice and the profession associated with the idea of planning an idea yourself, (land use planning, urban planning or spatial). In many countries, the operation of a town and country planning system is often referred to as 'planning' and the professionals which operate the system are known as 'planners'. It is a conscious as well as sub-conscious activity. It is an anticipatory decision making process that helps in coping with complexities. It is deciding future course of action from
amongst alternatives. It is a process that involves making and evaluating each set of interrelated decisions. It is selection of missions, objectives and translation of knowledge into action. A planned performance brings better results compared to unplanned one. A Managers job is planning, monitoring and controlling. Planning and goal setting are important traits of an organization. It is done at all levels of the organization. Planning includes the plan, the thought process, action, and implementation. Planning gives more power over the future. Planning is deciding in advance what to do, how to do it, when to do it, and who should do it. It bridges the gap from where the organization is to where it wants to be. The planning function involves establishing goals and arranging them in logical order.
References: Websites: Wikipedia.com, howstuffworks.com Mr.B.R.Vijay, Lecturer, VVIET. Management and Entrepreneurship, NVR. Naidu
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STRATEGIC MANAGEMENT
Authors: Ravikiran R1, Gautham N.H.2 6th SEM, Mechanical Engineering, Vidya Vikas Institute of Engineering and Technology, Mysore-10
Introduction
Strategic or institutional management is the conduct of drafting, implementing and evaluating cross-functional decisions that will enable an organization to achieve its long-term objectives. It is the process of specifying the organization's mission, vision and objectives, developing policies and plans, often in terms of projects and programs, which are designed to achieve these objectives and then allocating resources to implement the policies, and plans, projects and programs. A balanced scorecard is often used to evaluate the overall performance of the business and its progress towards objectives. Strategic management is a level of managerial activity under setting goals and over Tactics.
Strategic management provides overall direction to the enterprise and is closely related to the field of Organization Studies.
Significance Strategic management used to play a different role in more predictable times after the Second Word War. Strategic plans of the past usually range 3 to 5 years. Some companies could even have plans for 10 good years. That's not possible today given rapid evolution of our society. What still matters in strategic management lies in the value of planning ahead. There's an old saying that if you fail to plan, you are planning
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to fail. By acting on this, strategic management actually gives the organization direction, a sense of identity and unity towards what the business goal. Therein lies the continued importance of strategic management towards business success. Every business has a vision and a mission. Strategic management takes into consideration both of these. Strategic management helps in achieving the organizational goals in an effective and efficient manner.
strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats (both internal and external) of the entity in question. This may require to take certain precautionary measures or even to change the entire strategy.
In corporate strategy, Johnson and Scholes present a model in which strategic options are evaluated against three key success criteria:

Strategy formulation Strategic formulation is a combination of three main processes which are as follows:
Suitability (would it work?) Feasibility (can it be made to work?) Acceptability (will they work it?)
Performing a situation analysis, selfevaluation and competitor analysis: both internal and external; both micro-environmental and macroenvironmental. Concurrent with this assessment, objectives are set. These objectives should be parallel to a time-line; some are in the short-term and others on the long-term. This involves crafting vision statements (long term view of a possible future), mission statements (the role that the organization gives itself in society), overall corporate objectives (both financial and strategic), strategic business unit objectives (both financial and strategic), and tactical objectives. These objectives should, in the light of the situation analysis, suggest a strategic plan. The plan provides the details of how to achieve these objectives. Strategy evaluation Measuring the effectiveness of the organizational strategy, it's extremely important to conduct a SWOT analysis to figure out the
Suitability: Suitability deals with the overall rationale of the strategy. The key point to consider is whether the strategy would address the key strategic issues underlined by the organizations strategic position.

Does it make economic sense? Would the organization obtain economies of scale, economies of scope or experience economy? Would it be suitable in terms of environment and capabilities?
Feasibility: Feasibility is concerned with whether the resources required to implement the strategy are available, can be developed or obtained. Resources include funding, people, time and information. Tools that can be used to evaluate feasibility include:

cash flow analysis and forecasting break-even analysis resource deployment analysis
Acceptability: Acceptability is concerned with the expectations of the identified stakeholders (mainly shareholders, employees and customers) with the expected performance outcomes, which can be return, risk and stakeholder reactions. Tools that can be used to evaluate acceptability include:
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what-if analysis stakeholder mapping
General approaches: In general terms, there are two main approaches, which are opposite but complement each other in some ways, to strategic management:
The Industrial Organizational Approach o based on economic theory deals with issues like competitive rivalry, resource allocation, economies of scale o assumptions rationality, self discipline behavior, profit maximization The Sociological Approach o deals primarily with human interactions o Assumptions bounded rationality, satisfying behavior, profit suboptimality.
Strategic management techniques can be viewed as bottom-up, top-down or collaborative processes. In the bottomup approach, employees submit proposals to their managers who, in turn, funnel the best ideas further up the organization. This is often accomplished by a capital budgeting process. Proposals are assessed using financial criteria such as return on investment or cost-benefit analysis. Cost underestimation and benefit overestimation are major sources of error. The proposals that are approved form the substance of a new strategy, all of which is done without a grand strategic design or a strategic architect. The top-down approach is the most common by far. In it, the CEO, possibly with the assistance of a strategic planning team, decides on the overall direction the company should take. Some organizations are starting to
experiment with collaborative strategic planning techniques that recognize the emergent nature of strategic decisions. Strategic decisions should focus on Outcome, Time remaining, and current Value/priority. The outcome comprises both the desired ending goal and the plan designed to reach that goal. Managing strategically requires paying attention to the time remaining to reach a particular level or goal and adjusting the pace and options accordingly. Value/priority relates to the shifting, relative concept of value-add. Strategic decisions should be based on the understanding that the value-add of whatever you are managing is a constantly changing reference point. An objective that begins with a high level of value-add may change due to influence of internal and external factors. Strategic management by definition is managing with a heads-up approach to outcome, time and relative value, and actively making course corrections as needed.
The strategy hierarchy In most corporations there are several levels of management. Strategic management is the highest of these levels in the sense that it is the broadest - applying to all parts of the firm while also incorporating the longest time horizon. It gives direction to corporate values, corporate culture, corporate goals, and corporate missions. Under this broad corporate strategy there are typically business-level competitive strategies and functional unit strategies. Corporate strategy refers to the overarching strategy of the diversified firm. Such a corporate strategy answers the questions of "which businesses should we be in?" and "how does being in these businesses create synergy and/or add to the competitive advantage of the corporation as a whole?" Business strategy refers to the aggregated strategies of single business firm or a strategic business unit (SBU) in a diversified corporation. According to Michael Porter, a firm must formulate a business
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strategy that incorporates cost leadership, differentiation or focus in order to achieve a sustainable competitive advantage and long-term success in its chosen areas or industries. Functional strategies include marketing strategies, new product development strategies, human resource strategies, financial strategies, legal strategies, supply-chain strategies, and information technology management strategies. The emphasis is on short and medium term plans and is limited to the domain of each departments functional responsibility. Each functional department attempts to do its part in meeting overall corporate objectives, and hence to some extent their strategies are derived from broader corporate strategies. Many companies feel that a functional organizational structure is not an efficient way to organize activities so they have reengineered according to processes or SBUs. A strategic business unit is a semi-autonomous unit that is usually responsible for its own budgeting, new product decisions, hiring decisions, and price setting. An SBU is treated as an internal profit centre by corporate headquarters. A technology strategy, for example, although it is focused on technology as a means of achieving an organization's overall objectives, may include dimensions that are beyond the scope of a single business unit, engineering organization or IT department. Birth of strategic management: Strategic management as a discipline originated in the 1950s and 60s. Although there were numerous early contributors to the literature, the most influential pioneers were Alfred D. Chandler, Philip Selznick, Igor Ansoff, and Peter Drucker. Alfred Chandler recognized the importance of coordinating the various aspects of management under one all-encompassing strategy. Prior to this time the various functions of management were separate with little overall coordination or strategy. Chandler also stressed the importance of taking a long term perspective when looking to the future. In his 1962 groundbreaking work Strategy and Structure, Chandler showed that a
long-term coordinated strategy was necessary to give a company structure, direction, and focus. In 1957, Philip Selznick introduced the idea of matching the organization's internal factors with external environmental circumstances. This core idea was developed into what we now call SWOT analysis by Learned, Andrews, and others at the Harvard Business School General Management Group. Peter Drucker was a prolific strategy theorist, author of dozens of management books, with a career spanning five decades. His contributions to strategic management were many but two are most important. Firstly, he stressed the importance of objectives. An organization without clear objectives is like a ship without a rudder. As early as 1954 he was developing a theory of management based on objectives. This evolved into his theory of management by objectives (MBO). According to Drucker, the procedure of setting objectives and monitoring your progress towards them should permeate the entire organization, top to bottom. His other seminal contribution was in predicting the importance of what today we would call intellectual capital. He predicted the rise of what he called the knowledge worker and explained the consequences of this for management. He said that knowledge work is non-hierarchical. Work would be carried out in teams with the person most knowledgeable in the task at hand being the temporary leader. In 1985, Ellen-Earle Chaffee summarized what she thought were the main elements of strategic management theory by the 1970s.
Strategic management involves adapting the organization to its business environment. Strategic management is fluid and complex. Change creates novel combinations of circumstances requiring unstructured non-repetitive responses.
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Strategic management affects the entire organization by providing direction. Strategic management involves both strategy formation (she called it content) and also strategy implementation (she called it process). Strategic management is partially planned and partially unplanned. Strategic management is done at several levels: overall corporate strategy, and individual business strategies. Strategic management involves both conceptual and analytical thought processes.
will be their rate of profit. The high market share provides volume and economies of scale. It also provides experience and learning curve advantages. The combined effect is increased profits. The studies conclusions continue to be drawn on by academics and companies today: "PIMS provides compelling quantitative evidence as to which business strategies work and don't work.
Growth and portfolio theory: In the 1970s much of strategic management dealt with size, growth, and portfolio theory. The PIMS study was a long term study, started in the 1960s and lasted for 19 years, that attempted to understand the Profit Impact of Marketing Strategies (PIMS), particularly the effect of market share. Started at General Electric, moved to Harvard in the early 1970s, and then moved to the Strategic Planning Institute in the late 1970s, it now contains decades of information on the relationship between profitability and strategy. Their initial conclusion was unambiguous: The greater a company's market share, the greater
SWOT Analysis: SWOT analysis is a simple framework for generating strategic alternatives from a situation analysis. It is applicable to either the corporate level or the business unit level and frequently appears in marketing plans. SWOT (sometimes referred to as TOWS) stands for Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats. The SWOT framework was described in the late 1960's by Edmund P. Learned, C. Roland Christiansen, Kenneth Andrews, and William D. Guth in Business Policy, Text and Cases (Homewood, IL: Irwin, 1969). The General Electric Growth Council used this form of analysis in the 1980's. Because it concentrates on the issues that potentially have the most impact, the SWOT analysis is useful when a very limited amount of time is available to address a complex strategic situation.The following diagram shows how a SWOT analysis fits into a strategic situation analysis.
Situation Analysis / \ Internal Analysis External Analysis /\ / \ Strengths Weaknesses Opportunities Threats | SWOT Profile The internal and external situation analysis can produce a large amount of information, much of which may not be highly relevant. The SWOT analysis can serve as an interpretative filter to reduce the information to a manageable quantity of key issues. The SWOT analysis classifies the internal aspects of the company as strengths or
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weaknesses and the external situational factors as opportunities or threats. Strengths can serve as a foundation for building a competitive advantage, and weaknesses may hinder it. By understanding these four aspects of its situation, a firm can better leverage its strengths, correct its weaknesses, capitalize on golden opportunities, and deter potentially devastating threats. Internal Analysis The internal analysis is a comprehensive evaluation of the internal environment's potential strengths and weaknesses. Factors should be evaluated across the organization in areas such as:

An opportunity is the chance to introduce a new product or service that can generate superior returns. Opportunities can arise when changes occur in the external environment. Many of these changes can be perceived as threats to the market position of existing products and may necessitate a change in product specifications or the development of new products in order for the firm to remain competitive. Changes in the external environment may be related to:

Company culture Company image Organizational structure Key staff Access to natural resources Position on the experience curve Operational efficiency Operational capacity Brand awareness Market share Financial resources Exclusive contracts Patents and trade secrets
Customers Competitors Market trends Suppliers Partners Social changes New technology Economic environment Political and regulatory environment
The last four items in the above list are macro-environmental variables, and are addressed in a PEST analysis. The SWOT analysis summarizes the external environmental factors as a list of opportunities and threats. SWOT Profile When the analysis has been completed, a SWOT profile can be generated and used as the basis of goal setting, strategy formulation, and implementation. The completed SWOT profile sometimes is arranged as follows: Weaknesses 1. 2. 3. . .
The SWOT analysis summarizes the internal factors of the firm as a list of strengths and weaknesses. External Analysis Strengths 1. 2. 3. . .
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. Opportunities 1. 2. 3. . . . When formulating strategy, the interaction of the quadrants in the SWOT profile becomes important. For example, the strengths can be leveraged to pursue opportunities and to avoid threats, and managers can be alerted to weaknesses that might need to be overcome in order to successfully pursue opportunities. Strategic management process
. Threats 1. 2. 3. . . . In the 1970's, many large firms adopted a formalized top-down strategic model. Under this model, strategic planning became a deliberate process in which top executives periodically would formulate the firm's strategy, and then communicate it down the organization for implementation. The following is a flowchart model of this process:
The Strategic Management Process

Mission | V Objectives | V Situation Analysis | V Strategy Formulation | V Implementation | V Control
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This process is most applicable to strategic management at the business unit level of the organization. For large corporations, strategy at the corporate level is more concerned with managing a portfolio of businesses. For example, corporate level strategy involves decisions about which business units to grow, resource allocation among the business units, taking advantage of synergies among the business units, and mergers and acquisitions. In the process outlined here, "company" or "firm" will be used to denote a single-business firm or a single business unit of a diversified firm. Mission: A company's mission is its reason for being. The mission often is expressed in the form of a mission statement, which conveys a sense of purpose to employees and projects a company image to customers. In the strategy formulation process, the mission statement sets the mood of where the company should go. Objectives: Objectives are concrete goals that the organization seeks to reach, for example, an earnings growth target. The objectives should be challenging but achievable. They also should be measurable so that the company can monitor its progress and make corrections as needed. Situation Analysis: Once the firm has specified its objectives, it begins with its current situation to devise a strategic plan to reach those objectives. Changes in the external environment often present new opportunities and new ways to reach the objectives. An environmental scan is performed to identify the available opportunities. The firm also must know its own capabilities and limitations in order to select the opportunities that it can pursue with a higher probability of success. The situation analysis therefore involves an
analysis of both the external and internal environment. The external environment has two aspects: the macro-environment that affects all firms and a micro-environment that affects only the firms in a particular industry. The macro-environmental analysis includes political, economic, social, and technological factors and sometimes is referred to as a PEST analysis. An important aspect of the microenvironmental analysis is the industry in which the firm operates or is considering operating. Michael Porter devised a five forces framework that is useful for industry analysis. Porter's 5 forces include barriers to entry, customers, suppliers, substitute products, and rivalry among competing firms. The internal analysis considers the situation within the firm itself, such as:

Company culture Company image Organizational structure Key staff Access to natural resources Position on the experience curve Operational efficiency Operational capacity Brand awareness Market share Financial resources Exclusive contracts Patents and trade secrets
Management model
Why New Management Model? The old traditional ways of managing not longer work and will never work again. The old management practice has been erected on the assumption of human limitations as a basis for organizing. "This assumption is so
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pervasive that it can be found in almost every aspect of conventional managing, from the way we over-bureaucratize our organizations and control the workforce to the way we develop and impose strategies on others without their participation or consideration of their potential contribution." In the new knowledge-driven economy, people have become firm's most precious and underutilized resource. They are firms repository of knowledge and they are central to a company's competitive advantage. Well
coached, energized and highly motivated people are critical to the development and execution of strategies, especially in today's faster-paced, more perplexing world, where top management alone can no longer assure firms competitiveness. At all levels, company needs people who can deliver at the frontier of performance. They must understand where company is going and be able to influence this path. They must share in company's fortunes and be motivated to push for greater achievements.
Strategic control: The basic premise of strategic management is that the chosen
strategy will achieve the organization's mission and objectives. A firm's successive strategies
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are greatly affected by its past history and often take shape through experimentation. Therefore, the re-examinations of past assumptions, the comparison of actual results with earlier hypotheses have become common features of strategic management. Nature of control Management control refers to the process by which an organization influences its subunits and members to behave in ways that lead to the attainment of organizational objectives. What Is Control? Management control is a systematic effort to set performance standards with planning objectives, to design information feedback systems, to compare actual performance with these predetermined standards, to determine whether there are any deviations and to measure their significance, and to take any action required to assure that all corporate resources are being used in the most effective and efficient way possible in achieving corporate objectives.
tasks, it requires a through understanding of the specific tasks involved and their relationship to the desired and product. Feedback Control This type of control focuses on the outputs of the organization after transformation is complete. Sometimes called post action or output control, fulfils a number of important functions. For one thing, it often is used when feed forward and concurrent controls are not feasible or are too costly. The major drawback of this type of control is that, the time the manager has the information and if there is significant problem the damage is already done. But for many activities, feedback control fulfils number important functions. Limitations Although a sense of direction is important, it can also stifle creativity, especially if it is rigidly enforced. In an uncertain and ambiguous world, fluidity can be more important than a finely tuned strategic compass. When a strategy becomes internalized into a corporate culture, it can lead to group think. It can also cause an organization to define itself too narrowly. Many theories of strategic management tend to undergo only brief periods of popularity. A summary of these theories thus inevitably exhibits survivorship bias (itself an area of research in strategic management). Many theories tend either to be too narrow in focus to build a complete corporate strategy on, or too general and abstract to be applicable to specific situations. Populism or faddishness can have an impact on a particular theory's life cycle and may see application in inappropriate circumstances. See business philosophies and popular management theories for a more critical view of management theories. Conclusion Achieving complex and difficult goals will require focused, long-term diligence and effort. Success in any field will require that you forego blaming, excuses and justifications for poor performance or lack of adequate planning. Strategic Management examines the ways in
The three respective types of control based on timing are feed forward, concurrent, and feedback.
Feed forward control focuses on the regulation of inputs (human, material, and financial resources that flow into the organization) to ensure that they meet the standards necessary for the transformation process. Feed forward controls are desirable because they allow management to prevent problems rather than having to cure them later. Unfortunately, these controls require timely and accurate information that is often difficult to develop. Concurrent control takes place while an activity is in progress. It involves the regulation of ongoing activities that are part of transformation process to ensure that they conform to organizational standards. Concurrent control is designed to ensure that employee work activities produce the correct results. Since concurrent control involves regulating ongoing
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which organizations achieve "goodness" through management and strategies. It presents a contemporary model of strategic reputation management, helping organizations and
stakeholders to analyze the business environment as a communicative field of symbols and meanings in which the organization is built or destroyed.
RENEWABLE SOURCES OF ENERGY: LOW COST SOLAR COLLECTORS

Authors: Shravan C.R.1, Ullas D.R.2 6th SEM, Mechanical Engineering, Vidya Vikas Institute of Engineering and Technology, Mysore-10
INTRODUCTION: Throughout the world, the energy consumption has been growing with advances in civilization. At present, existing energy sources of fossil fuels may not be adequate to meet the ever-increasing energy demands. These energy resources are depleting in nature and will be exhausted in a short period of time. Hence there is a need to look out for alternate, renewable and inexhaustible sources of energy. These are the non-conventional energy sources such as geothermal, ocean tides, wind, solar etc. Among these, solar energy is the most promising alternative energy source, which will meet a considerable part of the everincreasing demand. This is because of its availability at free of cost, inexhaustible, free from pollution, available in all parts of the world and is abundant. Solar energy is a renewable resource and cannot be depleted. It has the greatest potential of all renewable energy sources. The Sun, which is the primary energy source, constantly delivers 700 to 900 watts/m2 of
energy. The Earths surface receives enormous amount of solar power, which is 1000 times more than the actual power needed throughout the world. Just 5% utilization of this energy is 50 times what the world would require. APPLICATIONS OF SOLAR ENERGY: Space heating or cooling for residential building, Solar water heating Solar cookers Spacecrafts Drying of agricultural products by suitable solar driers. Bioconversion and wind energy which are indirect forms of solar energy. SOLAR COLLECTORS: The Sun is an infinite source of energy and solar radiation does not contaminate environment. The solar energy can be exploited by tw methods Solar energy directly converted into fuel by photosynthesis. By converting solar energy directly into electricity.
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Solar energy converted to electricity by using thermo electric system. Solar collectors are the devices, which receive solar energy and transfer this energy to a fluid passing in contact with it. Basically, there are two types of collectors: Flat plate solar collectors Focusing or concentrating solar collector In both the cases, a dark surface is exposed to solar radiation so that the radiation is absorbed. Then the fluid like air or water absorbs a portion of this radiation. The device is called a flat plate collector if the radiation is not concentrated or focused at one point. This is recommended for those applications in which a temperature of less than 100oC is required. However, If the temperature required is more than 100, then this is achieved by using focused collectors. But the problem is that the costs of these collectors are very high and they are not introduced in rural areas. Our aim here is to build an affordable, low cost solar collector, which can be used in the rural areas for the hot water application in silk reeling industry, that is badly in need of alternate clean energy. Our Aim: To bring in self-sufficiency & environmental cleanliness in silk reeling industry in remote & rural areas of India To make a system that can be easily copied by any rural illiterate person & to see that the idea spreads rapidly all over rural India
for getting hot water to the reeling industry. If we can research on this idea, we can see an affordable solar collector in the near future that will be an appropriate rural technology. Present Scenario: Need of the moment for traditional silk reeling families are for low cost hot water availability. Usage of solar energy can help reduce pollution, save money and make their world a better place to live in.
Traditional silk weaving families are in dire need for a low cost hot water source. At present they are using large loads of firewood, in turn destroying the forests as well as polluting the atmosphere. In many reeling units, situated in the tropical climates, the availability of sun is quiet good. In some places attempts have been made to erect solar hot water systems. However since most of the solar equipments are factory made in cities and the cost of these special equipments are highly prohibitive. So some of the bright minded rural illiterate people have worked on their own to put up their own units with locally available resources & raw materials. Eye opener
It has been seen that in a small village in north India, A group of illiterate yet gifted minds have built a solar collector by using bamboos and aluminum foils. These solar collectors are used
This has opened up new and wonderful opportunities and a challenge for engineers to think in these lines and to build a system that is very inexpensive, affordable to rural masses. Incidentally, it is also perceived that this kind of equipments must be simple to copy and accessible to any rural illiterate Indian. The idea is to see that the community is benefited and self-sufficiency is attained, indirectly benefiting the environment and minimizing the destruction of the forest for firewood. The idea: The idea is to have a flat plate mirror collector surface, which is slightly kept pressed at the center to make it a concave reflecting mirror. The collector is made of locally available ordinary mirror, So care has to be taken in handling and pressing. These mirror pieces are tilted to a small angle and as a result, the radiations are concentrated at one point.
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At this point, a copper coil is fixed through which a thermic fluid with high thermal conductivity is circulated. As the solar radiations concentrate at one point, the copper coil gets heated quickly to a high temperature.
This coil is connected to a heat exchanger having water. As a result, the water gets heated and it is pumped out of the tank for the desired application.
The above system is very simple and yet efficient and affordable to farmers. The thermal fluid is made to flow in a closed circuit and has to be changed only once in a while. Since the system is very simple, even illiterate people can copy this idea. The reeling units are usually set up at places of abundant sunlight. So, they can use this idea and save a lot of their money on fuel. Also, the usage of firewood for these purposes leading to pollution and deforestation can be avoided.
Novelty of the system: A simple flat mirror is gently kept pressed at the center to make it into a concave mirror. Normally concave mirrors itself are very expensive. Hence this method is tried out by using simple screws and nuts on a frame. This is a great novelty and cost effective The extraordinary workmanship by a villager. This solar collector is currently working in north-eastern state of rural India.
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Conclusion: With such encouraging and innovative ideas , we hope to make every remote village self sufficient.
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OPTICAL SOLUTIONS TO POWER YOUR NETWORK

Author: Praveen R Gowda1 6th SEM, Mechanical Engineering, Vidya Vikas Institute of Engineering and Technology, Mysore-10
At OFC/NFOEC 2010, innovation and optimism in the industry were some of the key themes resonating with attendees and exhibitors. Technical presentations featured the latest breakthroughs in the drive for more capacity, as data transmission rates of more than 69 Tbits/s were reported, along with other key developments in wireless backhaul, datacom, passive optical networks, nonlinear fiber devices and much more. On the show floor, companies from the systems, carrier and components sectors added an enhanced level of interest with mobile trailers, industry-first announcements and demos of 100G deployment, as the industry moves forward from 10G and 40G into a 100G reality. New this year, the Fiber Optic Switch and Technology Center featured two days of sessions exploring how advanced fiber connectivity and automated switching can help in provisioning, testing and monitoring various network architectures. Also new, the Optical Internetworking Forum presented a program on the building blocks for highly intelligent, reliable, interoperable networks, including insights into 100G, control plane and on-demand carrier services. At OFC/NFOECs Market Watch and Service Provider Summit events, industry leaders presented on the state of the optical industry, photonic integration, wireless backhaul, carrier networks, super data centers. A series of events honoring Nobel Prize winner Charles Kao took place this year, after the 2010 conference was dedicated to the Father of Fiber Optics. More than 40 years ago, Kao discovered a way to make light travel long distances down a glass fiber, spawning what would become a whole new fieldoptical fiber communication. As a promising indicator that the industry is rebounding, attendance at OFC/NFOEC
increased this year to 9,700 attendees. The more than 500 participating companies overwhelmingly reported strong leads and renewed interest from customers across the three exhibition days maintaining the shows standing as the worlds largest optical communication event. Attendees were also treated to more than 700 technical presentations from leading research groups across the globe. Next year, OFC/NFOEC moves north to Los Angeles, California. Mark your calendars for March 6 10, 2011 for what will continue to be the largest worldwide venue for doing business with the most important companies in the industry and for announcing the most cuttingedge optical communication research. Fiber optics for communications - around the world in 80 milliseconds The 2009 Nobel Prize in Physics was recently awarded to Charles K. Kao, Willard S. Boyle, and George E. Smith. The Chinese-British physicist Kao, who won half of the prize, was honored for groundbreaking achievements concerning the transmission of light in fibers for optical communication, while Boyle and Smith were recognized for inventing semiconductor circuit technology for digital imaging. Kao played a major role in the development of fiber optic technology, without which the Internet-enabled information age would be inconceivable. As the Nobel Prize Committee put it, Global communication is based on his work. Kao recognized fiber optics could be used as a telecommunications medium in the 1960s, but he also realized light transmission over long distances would only be possible with ultra-pure glass. He suggested silica glass would be ideal for this purpose.
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Communications that once seemed impossible have become reality. Yet, this trend raises the question: how long can this pace continue? Core communications An optical fiber measures between 50 and 1,500 millionths of a meter (m) in diameter. Light-emitting diodes (LEDs) or lasers convert electrical signals into light pulses at the beginning of the fibers transmission path. Then, at the end, photodiodes convert these optical signals back from photons into electromagnetic pulses. The core of fiber optic cable comprises two glass films and is nearly too thin for the eye to see. Surrounding this glass core are two layers of plastic, providing stability. Chlorosilanes are the most important raw material for producing the ultra-pure glass for fiber optics. One common example is silicon tetrachloride (STC), a clear, colorless liquid indistinguishable to the naked eye from water produced from silicon and hydrogen chloride. Its purity is key for the quality and performance of optical fibers. Even the smallest impurities would adversely affect the fibers optical conductivity. During the production of the glass elements, STC is vaporized and converted to silicon dioxide (SiO2) dust. This is then melted into transparent quartz to create a glass body from which ultra-thin fibers can be pulled and wound on a drum. Accelerated expansion In recent years, many countries have seized opportunities for economic growth by expanding their broadband Internet infrastructure, with the goals of creating new jobs, connecting rural communities, and improving citizens quality of life. In many cases, this infrastructure reaches peoples homes or offices via copper wiring. The Internet continues to enhance connections between the worlds continents and to enable new, useful, and exciting applications at a furious pace, from video conferencing and live streaming events to online games involving thousands of players taking part simultaneously. The number of web-based content creators and both passive and active users continues to rise with Web 2.0 applications, resulting in skyrocketing global data traffic. In fact, Cisco Systemswhich supplies networking equipment and management for the Internetexpects monthly data traffic will increase from its 2008 average of 7 exabytes (EB) to approximately 44 EB by 2012. For comparisons sake, that is equal to 44 billion gigabytes (GB). Reaching limits The Internet may be nearly ubiquitous, but it is limited by the continued reliance on copper transmission lines, which work with electrical signalscompared to fiber optics photons that can cause mutual interference. So, while broadband Internet access has arguably become crucial for economic development and growth around the world, it is reaching the limits of its current capacity. Further growth will encounter boundaries until data streams can be accelerated. Satellite links and third-generation (3G) mobile telecommunications technologiessuch as the Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS)face their own speed caps. Wireless local area networks (WLANs) are sufficiently fast, but the range of their radio towers is extremely limited. It would be wrong to conclude broadband connections can be set up across a whole country through wireless technologies alone, says Dr. Hans-Jrgen Hne, who leads the optical fiber group in Evoniks advanced silanes business. Indeed, a WLANs towers themselves are linked with fiber optics.
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Germanys federal ministry of economics and technology. Another advantage of optical fiber is the availability of silica glass. Silicon can be found in virtually unlimited quantities, unlike the copper required for traditional communications lines. Also, compared to Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) connections, where uploading files can be 10 times slower than downloading, fiber optic cables entail no such constraints. This can provide a big boost for the trend of cloud computing, where data and programs are no longer stored on local hard drives, but instead reside in the Internet, accessible around the world and facing no limitations on memory space. High upload speeds are essential if this type of computing is to become the norm. In 2008, approximately 93 million miles of fiber optic cable were produced. The market is enormous and continues to grow. The costs involved in setting up a widespread fiber infrastructure are still high, however, and the next Internet revolution will not be achieved overnight.
Fiber optics communications data the form of light pulses. Fiber future
carry in
The future, then, lies in extending the Internet with optical fiber technology. Fiber optic connector technologies are the ultimate in broadband if the highest bandwidths are to satisfy stringent quality requirements, says a strategy paper recently published by
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TIDAL ENERGY
Author: Karthik B.S.1 4th SEM, Mechanical Engineering, Vidya Vikas Institute of Engineering and Technology, Mysore-10
Reflect on the motion of the waves, the flux and reflux, the ebb and flow of the tides. What is the ocean? An enormous force wasted. How stupid the earth is not to make use of the ocean.
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ABSTRACT
The gravitational forces between the moon, the sun and the earth cause the rhythmic rising and lowering of ocean waters around the world, resulting in Tides. The moon exerts more than twice as great a force on the tides as the sun due to its much closer position to the earth. As a result, the tide closely follows the moon during its rotation around the earth, creating diurnal tide and ebb cycles at any particular ocean surface. The amplitude or height of the tide wave is very small in the open ocean where it measures several centimeters in the center of the wave distributed over hundreds of kilometers. Tidal energy is a form of hydro power that converts the energy of tides into useful forms of energy like electricity. Tidal energy is generated by the relative motion of the water which interacts via gravitational forces. Periodic changes of water levels, and associated tidal currents, are due to the gravitational attraction by the Sun and Moon. The magnitude of the tide at a location is the result of the changing positions of the Moon and Sun relative to the Earth, the effects of Earth rotation, and the local shape of the sea floor and coastlines. Tidal power can be classified into three main types: Tidal stream systems make use of the kinetic energy of moving water to power turbines, in a similar way to windmills that use moving air. This method is gaining in popularity because of the lower cost and lower ecological impact compared to barrages. Barrages make use of the potential energy in the difference in height (or head) between high and low tides. Barrages are essentially dams across the full width of a tidal estuary, and suffer from very high civil infrastructure costs, a worldwide shortage of viable sites, and environmental issues. Dynamic tidal power exploits a combination of potential and kinetic energy: by constructing long dams of 3050 km in length from the coast straight out into the sea or ocean, without enclosing an area.
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INTRODUCTION AND NEED There is no particular need to reinforce stereotypes on the need of energy for mankind. The reason mankind has made humungous technological advancement is nothing but power and energy. Hence, it is necessary, due to various reasons, for us, the citizens, to search and exploit various sources of energy that are inexhaustible and readily available but at the same time, understand the global economic crisis. All we need is a cheap, dependable, readily available and inexhaustible source of energy to supplement the needs of the present generation and the forthcoming generations of inventors. Fossil fuels have provided the necessary supplement of energy for the survival of earth till now. And no doubt they will continue pumping oxygen into the heart of development. Although the above statement means a lot in the metaphorical sense, it is highly contradictory in the real world. We have discovered that non renewable sources of energy dig a deep hole in the ozone layer that causes havoc to the world in the form of a highly unwanted guest called Global Warming. This calls for an urgent need of an alternate source of energy that does not pollute and is easily available. Tidal energy or tidal power is one of those alternate sources of energy that does not pollute and is easily available. They are easily available because tides are formed due to the gravitational forces between
earth-sun and earth-moon. The force of gravity is inexhaustible. Tidal energy is one of the oldest forms of energy used by humans. Indeed, tide mills, in use on the Spanish, French and British coasts, date back to 787 A.D. but it is likely that there were predecessors lost in the anonymity of prehistory. Tide mills consisted of a storage pond filled by the incoming (flood) tide through a sluice and emptied during the outgoing (ebb) tide through a water wheel. The tides turned waterwheels, producing mechanical power to mill grain and power was available for about two to three hours, usually twice a day. The power requirements of the industrialized world dwarf the output of the early tidal barrages and it was not until the 1960s that the first commercial-scale modern-era tidal power plant was built, near St. Malo, France. The hydro mechanical devices such as the paddlewheel and the overshot waterwheel have given way to highly-efficient bulb-type hydroelectric turbine/generator sets. The tidal barrage at St. Malo uses twenty-four 10-megawatt lowhead bulb-type turbine generator sets. Installed in 1965, the barrage has been functioning without missing a tide for more than 37 years. TIDES AND TIDAL ACCELERATION Tides are the rise and fall of sea levels caused by the combined effects of the gravitational forces exerted by the Moon and the Sun and the rotation of the Earth. The tides occur with a period of approximately 12 and half hours.
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FIGURE 1: Tides Tidal cycles are calculated using harmonic constants defined by the rhythmic movements of the sun, moon, and earth. The earth is spinning, precessing, and pulsating in concert with its celestial neighbors in an ever-changing and infinite series of movements that causes the oceans to rise and fall. This complex pattern has been closely observed for eons and is now known and mathematically predictable, down to the finest detail across the broadest reaches of time. It is possible, if it strikes ones fancy, to know the precise tidal level at a specific location at a specific moment 100 years or Broad-mouthed estuaries create the largest tidal ranges and long straight coastlines tend to have the smallest. The power available (per unit area) in any specific location is a function of the square of the tidal range and thus the largest tidal ranges are the most attractive areas for tidal power generation. The amount of water available in an offshore tidal power 1000 years in the future. Wind and weather cause changes under extreme conditions (tidal surges) and these events are not specifically predictable, but the basic harmonic changes in water levels caused by the tides are eminently predictable. On a global scope, the tides are meters high bulge in the level of the ocean that moves across the globe every 24 hours and 50 minutes. As this bulge nears land, it is changed in amplitude by the decreasing depth and anomalies of the seabed. At the extremes, some tidal ranges are as small as 6 inches and some are as large as 60 feet. generator is a function of the area of seabed impounded. It is most economical to build an impoundment structure in a shallow area, so it follows that the most attractive sites for offshore tidal power generation are those where the tidal range is high and there are broad tidal flats at minimal depth.
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The rise and fall of the sea level can power electric-generating equipment. The gearing of the equipment is tremendous to turn the very slow motion of the tide into enough displacement to produce energy. Tidal barrages, built across suitable estuaries, are designed to extract energy from the rise and fall of the tides, using turbines located in water passages in the barrages. The potential energy, due to the difference in water levels across the barrages, is converted into kinetic energy in the form of fast moving water passing through the turbines. This, in turn, is converted into rotational kinetic energy by the blades of the turbine, the spinning turbine then driving a generator to produce
electricity. The diagram demonstrates power generation cycle of a tidal power. The highest output is achieved from hydroelectric turbines by operating when the available head is highest. The available head is highest at extreme low tide and extreme high tide. These periods are roughly two hours in length, but there is relatively little change in water level during the half hour preceding and the half hour after each of the extreme lows and highs. By including these 30-minute shoulder periods, a 3-hour generation period is achieved twice per tidal cycle. Thus, one can effectively generate at optimum levels for roughly half of each tidal cycle.
FIGURE 2: Typical Tidal Generation Plant
CLASSIFICATION OF TIDAL POWER Tidal power can be classified on the basis of which the energy in the tides is exploited. A tidal power generating station may exploit the potential energy or the kinetic energy or both in the tides. Depending upon this, they are classified as:
POTENTIAL ENERGY: Barrages are basically dams that are built across the tidal estuary across its full width that utilizes the potential energy of the water or the water head to generate power. KINETIC ENERGY: Here, turbines are run using the
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tides like what is done in the case of wind energy. The advantage over barrages here is that it is cheaper and has lesser danger to the environment. DYNAMIC TIDAL POWER: It is the combination of both barrages and turbines. By constructing long dams of 3050 km in length from the coast straight out into the sea or ocean without enclosing an area, both the obstruction of the tidal flow by the dam as
well as the tidal phase differences introduced by the presence of the dam can be achieved, leading to head differences along the dam. Turbines in the dam are used to convert power (615 GW per dam). In shallow coastal seas featuring strong coast-parallel oscillating tidal currents, a significant water level differential (23 meter) will appear between both sides of the dam.
FIGURE 3: Tidal Turbine
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FIGURE 4: A Barrage gates and, usually, slip locks, all linked to the shore with embankments. When the tides produce an adequate difference in the level 1) Barrage or dam of the water on opposite sides of the dam, A barrage or dam is typically used to the sluice gates are opened. The water then convert tidal energy into electricity by flows through the turbines. The turbines turn forcing the water through turbines, an electric generator to produce electricity. activating a generator. The basic components of a barrage are turbines, sluice TECHNOLOGIES
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FIGURE 5: A barrage 2) Tidal Fences Tidal fences look like giant turnstiles. They can reach across channels between small islands or across straits between the mainland and an island. The turnstiles spin via tidal currents typical of coastal waters. Some of these currents run at 58 knots (5.69 miles per hour) and generate as much energy as winds of much higher velocity. Because seawater has a much higher density than air, ocean currents carry significantly more energy than air currents (wind). Tidal fences are composed of individual, vertical axis turbines which are mounted within the fence structure, known as a caisson, and they can be thought of as giant turn styles which completely block a channel, forcing all of the water through them. Unlike barrage tidal power stations, tidal fences can also be used in unconfined basins, such as in the channel between the mainland and a nearby off shore island, or between two islands. As a result, tidal fences have much less impact on the environment, as they do not require flooding of the basin and are significantly cheaper to install. Tidal fences also have the advantage of being able to generate electricity once the initial modules are installed, rather than after complete installation as in the case of barrage technologies. Tidal fences are not free of environmental as a caisson structure is still required, which can disrupt the movement of large marine animals and shipping.
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FIGURE 6: Tidal Fence 3) Tidal Turbines Tidal turbines look like wind turbines. They are arrayed underwater in rows, as in some wind farms. The turbines function best where coastal currents run at between 3.6 and 4.9 knots (4 and 5.5 mph). In currents of that speed, a 15-meter (49.2-feet) diameter tidal turbine can generate as much energy as a 60-meter (197-feet) diameter wind turbine. Ideal locations for tidal turbine farms are close to shore in water depths of 2030 meters (65.598.5 feet). There are different types of turbines that are available for use in a tidal barrage. A bulb turbine is one in which water flows around the turbine. If maintenance is required then the water must be stopped which causes a problem and is time consuming with possible loss of generation. The La Rance tidal plant near St Malo on the Brittany coast in France uses a bulb turbine. When rim turbines are used, the generator is mounted at right angles to the to the turbine blades, making access easier. But this type of turbine is not suitable for pumping and it is difficult to regulate its performance. One example is the Straflo turbine used at Annapolis Royal in Nova Scotia. Tubular turbines have been proposed for the UKs most promising site, The Severn Estuary, the blades of this turbine are connected to a long shaft and are orientated at an angle so that the generator is sitting on top of the barrage. The environmental and ecological effects of tidal barrages have halted any progress with this technology and there are only a few commercially operating plants in the world, one of these is the La Rance barrage in France.
FIGURE 7: Bulb Turbine
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FIGURE 8: Rim Turbine
FIGURE 9: Tubular Turbine Ebb generation operates) is greater than the CATEGORY OF GENERATION volume of the lower half (the domain of Ebb generation The basin is filled through the sluices and Flood generation). freewheeling turbines until high tide. Then the sluice gates and turbine gates are closed. Two-way generation They are kept closed until the sea level falls Generation occurs both as the tide ebbs and floods. This mode is only comparable to Ebb to create sufficient head across the barrage and the turbines generate until the head is generation at spring tides, and in general is again low. Then the sluices are opened, less efficient. Turbines designed to operate turbines disconnected and the basin is filled in both directions are less efficient. again. The cycle repeats itself. Ebb generation (also known as outflow Pumping generation) takes its name because Turbines can be powered in reverse by generation occurs as the tide ebbs. excess energy in the grid to increase the water level in the basin at high tide (for Ebb generation and two-way generation). This Flood generation The basin is emptied through the sluices and energy is returned during generation. turbines generate at tide flood. This is generally much less efficient than Ebb Two-basin schemes generation, because the volume contained in With two basins, one is filled at high tide the upper half of the basin (which is where and the other is emptied at low tide.
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Turbines are placed between the basins. Two-basin schemes offer advantages over normal schemes in that generation time can be adjusted with high flexibility and it is also possible to generate almost
continuously. In normal estuarine situations, however, two-basin schemes are very expensive to construct due to the cost of the extra length.
FIGURE 10: A Two Basin Tidal Power Station ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES b. Construction of barrages poses serious environmental problems like plant and fish migration, slit and mud deposits, waste and sewage blocks. c. Can give full output only for 10 hours a day when the tide is coming in or going out. CONCLUSIONS Tidal energy, compared to all other non conventional sources of energy is still a newbie. It has not been exploited in a manner it should have till now. But it is growing at a very fast rate from the past few decades. The major disadvantage in using the tidal power is the installation, production, storage and transportation cost. Tidal power plants require sophisticated machineries and systems for production of electricity and also due to the fact that these power
1. ADVANTAGES
a. It is a renewable source. Hence needs no fuel to maintain. b. No pollutants are produced. Hence the effect of green house gases and hence the problem of global warming is totally nullified. c. Predictable source of energy. Does not depend on nature or climate or weather. It follows a periodic cycle of lunar orbit. d. Higher efficiency than wind energy because of high density of water. e. Also provides protection coastlines from high storm tides.
2. DISADVANTAGES
a. Extremely costly.
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plants are usually situated deep into the sea water, the grid transportation also takes a lot of toll on the finances. On the positive part, tidal energy is absolutely free and except the installation cost, does not need any source for production of electricity. It is the most non
polluting source of energy that poses least threat to human and marine flora and fauna. The power generated neither depends on climate nor weather. It is a function of the gravitational force between earth-sun and earthmoon systems and hence is ever exploitable.
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WIND ENERGY
Author: Megha Raj M.N.1 4th SEM, Mechanical Engineering, Vidya Vikas Institute of Engineering and Technology, Mysore-10
Abstract
The ever increasing rapid use of the fossil fuels day by day has threatened exhausting of conventional energy sources very soon. Also the use of conventional energy sources has increased the global pollution level which is resulting in climate change. Therefore time has come for searching altogether other sources of energy which are inexhaustible and gradually replace the conventional sources. The non conventional energy sources such as solar, wind, tidal, ocean etc are basically renewable energy resources. The energy available from each of theses sources can be used to produce mechanical and electrical power. These are produced continuously in nature and are essentially inexhaustible atleast in the frame work of human societies.Wind energy is one of non conventional energy source. Wind power is one of the most ecofriendly means to generate electricity . The time taken to set up wind power project is very short compare to set up a conventional thermal power plant using coal or nuclear energy.
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Introduction Energy , a word derived from Greek word Energia, meaning capacity for doing work. All forms of energy are interconvertable by appropriate processes. Energy can also be classified as conventional and non conventional eneegy sources. Presently most of our energy sources comes mainly from fossile fuels such as coal, petrolium, and natural gas.The ever increasing rapid use of fossile fuels day by day has threatened exhausting of these sources very soon. . Without energy, the world's entire industrialized infrastructure would collapse; agriculture, transportation, waste collection, information technology, communications and much of the prerequisites that a developed nation takes for granted.Therefore time has come for searching altogether other sourceses of energy which are inexhaustible called non conventional energy sources such as wind energy, tidal energy, solar energy, bio energy and so on. These energy resources replenish themselves naturally in a relatively short time and therefore will always be available.Except the biomass energy sources all other renewable energy sources offer pollution free environment and also help in maintaining the ecological balance.
Wind energy is the energy contained in the force of the winds blowing across the earths surface.When harnessed, wind energy can be converted into mechanical energy for performing work such as pumping water, grinding grain by wind mills and producing electrical energy, by wind turbines.The circulation of air in the atmosphere is caused by the non uniform heating of the earths surface by the sun. The air immediately above a warm area expands and becomes less dense. It is then forced upwards by a cool denser air which flows in the surrounding areas causing a wind. Wind machines were used for grinding grain in Persia as early as 200 B.C. This type of machine was introduced into the Roman Empire by 250 A.D. By the 14th century Dutch windmills were in use to drain areas of the Rhine River delta. In Denmark by 1900 there were about 2500 windmills for mechanical loads such as pumps and mills, producing an estimated combined peak power of about 30 MW. The first windmill for electricity production was built in Cleveland, Ohio by Charles F. Brush in 1888[1], and in 1908 there were 72 wind-driven electric generators from 5 kW to 25 kW fig(1). The largest machines were on 24 m (79 ft) towers with four-bladed 23 m (75 ft) diameter rotors. In Denmark wind power was an important part of a decentralized electrification in the first quarter of the 20th century, partly because of the Danish wind power scientist Poul la Cour.
Introduction to Wind Energy
Fig (1) A Two Bladed Wind Turbine

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By the 1930s windmills were mainly used to generate electricity on farms, mostly in the United States where distribution systems had not yet been installed. In this period, high tensile steel was cheap, and windmills were placed atop prefabricated open steel lattice towers. A forerunner of modern horizontal-axis wind Wind Energy in India
generators was in service at Yalta, USSR in 1931. This was a 100 kW generator on a 30 m (100 ft) tower, connected to the local 6.3 kV distribution system. It was reported to have an annual load factor of 32 per cent, not much different from current wind machines.
The Gross potential of wind energy is 45000 MW. The average velocity of wind across the country is 5 km/hr to 15 20 km/hr. In India, early wind mills came up in 1950s and 1960s.With an installed generation
capacity of 1702.30 MW as on 31.3.2002 of wind power, India now ranks 5th in the world after Germany, USA, Denmark and Spain in wind power generation. According to a recent estimate, the gross wind power generation potential in the country is estimated at 45,195 MW at 50 Mtr.
Table1. Installed Capacity of Wind power in India State Gross Potential in MW Total Installed Capacity in MW Demonstration Projects (MW) 5.40 17.30 2.60 2.00 0.60 6.40 6.40 19.40 1.10 1.60 62.80 Private Sector Projects (MW) 87.20 149.60 93.60 0.00 22.00 392.80 18.70 875.60 0.00 0.00 1639.50 Total Capacity (MW) 92.60 166.90 96.20 2.00 22.60 399.20 25.10 895.00 1.10 1.60 1702.30
Andhra Pradesh Gujarat Karnataka Kerala Madhya Pradesh Maharashtra Orissa Rajasthan Tamil Nadu West Bengal Total
8275 9675 6620 875 5500 3650 1700 5400 3050 450 45195
In comparison to U.K., Netherlands, Denmark, and France, Bangalore has potential to tap wind energy. Netherland : 19 to 32 kmph (5.3 to 8.9 m/sec) Denmark : 22 to 31 kmph (6.1 to 8.6 m/sec) U.K : 16 to 42 kmph (4.4 to 11.7 m/sec) France : 16 to 40 kmph (4.4 m/sec)
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Bangalore (India)
: 12 kmph(3.3 m/sec)
A few power plants in India
1. Kayathar, TamilNadu 2750 KW. 2. Mandvi, Gujarat 414 KW. 3. Okha, Gujarat 350 KW. 4. Lamba, Gujarat 200 KW. 5. Muppandal, TamilNadu 4000 KW 6. Kappatgudda, Gadag District, Karnataka 2000 KW
Wind Energy in Karnataka state
Mangalore are given in the following data.
The wind speed recorder observations at Bangalore and

Table2. Wind speed in cities of Karnataka
Station
Yearly Mean Speed
m/sec Mangalore Karwar Belgaum Belgaum (Airport) Dharwad and Gadag Bidar Gulbarga Raichur Bangalore Coorg Mysore The wind speed reaches a peak value during the South West monsoon periods in Bangalore (May September). The mean wind speed is in the range of 6 m/sec to 7 m/sec, during the 5 months May, June, July, August and September. After September the wind speed reduces drastically and prior to May the speed is low. Thus Karnataka does have the requisites to adopt to Km/hr 8.4 9.5 9.3 9.7 11.4 13.3 13.2 13.0 13.7 11.0 10.6 2.3 2.6 2.6 2.7 3.2 3.7 3.7 3.6 3.8 3.0 2.9 wind energy in the present era where every crisis is utmost.
Installed capacities
Only 20000 MW of power can be tapped from the available wind energy. At present, 1566 MW of commercial projects have been established (Dated:
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31-03-2002). The states having the wind power plants are Gujarat, A.P, Karnataka, T.N, Maharashtra, Orissa, Rajasthan, West Bengal, M.P etc. The mean annual wind power density exceeds 150w/m2 at 30m level above ground. This measurement is done at 53 stations by conducting experiments. Considering the average velocity of wind at 155 stations, this value is obtained by numerical calculations. It is surveyed that there are about 476 Construction Materials
Wood and canvas sails were originally used on early windmills due to being cheap and easily manufactured. Unfortunately they require much maintenance over their service life. Also, they have a relatively high drag (low aerodynamic efficiency) for the force they capture. For these reasons they were superseded with solid airfoils. One of the strongest and stiffest construction materials available for wind turbine
wind monitoring stations in India. Out of which, 219 stations have wind power density 150w/m2. In Andhra Pradesh, there are 61 stations, of which 29 stations have more than 150w/m2 power density. In Karnataka, under MNES there are 32 stations, out of which 18 have wind power density of150w/m2. Secondly, KPCL has 19 stations, out of which 08 more than 150w/m2.
blades is carbon-fibre in an epoxy resin matrix, however is very expensive and only used by some blade manufactures for highly loaded parts of the rotor blades and when stiffness is critical. Modern rotor blades (up to 126 m (413 ft) diameter) are made of lightweight glassreinforced plastic (GRP) with an epoxy or polyester resin matrix. Smaller blades can sometimes be made from aluminium, however GRP is the most common material for modern wind turbine blades. Fig(2)Wind turbine blades can however be made from a wide variety of materials.
Fig(2) medium size modern turbine blades. For a given survivable wind speed, the mass of a turbine is approximately proportional to the cube of its blade-length. Wind power intercepted by the turbine is proportional to the square of its blade-length. The maximum bladelength of a turbine is limited by both the strength and stiffness of its material.Labor and maintenance costs increase only gradually with increasing turbine size, so to minimize costs, wind farm turbines are basically limited by the strength of materials, and siting requirements.Typical modern wind turbines have diameters of 40 to 90 meters (130-300 ft) and are rated between 500 KW and 2 MW. Currently (2005) the most powerful turbine is rated at 6 MW.
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Power Generation In 1941 the world's first megawatt-size wind turbine was connected to the local electrical distribution system on Grandpa's Knob in Castleton, Vermont, USA. This 1.25 MW Smith-Putnam turbine operated for 1100 hours before a blade failed at a known weak point, which had not been reinforced due to war-time material shortages. In the 1940s, the U.S. had a rural electrification project that killed the natural market for wind-generated power, since network power distribution provided a farm with more dependable usable energy for a given amount of capital investment. For large, commercial size horizontalaxis wind turbines, the generator is mounted in a nacelle at the top of a tower, behind the hub of
the turbine rotor. A speed increasing gearbox may be inserted between the rotor hub and the generator, so that the generator cost and weight can be reduced. Commercial size generators have a rotor carrying a field winding so that a rotating magnetic field is produced inside a set of windings called the stator. While the rotating field winding consumes a fraction of a percent of the generator output, adjustment of the field current allows good control over the generator output voltage (one of the such turbine is illustrated in fig3). Very small wind generators (a few watts to perhaps a kilowatt in output) may use permanent magnets but these are too costly to use in large machines and do not allow convenient regulation of the generator voltage .
Fig(3) Wind Turbines

Electrical generators inherently produce AC power. Older style wind generators rotate at a constant speed, to match power line frequency, which allowed the use of less costly induction generators. Newer wind turbines often turn at whatever speed generates electricity most efficiently. This can be solved using multiple technologies such as doubly fed induction generators or full-effect converters where the variable frequency current produced is converted to DC and then back to AC, matching the line frequency and voltage. Although such alternatives require costly equipment and cause power loss, the turbine can capture a significantly larger fraction of the wind energy. In some cases, especially when turbines are sited offshore, the DC energy will be transmitted from the turbine to a central (onshore) inverter for connection to the grid.
Wind sensor Wind sensors are used to know the speed of the wind, direction of wind flow. One of the example for wind sensor is
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ultrasonic
wind
sensor
which
has
following advantages Fig(4),
Fig(4) Wind Sensor Measures wind speed and direction from the smallest breeze to hurricane force gales (0...65 m/s), including gusts Superior data availability and accuracy in all wind directions due to the patented three transducer layout Averaging of wind speed and direction Analog, RS-232, RS-422, RS-485 and SDI-12 outputs Low power consumption No moving parts: virtually maintenance free Fig(5) Worldwide installed capacity and Stainless steel construction prediction 1997-2010 Heated model available US National Weather Service relies India ranks 5th in the world on Vaisala ultrasonic technology with a total wind power capacity of 1080MW out of which 1025MW have been Wind Energy Utilization established in commercial projects. In India the states of Tamilnadu and Gujarat lead in Five nations Germany, USA, the field of wind energy. At the end of Denmark, Spain and India account for March 2000 India had 1080-MWs capacity 80% of the worlds installed wind energy wind farms, of which Tamilnadu contributed capacity. Wind energy continues to be the 770-MW capacity. Gujarat has 167MW fastest growing renewable energy source followed by Andhra Pradesh, which has 88 with worldwide wind power installed MW installed wind farms.There are about a capacity reaching 14,000 MW .The dozen wind pumps of various designs prediction for the years 1997-2010 is shown providing water for agriculture, in Fig(5). afforestation, and domestic purposes, all scattered over the country.
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Early in the millennium, Suzlon commissioned its Vankusawade wind park in the Satara District of Indias Maharashtra state which at 201 MW of capacity, ranked as Asia's largest on completion. Suzlon has since taken great strides and is today building what will be among the worlds largest wind parks. Suzlons Dhule wind park site, located approximately 30 km from the town of Nandurbar in Maharashtra, is spread across a vast, undulating expanse.
Advantages of non conventional energy sources
The state of the art in harnessing renewable energy sources is not yet fully developed to meet present day requirements. Conclusion The Conventional sources of energy are going to exhaust in near future. Now time has come to utilize the locally available energy sources to the maximum extent as they are ecofriendly and does not cause pollution. Eventhough these sources cannot satisfy our complete need, utilization of Non conventional energy sources reduces the burden of depending on Conventional sources which are hazardous and pollution oriented. Presently our 90% need comes from conventional energy sources because production cost of energy from non conventional energy resources is very high as it is produced in small scale but if we produce energy in large scale the cost will come down.Therefore precise measure and strategy are planned and implemented to ground floor level and making maximum use of these sources.
References
These energy sources are non exhaustible. Minimisation of transmission cost. Except biomass energy all other renewable energy resources are pollution free. The power generation cost is low compared to conventional energy sources. Minimisation of power transmission losses. Locally available energy sources are effectively utilised.
Disadvantages of non conventional energy sources
The intermittent nature of the availability of energy setback in the continuous supply of energy. Some of renewable energy sources such as wind, tidal etc are concentrated only in certain regions. The application of renewable energy resources to transport sector is not viable as on today
http://www.wwindea.org/ http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_ crisis www.Suzlon.com http://www.energy.ca.gov/ http://www.eia.doe.gov/ www.fe.doe.gov/education www.ase.org/greenschools www.conserinfo.org
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RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES AND THEIR APPLICATION

Author: Sheethal Kumar P1 1 th 2 Sem, MBA, Vidya Vikas Institute of Management & Studies, VVIET Mysore - 10
PREAMBLE
In the primordial times century, it has been observed that the utilization of nonrenewable sources of energy has caused more ecological harm than any other human activity. Electricity generated from fossil fuels such as coal and crude oil has led to high concentrations of injurious gases in the atmosphere. This has in turn led to many troubles being faced today such as ozone depletion and global warming. Vehicular pollution has also been a major trouble. Therefore alternative sources of energy have become very important and relevant to todays world. These sources, such as the sun and wind, can never be worn out and therefore are called renewable.
A renewable energy system converts the energy found in sunlight, wind, falling-water, seawaves, geothermal heat, or biomass into a form, we can use such as heat or electricity. Most of the renewable energy comes either directly or indirectly from sun and wind and can never be exhausted, and therefore they are called renewable. However, most of the world's energy sources are derived from predictable sources-fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and natural gases. These fuels are often termed non-renewable energy sources. Although, the available quantity of these fuels are extremely large, they are nevertheless finite and so will in principle run out at some time in the future .Renewable energy sources are essentially flows of energy, whereas the fossil and nuclear fuels are, in essence, stocks of energy .Renewable sources of energy are currently unevenly and inadequately exploited in the European Union. Although many of them are
plentifully available, and the real economic potential substantial, renewable sources of energy make a insufficiently small contribution of less than 6% to the Unions overall gross inland energy consumption, which is predicted to grow steadily in the future.
The expected growth in energy expenditure in many third countries, in Asia, Latin America and Africa, which to a large extent can be satisfied using renewable energies, offers promising business opportunities for European Union industries, which in many areas are world leaders as regards renewable energy technologies.
OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

To know how renewable energy sources could save the environment from further damages. To know how renewable energy sources could be applicable in different areas.
NEED FOR RENEWABLE ENERGY RESOURCES

Why do we need an alternative energy source? The answer is simple, and comes in two parts, based upon ecology's two principle criteria for unique between eco-friendly and ecologically disparaging technologies. First, none of our major energy sources are sustainable. Second, almost all of our major energy sources pollute the environment. Nuclear power, for example, is widely touted by some as a "solution" to global warming because it creates no greenhouse emissions. It
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does, however, create toxic nuclear waste which is deadly to all life for thousands of years. Fissionable material is also available in only limited quantities. Thus, nuclear power is not only anti-ecological, but also not a sustainable option when it comes to dealing with our energy needs. The vast majority of our energy, however, currently comes from fossil fuels. These include: coal, oil and natural gas. The current article will therefore focus upon them.
FOSSIL FUELS ARE NOT A SUSTAINABLE SOURCE OF POWER

The first problem with fossil fuels is that they are not a sustainable source of energy. Fossil fuels are essentially ancient organic material which has been distorted by various geological processes into combustible form. Thus, they truly are "fossils" of ancient organic life. The problem is that all exist in limited quantities, which are used up as they are consumed. While coal remains relatively abundant, it is by far the dirtiest of the three (only slightly cleaner than burning wood).Natural gas is also available in fairly large quantities, and much cleaner, but is only a short term solution to our energy needs at best. Petroleum, or oil, is very quickly being used up. In fact, Campbell & Laherrere (1998), two oil company analysts, predicted almost a decade ago that world oil production would peak and begin to decline within a decade. They used the same methodology which /successfully/ predicted the peak of oil production in the continental United States. And with China and India industrializing, and demand increasing, petroleum is not likely to last until the end of the present century. It will also become increasingly expensive as demand exceeds supply. The Ecological Effects of Fossil Fuel Dependence beyond the fact that fossil fuels are unsustainable, however, is the fact that they are ecologically destructive.
A policy for the promotion of renewable requires across-the-board initiatives encompassing a wide range of policies: energy, environment, employment, taxation, competition, research, technological development and demonstration, agriculture, regional and external relations policies. A central aim of a strategy for renewable energy will be to ensure that the need to promote these energy sources is recognized in new policy initiatives, as well as in full implementation of existing policies, in all of the above areas. In fact, a comprehensive action plan is required to ensure the necessary co-ordination and consistency in implementing these policies at Community, national and local levels.
CURRENT SITUATION
Renewable energy sources still make an unacceptably modest contribution to the Communitys energy balance as compared with the available technical potential. There are signs, however, that this is changing, albeit slowly. The resource base is better understood, the technologies are improving steadily, attitudes towards their uses are changing, and the renewable energy manufacturing and service industries are maturing. But renewable still have difficulties in taking off, in marketing terms. In fact many renewable technologies need little effort to become competitive. Moreover, biomass, including energy crops, wind and solar energy all offer a large unexploited technical potential. Current trends show that considerable technological progress related to renewable energy technologies has been achieved over recent years. Costs are rapidly dropping and many renewable, under the right conditions, have reached or are approaching economic viability. The first signs of large-scale implementation are also appearing as regards wind energy and solar thermal collectors. Some technologies, in particular
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biomass, small hydro and wind, are currently competitive and economically viable in particular compared to other decentralized applications. Solar photovoltaics, although characterized by rapidly declining costs, remain more dependent on favorable conditions. Solar water heaters are currently competitive in many regions of the Union. Under prevailing economic conditions, a serious obstacle to greater use of certain renewable has been higher initial investment costs. Although comparative costs for markedly, their use is still hampered in many situations by higher initial investment costs as compared with conventional fuel cycles (although operational fuel costs are nonexistent for renewable with the exception of biomass). This is particularly the case due to the fact that energy prices for conventional fuel cycles do not currently reflect the objective full cost, including the external cost to society of environmental damage caused by their use. A further obstacle is that renewable energy technologies, as is the case for many other innovative technologies, suffer from initial lack of confidence on the part of investors, governments and users, caused by lack of familiarity with their technical and economic potential and a general resistance to change and new ideas. Globally, Europe is at the forefront for several renewable energy technologies. Significant employment is associated with the industries concerned in the European Union, involving several hundred companies, mainly small and medium-sized enterprises, in primary assembling/manufacturing alone, without taking into account other service and supply needs. For the new renewable energy technologies (i.e. not including large hydroelectric power stations and the traditional use of biomass) the world-wide annual turnover of the industry is estimated to be
higher than ECU 5 billion, of which Europe has more than a one third share.
HOW RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES SAVE THE ENVIRONMENT

The strong step taken to urge sustainable energy will practically protect the environment as alternative sources of energy are going to be harnessed. There will be a shift away from over-exploited conventional energy sources. The use of sophisticated technology to produce, transmit and convert electricity will decrease wastage of energy. This is likely going to safeguard the environment from extensive pollution emitted by fossil fuel. It becomes fundamental to integrate renewable energy across categories of populations. The poorer countries should also be part in the transformation agenda. Most energy projects are in the richer countries and are promoted mainly through loans, grants and other forms of assistance. Small-scale clean technology must reach parts of the world where technology is infrequent and referred to as a luxury that most must go without. Intelligence and commitment are required on the part of investors and government to make this a reality. Renewable energy is created from natural sources such as sunlight, wind, water, waste products, hydrogen and other sources that can be naturally refilled. With the advent of technology new devices are now available. It includes biogas plants, solar water heaters, solar cookers, street lights, pumps, wind electric generators, water-pumping wind mills, biomass gasifies and small hydroelectric generators. Currently, renewable sources contribute around 9 per cent of the total power installed capacity in the country.
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Adopting such technologies would protect our environment by reducing pollution. The Government of India is also working to develop advanced technologies of renewable energy such as: geothermal energy, ocean energy, fuel cells, bio fuels and tidal energy to satisfy future energy requirements. And also Energy saving is the practice of reducing the amount of energy being used through consumption of power efficient devices like light bulbs or air conditioners and other electronic devices. By making Carbon emission test to vehicles. A carbon emissions certificate tells you what the fuel usage of the car is and the level of emissions it will produce over the next 12000 miles, putting it within a particular band on the Vehicle Excise Duty (VED) scale. However, biomass accounts for a large portion of the primary sources of energy consumption in India. The sources of biomass are as follows; 45 percent comes from agricultural residues, 35 percent from wood and wood waste and 20 percent from animal dung. Today, Biomass supplies approximately 14 percent of the total energy consumption for industrial and commercial use. Main energy used to cook food is natural gas, liquefied petroleum gas, biomass fuel and kerosene. There is a great possibility to use biogas to produce electricity in India. The target by the Indian government is to have 20 percent of total energy required, supplied from renewable energy by year 2020. In order to achieve this goal it will have to increase the level of solar systems and establish biogas plants in rural areas. Other possible approach could also be used such as using solar cookers, solar dyer and solar water heating systems.
APPLICATIONS OF RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES

Solar energy Wind energy Bio energy Hydro energy Geothermal energy Wave and tidal energy.
Solar energy is the energy derived directly from the Sun. Along with nuclear energy; it is the most abundant source of energy on Earth. The fastest growing type of alternative energy, increasing at 50 percent a year, is the photovoltaic cell, which converts sunlight directly into electricity. The Sun yearly delivers more than 10,000 times the energy that humans currently use. This energy used in Solar water heaters, Solar Cooker, Solar Electricity Generation,Solar Water Pumps. Wind power is derived from uneven heating of the Earth's surface from the Sun and the warm core. Most modern wind power is generated in the form of electricity by converting the rotation of turbine blades into electrical current by means of an electrical generator. In windmills (a much older technology) wind energy is used to turn mechanical machinery to do physical work, like crushing grain or pumping water. This energy is used in Vertical-axis wind turbines, in which the axis of rotation is vertical with respect to the ground (and roughly perpendicular to the wind stream), Horizontal-axis turbines, in which the axis of rotation is horizontal with respect to the ground (and roughly parallel to the wind stream.) Wind electric generators (WEG).
Biomass is a renewable energy resource derived from the carbonaceous waste of various human and natural activities. It is derived from
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numerous sources, including the by-products from the wood industry, agricultural crops, raw material from the forest, household wastes etc. Biomass does not add carbon dioxide to the atmosphere as it absorbs the same amount of carbon in growing as it releases when consumed as a fuel. Its advantage is that it can be used to generate electricity with the same equipment that is now being used for burning fossil fuels.Bio energy is being used for: Cooking, mechanical applications, pumping, power generation Some of the devices : Biogas plant/ gasifier/burner, gasifier engine pump sets, stirling engine pump sets, producer gas/ biogas based engine generator sets .
Alcohol derived from corn, sugar cane, switch grass, etc. is also a renewable source of energy. Similarly, oils from plants and seeds can be used as a substitute for nonrenewable diesel. Methane is also considered as a renewable source of energy.
THE BENEFITS OF RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES

Renewable energy has a host of social, environmental, and economic benefits. To be truly sustainable, an energy source must meet these criteria:

Hydropower is energy derived from the movement of water in rivers and oceans (or other energy differentials), can likewise be used to generate electricity using turbines, or can be used mechanically to do useful work. It is a very common resource. Hydropower used in Small Hydro power generator`, Micro Hydel. Geothermal energy directly harnesses the natural flow of heat from the ground. The available energy from natural decay of radioactive elements in the Earth's crust and mantle is approximately equal to that of incoming solar energy. Tidal electricity generation involves the construction of a barrage across an estuary to block the incoming and outgoing tide. The head of water is then used to drive turbines to generate electricity from the elevated water in the basin as in hydroelectric dams. Barrages can be designed to generate electricity on the ebb side, or flood side, or both. Tidal range may vary over a wide range (4.5-12.4 m) from site to site. A tidal range of at least 7 m is required for economical operation and for sufficient head of water for the turbines.
Have minimal or no negative environmental or social impact; Not deplete natural resources; Meet the needs of people today and in the future in an accessible, equitable and efficient manner; Have little or no net carbon or other greenhouse gas emissions; Be safe today and not burden future generations with unnecessary risk; We can use it repeatedly without depleting it; No contribution to global warming; No polluting emissions; Low cost applications when counting all costs; Saving on health and its costs. Renewable energy sources can meet all these criteria. Renewable energy puts energy in our hands by offering increased local control of energy production, helping to ensure stable prices and increase the security of our energy supply. Renewable energy also provides environmental benefits such as helping to improve local air quality and reducing our impact on the land, water and climate system. Increased use of renewable
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energy will also help boost local economies through job creation. No other energy source can provide all these benefits. In comparison, continued reliance on conventional energy sources such as fossil fuels and nuclear power will perpetuate a host of environmental, social, and political problems and hold us dependent on limited resources controlled by a few countries and corporations. The advantage of renewable resources includes their inability to produce carbonbased warming and polluting agents into the atmosphere. The financial cost of its applications is not always cheap but if the environmental costs of using fossil fuels are accounted for, renewable energy wins hands-down. There are also indirect savings on health and its costs as there are no harmful emissions.
renewable energy has the potential to create many employment opportunities at all levels, especially in rural areas. An emphasis on presenting the real picture of massive renewable energy potential, it would be possible to attract foreign investments to herald a Green Energy Revolution in India.
REFERENCES
Carbon Offset Projects.mht Alternate Energy Sources by T H Taylor.Adam Hilger Ltd, Bristol Renewable Energy Sources for rural areas in Asia and Pacific, APO, Tokyo, 2000 www.ireda.org www.windenergy.com Renewable Energy Resources in India.mht The Advantage Of Renewable Energy___ And More!.mht Solar Energy to Biofuels - Annual Review of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, 1(1) Abstract.mht How Carbon Offsets Work Reducing & Offsetting Your Carbon Footprint.mht Carbonfund_org's Board of Directors.mht Energy development - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.mht Financial Chronicle Wednesday, May 5, 2010. Financial Chronicle Tuesday, April 20, 2010. http://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v& pid=gmail&attid=0.1&thid=12863c7 e618ce1de&mt=application%2Fpdf &url=http%3A%2F%.
CONCLUSION
Renewable Energy is a well recognized critical national resource and accordingly its further development needs to be given priority. The provision made for specification of state-wise renewable purchase obligation based on availability of renewable sources was an important tool handed over to the states by the Government. Yet it was unsuccessful in achieving the desired results leading to the realization that it was time to move beyond the state boundaries. There is an urgent need for transition from petroleum-based energy systems to one based on renewable resources to decrease reliance on depleting reserves of fossil fuels and to mitigate climate change. In addition,
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RENEWABLE ENEGRY RESOURCES

Authors: Srivatsa B.S.1, Ganesh Shankar2,
4 Sem, Mechanical Engineering, Vidya Vikas Institute of Engineering & Technology, VVIET Mysore - 10
th
1.1
INTRODUCTION.
1.3
d) Hydro energy. e) Geothermal energy. f) Wave and Tidal energy. HYDRO ENERGY.
Renewable energy sources also called non-conventional energy are sources that are continuously replenished by natural processes. For example, solar energy, wind energy, bio-energy - bio-fuels grown sustain ably), hydropower etc., are some of the examples of renewable energy resources.
A renewable energy system converts the energy found in sunlight, wind, falling-water, sea-waves, geothermal heat, or biomass into a form, we can use such as heat or electricity. Most of the renewable energy comes either directly or indirectly from sun and wind and can never be exhausted and therefore they are called renewable. However, most of the world's energy sources are derived from conventional sourcesfossil fuels such as coal, oil, and natural gases. These fuels are often termed non-renewable energy sources. Although, the available quantity of these fuels are extremely large, they are nevertheless finite and so will in principle run out at some time in the future. Renewable energy sources are essentially flows of energy, whereas the fossil and nuclear fuels are in stocks of energy.
Hydroelectric power plants convert the kinetic energy contained in falling water into electricity. The energy in flowing water is ultimately derived from the sun, and is therefore constantly being renewed. Energy contained in sunlight evaporates water from the oceans and deposits it on land in the form of rain. Differences in land elevation result in rainfall runoff, and allow some of the original solar energy to be captured as hydroelectric power. Hydropower is currently the world's largest renewable source of electricity, accounting for 6% of worldwide energy supply or about 15% of the world's electricity. Traditionally thought of as a cheap and clean source of electricity, most large hydro-electric schemes being planned today are coming up against a great deal of opposition from environmental groups and native people. 1.3.1 HISTORY.
1.2 VARIOUS FORMS RENEWABLE ENERGY. a) Solar energy. b) Wind energy. c) Bio energy.
OF
Humans have used falling water to provide power for grain and saw mills, as well as a host of other applications. The first use of moving water to produce electricity was a waterwheel on the Fox River in Wisconsin in 1882, two years after Thomas Edison unveiled the incandescent light bulb. The first of many hydroelectric power plants at Niagara Falls was completed shortly thereafter. Hydropower continued to play a major role in the expansion of electrical service early in this century, both in North
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America and around the world. Contemporary Hydroelectric power plants generate anywhere from a few kW, enough for a single residence, to thousands of MW, power enough to supply a large city. Early hydroelectric power plants were much more reliable and efficient than the fossil fuel fired plants of the day. This resulted in a proliferation of small to medium sized hydroelectric generating stations distributed wherever there was an adequate supply of moving water and a need for electricity. As electricity demand soared in the middle years of this century, and the efficiency of coal and oil fuelled power plants increased, small hydro plants fell out of favour. Most new hydro-electric development was focused on huge "megaprojects. In India, hydropower plant of 130kw installed capacity was commissioned in 1897 at sidrapong at Dargiling in West Bengal and followed by 4.5MW plant at sivsamudram in Karnataka in 1902.during period between two world wars, a number of hydro power plants such as 48MW, at Jogindernagar(H.P.),17.4MW Ganga power plant(U.P.), 38.75MWpykaraand 30MWmatter(Chennai)were commissioned,from installed capacity of 1362MW,out of which hydropower was 508 MW in 1947,the pace of growth has been rapid in post independence era. The hydal install capacity by the end 2001 is 25,574MW, out of total capacity of 102907MW.
c) High head hydro electric power plant. 1.3.21 LOW HEAD HYDRO ELECTRIC POWER PLANT.
The low head hydroelectric power plants are the ones in which the available water head is less than 30 meters. The dam in this type of power plants is of very small head may be even of few meters only. In certain cases weir is used and in other cases there is no dam at all and merely flowing water in the river is used for generation of electricity. The low head types of hydroelectric power plants cannot store water and electricity is produced only when sufficient flow of water is available in the river. Thus they produce electricity only during particular seasons when abundant flow of water is available. Since the head of water is very small in these hydroelectric power plants, they have lesser power producing capacity. 1.3.22 MEDIUM HEAD ELECTRIC POWER PLANT. HYDRO
1.3.2 CLASSIFICATION OF HYDRO POWER PLANTS. a) Low head hydro electric power plant. b) Medium head hydro electric power plant.
The hydroelectric power plants in which the working head of water is more than 30 meters but less than 300 meters are called medium head hydroelectric power plants. These hydroelectric power plant are usually located in the mountainous regions where the rivers flows at high heights, thus obtaining the high head of the water in dam becomes possible. In medium head hydroelectric plants dams are constructed behind which there can be large reservoir of water. Water from the reservoir can be taken to the power generation system where electricity is generated.
1.3.23 HIGH HEAD ELECTRIC POWER PLANT.
HYDRO
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In the high head hydroelectric power plants the head of water available for producing electricity is more than 300 meters and it can extend even up to 1000 meters. These are the most commonly constructed hydroelectric power plants. In the high head hydroelectric power plants huge dams are constructed across the rivers. There is large reservoir of water in the dams that can store water at very high heads. Water is mainly stored during the rainy seasons and it can be used throughout the year. Thus the high head hydroelectric power plants can generate electricity throughout the year. The high head hydroelectric power plants are very important in the national grid because they can be adjusted easily to produce the power as per the required loads. When constructing the high head types of hydroelectric power plants a number of factors especially those related to the environment and natural ecosystem of the land and water should be considered. The total height of the dam depends upon a number of factors like quantity of available water, power to be generated, surrounding areas, natural ecosystem etc. 1.3.3 PRINCIPLE OF WORKING OF HYDRO ELECTRIC POWER PLANT. The hydro electric plant, also called as dam or hydropower plant is used for generation of electricity from water on large scale basis. The dam is built across the large river that has sufficient quantity of water throughout the river. In certain cases where the river is very large, more than one dam can built across the river at different locations. The water flowing in the river possesses two type of energy: the kinetic energy due to flow of water and potential energy due to the height of water. In
hydroelectric power plants or dams potential energy of water is utilized to generate electricity. The formula for total power that can be generated from water in hydroelectric power plant due to its height is given by P = rhg Where: P is the total power that can be produced in watts r- is the flow rate of water measured in cubic meters per second. h- is called height of water measured in meters. It is also head of water. It is difference in height between the source of water (from where water is taken) and the waters outflow (where the water is used to generate electricity, it is the place near the turbines). g- is the gravity constant 9.81 m/second square The formula clearly shows that the total power that can be generated from the hydroelectric power plants depends on two major factors: the flow rate of water or volume of flow of water and height or head of water. More the volume of water and more the head of water more is the power produced in the hydroelectric power plant. To obtain the high head of water the reservoir of water should as high as possible and power generation unit should be as low as possible. The maximum height of reservoir of water is fixed by natural factors like the height of river bed, the amount of water and other environmental factors. The location of the power generation unit can be adjusted as per the total amount of power that is to be generated. Usually the power
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generation unit is constructed at levels lower than ground level so as to get the maximum head of water. The total flow rate of water can be adjusted through the penstock as per the requirements. If more power is to be generated more water can be allowed to flow through it. 1.3.4 WORKING OF A ELECTRIC POWER PLANT. HYDRO
also enables it to move downwards effortlessly due to gravity. The height of water in the reservoir is higher than the natural height of water flowing in the river, hence water in reservoir is considered to be altered equilibrium This also helps to increase the overall potential energy of water, which helps ultimately produce more electricity in the power generation unit. C) INTAKE OR CONTROL GATES These are the gates built on the inside of the dam. The water from reservoir is released and controlled through these gates. These are called inlet gates because water enters the power generation unit through these gates. When the control gates are opened the water flows due to gravity through the penstock and towards the turbines. The water flowing through the gates possesses potential as well as kinetic energy. D) Penstock The penstock is the long pipe or the shaft that carries the water flowing from the reservoir towards the power generation unit that comprises of the turbines and generator. The water in penstock possesses kinetic energy due to its motion and potential energy due to its height. The total amount of power generated in the hydroelectric power plant depends on the height of the water reservoir and the amount of water flowing through the penstock. The amount of water flowing through the penstock is controlled by the control gates. E) WATER TURBINES The water flowing from the penstock is allowed to enter the power generation unit that comprises of the turbines and generator.
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The water flowing in the river comprises of kinetic energy and potential energy. In hydro electric power plants the potential energy of water is utilized to produce electricity. There are eight important components of the hydroelectric power plant. All these components and their working have been described below: A) DAM The dam is the most important component of hydroelectric power plant. In fact the name dam is considered to be synonymous to the hydroelectric power plant. The dam is built on a large river that has abundant quantity of water throughout the year. The dam is built at location where the height of the river is sufficiently high so as to get maximum possible potential energy from water. B) WATER RESERVOIRS Water reservoir is the place behind the dam where water is stored. The water in the reservoir is located at the height above the rest of the dam structure. The height of water in the reservoir decides how much potential energy water possesses. Higher the height of water more is its potential energy. The high position of water in the reservoir
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When water falls on the blades of the turbine the kinetic and potential energy of water is converted into the rotational motion of the blades of the turbine. Due to rotation of blades the shaft of the turbine also rotates. The turbine shaft is enclosed inside the generator. In most of the hydroelectric power plants there are more than one power generation units comprising of the turbine and generator.
The electricity generated inside the generator is not of sufficient voltage. The transformer converts the alternating current produced from within the generator to the high voltage current. The transformer comprises of two coils: the supply coil and the outlet coil. Current is supplied to the supply coil, from where it passes to the outlet coil. The number of turns in the outlet coil decides the voltage of output electricity from the transformer. If the numbers of turns in outlet coil are double of supply coil, the voltage produced is also double.
There is large difference in height between the level of turbine and level of water in the water reservoir. This difference in height, also called as head of water, decides the total amount of power that can be generated in the hydroelectric power plant. There are various types of water turbines such as Kaplan turbine, Francis turbine, Pelton wheels etc. The type of turbine used in the hydroelectric power plant depends on the height of the reservoir, quantity of water and the total power generation capacity. F) GENERATORS It is in the generator where the electricity is produced. The shaft of the water turbine rotates in the generator, which produces alternating current in the coils of the generator. It is the rotation of the shaft inside the generator that produces magnetic field which is converted into electricity by electromagnetic field induction. Hence the rotation of the shaft of the turbine is crucial for the production of electricity and this is achieved by the kinetic and potential energy of water. Thus in hydroelectricity power plants potential energy of water is converted into electricity. G) TRANSFORMER
The power supply from the transformer is connected to the nation grid, from where the power is distributed for the domestic and industrial use. The voltage supplied by the main transformer is very high, while the voltage required for various applications is 110V or 230V. To reduce the voltage a number of transformers are installed at various locations that reduce the high voltage from the main wirings to the voltage required for domestic and industrial applications. H) TAILRACE The water that has been used to rotate the turbine blades and turbines shaft leaves the power generation unit entering the pipeline called as the tailrace. From here the water flows into the main river. The height of water in the tailrace is much below the height of water in the water reservoir behind the dam. The potential energy of water in the tailrace has been used to generate electricity. The water flowing out from the tail race joins the natural flow of water. During the rainy seasons when there is excess water in the dams, it is allowed to overflow through the gates in water reservoir to the low level natural flow of water. If the river is very large, then multiple dams can be constructed across the river at various
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1.3.5 LARGEST HYDRO ELECTRIC POWER PLANT OF THE WORLD. The largest hydroelectric power plant of the world is Itaipu hydro electric power plant constructed on Parana River in the areas adjoining the borders of Brazil and Paraguay. The plant has been developed in joint collaboration between the two bordering countries. The work on Itaipu hydroelectric power plant started in the year 1975 and was completed in the year 1991. The production of electricity from the plant was started in the year 1982. In all there are 20 power generation units in the Itaipu power plant with the total power generation capacity of 14000 MW or 14GW with each power generation plant producing 700MW power. The total power produced by the plant throughout the year is whopping 75 million MWh (mega watt hour). If you are still not able to gauge the magnitude of this plant, let me inform you that in the year 1995 the plant was responsible for 25% of total power supply in Brazil, and almost 80% in Paraguay. 1.3.6 ADVANTAGES ELECTRIC POWER. OF HYDRO
B) Cost of electricity is constant: Since no fuel is required for the hydroelectric power plants, the cost of electricity produced by them is more or less constant. It does not depend on the cost of fuels like coal, oil and natural gas in the international market. The country doesnt even have to import the fuel for running the hydroelectric power plant thus saving lots of local currency. C) No air-pollution is created: Since the hydroelectric power plants dont burn any fuel no pollution is caused by them. It does not emit harmful gases and particulate matter, thus keeps the surrounding atmosphere clean and healthy for living. D) Long life: The life of hydroelectric power plants is longer than the life of thermal power plants. There are some hydroelectric power plants that were built more than 50-100 years ago and are still running. E) Cost of generation of electricity: For the working of hydroelectric power plant very few people are required since most of the operations are automated, thus operating costs of hydroelectric power plants are low. Further, as the hydroelectric power plants become older, the cost of generation of electricity from it becomes cheaper since initial capital cost invested in the plant is recovered over the long period of operations. F) Can easily work during high peak daily loads: The daily demand of power is not constant throughout the day. The peak power occurs at night. It is very difficult to start and stop the thermal and nuclear power plants on daily basis. The hydroelectric power plants can be easily started and stopped without consuming much time. Water can be collected in the dam
The hydroelectric power plants don't require any fuel for generation of electricity, hence they don't cause any air-pollution. The hydroelectric power plants help in irrigation of the agricultural lands and offer many other advantages. Let us have look at some important advantages. A) No fuel required: One of the major advantages of the hydroelectric power plants is that they dont require any fuel for producing power. The hydroelectric power plants utilize renewable energy of water to generating electricity.
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throughout the day and this can be used to generate electricity during peak periods. G) Irrigation of farms: Water from the dams can also be used for the irrigation of farm lands thus producing the agriculture outputs throughout the year even in the areas where there is scanty or no rainfall. H) Water sports and gardens: In vicinity of the dams the water from reservoir can be utilized to develop public recreational facilities like water parks for water sports and gardens. I) Prevents floods: The dams also help prevent floods in the areas adjoining the large rivers. 1.3.7 DISADVANTAGES OF HYDRO ELECTRIC There are many advantages of the hydroelectric power plants, but there are also numbers of disadvantages of the hydroelectric power plants. The hydroelectric power plants can be dangerous to aquatic life and can cause many other environmental concerns.
animals can also get trapped in the turbines and loose lives on large scale. B) Disruption in the surrounding areas: The plant and animal life around the rivers thrives due to continuous fresh flowing water in the river. Due to construction of the dams lots of areas have to be cleared that disrupt the plant and animal life. In many cases even a number of trees have to be cut that destroys not only the plant life but also the animals dependent on them. Even changing the course of flow of water in the river due to construction of dam disrupts the plants and animals life. C) Requires large areas: The construction of dam, the power generation unit and the transformers and their connection to the national grid acquires large areas of the forest. The larger the land acquired for the dam, more is the disturbance to the natural ecosystem in the surrounding forest areas. D) Large scale human displacement: For the construction of the dams even the human beings living in the areas surrounding the river have to be shifted. Human beings tend to have strong attachments to the lands occupied by them and their ancestors since hundreds of years. It is not easy to convince the people to leave the lands. People are convinced or forced to leave the land which not only is their shelter but also the source of income. In many instances, when people are snatched away of their lands, they are not given proper remuneration and the other land for resettlement. This creates large scale oppositions and revolts against construction of the dams. In India we have seen one of the biggest oppositions to the one of the biggest hydroelectric power project named Sardar Sarovar. Though millions of people are to benefit from the project, government didnt
A) Disrupts the aquatic ecosystems: The dams developed across the rivers can disturb the aquatic life and lead to their large scale destruction. There are chances that the fishes and other water animals may enter the penstock and ultimately the power generation turbines where they may get crashed. The dams can also disturb the mating seasons and mating areas of the water animals. In some cases the water animals have to swim against the water stream during breeding seasons, in such cases the dams create hindrances on their paths. Such
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manage the important issue of the resettlement of people who were displaced from the adjoining areas of project. This led to one of biggest protest in Indian history, which saw a number of hunger strikes, protest marches and even the police attacks on the protesters. E) Very high capital cost or investment: The initial cost of the construction of the hydro electric plants is very high. It also takes long time to construct the plant. Lots of designing, planning, and testing goes into the construction of the dams. Each dam is unique in itself so the designs cannot be standardized. Construction of dams requires lots of steel, iron and cement which make the hydroelectric power plants very expensive. The project can contain multiple risks to humans and/or the environment. Overall, lots of time, money and human efforts are invested in the construction of hydroelectric power plants. F) High quality construction: The construction materials used for the construction of the dams should be of high quality. Any breakage in the dam can cause large scale destruction of the human, plant and animal lives. The failure of the Banqiao Dam in China resulted in the deaths of more than 171,000 people and millions of people were rendered homeless. G) Site specific: The hydroelectric power plants cannot be constructed at any locations. They can be constructed only in places where abundant quantity of water is available at sufficient height and throughout the year. A number of other safety parameters also have to be considered. Construction of the dams at inappropriate locations can cause human casualties. An example of the inappropriate locations is of the Vajont Dam in Italy, where almost 2000 people died, in the year 1963.
H) Affects on environment: Though the hydroelectric power plants do not require any fuel, dont produce greenhouse gases and dont create pollution directly, it does have a number of detrimental affects on the environment. The construction activity of the dam itself disturbs the environment to a great scale. When the course of water is changed the surrounding areas may get flooded disturbing natural flora and fauna. Human beings living in these areas also get displaced. The large quantities of water collected due to the floods also emit a lot of greenhouses gases like carbon dioxide. Thus though the hydroelectric power plants dont generate greenhouse gases directly, they generate it indirectly. I) Safety of the dams: The safety of the dams is very crucial as it can affect lives of millions of people. In this age when the terrorists attacks are increasing there are greater concerns for the safety of large dams. 1.3.8 THE FUTURE ELECTRIC POWER. OF HYDRO
The theoretical size of the worldwide hydropower is about four times greater than that which has been exploited at this time. The actual amount of electricity, which will ever be generated by hydropower, will be much less than the theoretical potential. This is due to the environmental concerns outlined above, and economic constraints. Much of the remaining hydro potential in the world exists in the developing countries of Africa and Asia. Harnessing this resource would require billions of dollars, because hydroelectric facilities generally have very high construction costs. In the past, the World Bank has spent billions of foreign aid dollars on huge hydroelectric projects in the third world.
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Opposition to hydropower from environmentalists and native people, as well as new environmental assessments at the World Bank will restrict the amount of money spent on hydroelectric power construction in the developing countries of the world. In North America and Europe, a large percentage of hydropower potential has already been developed. Public opposition to large hydro schemes will probably result in very little new development of big dams and reservoirs. Small scale and low head hydro capacity will probably increase in the future as research on low head turbines, and standardized turbine production, lowers the costs of hydro-electric power at sites with low heads. New computerized control systems and improved turbines may allow more electricity to be generated from existing facilities in the future. As well, many small hydroelectric sites were abandoned in the 1950's and 60's when the price of oil and coal was very low, and their
environmental impacts unrealised. Increased fuel prices in the future could result in these facilities being refurbished. 1.4 CONCLUSION Hydroelectric power has always been an important part of the world's electricity supply, providing reliable, cost effective electricity, and will continue to do so in the future. Hydropower has environmental impacts, which are very different from those of fossil fuel power plants. The actual effects of dams and reservoirs on various ecosystems are only now becoming understood. The future of hydro-electric power will depend upon future demand for electricity, as well as how societies value the environmental impacts of hydro-electric power compared to the impacts of other sources of electricity.
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ROBOTICS: INDUSTRIAL ROBOTS

Authors: Manoj S1, Srinivas C.M2, 6 Sem, Mechanical Engineering, Vidya Vikas Institute of Engineering & Technology, VVIET Mysore - 10
th
An industrial robot is officially defined by ISO as an automatically controlled, reprogrammable, multipurpose manipulator programmable in three or more axes. The field of robotics may be more practically defined as the study, design and use of robot systems for manufacturing (a top-level definition relying on the prior definition of robot).
over and over again (repetitive actions) without variation and with a high degree of accuracy. These actions are determined by programmed routines that specify the direction, acceleration, velocity, deceleration, and distance of a series of coordinated motions. Other robots are much more flexible as to the orientation of the object on which they are operating or even the task that has to be performed on the object itself, which the robot may even need to identify. For example, for more precise guidance, robots often contain machine vision subsystems acting as their "eyes", linked to powerful computers or controllers. Artificial intelligence or what passes for it, is becoming an increasingly important factor in the modern industrial robot.
HISTORY OF INDUSTRIAL ROBOTICS
ROBOT TYPES, FEATURES The most commonly used robot configurations are articulated robots, SCARA robots and Cartesian coordinate robots, (aka gantry robots or x-y-z robots). In the context of general robotics, most types of robots would fall into the category of roboic armt (inheretic nt in the use of the word manipulator in the above-mentioned ISO standard). Robots exhibit varying degrees of autonomy:
Some robots are programmed to faithfully carry out specific actions
The first company to produce a robot was Unimation, founded by George Devol and Joseph F. Engelberger in 1956, and was based on Devol's original patents. Unimation robots were also called programmable transfer machines since their main use at first was to transfer objects from one point to another, less than a dozen feet or so apart.. The first company to produce a robot was Unimation, founded by George Devol and Joseph F. Engelberger in 1956, and was based on Devol's original patents. Unimation later licensed their technology to Kawasaki Heavy Industries and GuestNettlefolds, manufacturing Unimates in Japan and England respectively. For some time Unimation's only competitor was Cincinnati Milacron Inc. of Ohio. This
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changed radically in the late 1970s when several big Japanese conglomerates began producing similar industrial robots. Unimation who further developed them with support from General Motors and later marketed it as the Programmable Universal Machine for Assembly(PUMA). Industrial robotics took off quite quickly in Europe, with both ABB Robotics and KUKA Robotics bringing robots to the market in 1973. ABB Robotics (formerly ASEA) introduced IRB 6, among the world's first commercially available all electric micro-processor controlled robot. Interest in robotics increased in the late 1970s and many US companies entered the field, including large firms like General Electric, and General Motors
TECHNICAL DESCRIPTION Defining parameters
Speed how fast the robot can position the end of its arm. This may be defined in terms of the angular or linear speed of each axis or as a compound speed i.e. the speed of the end of the arm when all axes are moving. Acceleration - how quickly an axis can accelerate. Since this is a limiting factor a robot may not be able to reach its specified maximum speed for movements over a short distance or a complex path requiring frequent changes of direction. Accuracy how closely a robot can reach a commanded position. Accuracy can vary with speed and position within the working envelope and with payload (see compliance). It can be improved by Robot calibration. Repeatability - how well the robot will return to a programmed position. This is not the same as accuracy. It may be that when told to go to a certain X-Y-Z position that it gets only to within 1 mm of that position. This would be its accuracy which may be improved by calibration. Motion control for some applications, such as simple pick-and-place assembly, the robot need merely return repeatably to a limited number of pre-taught positions. For more sophisticated applications, such as welding and finishing (spray painting), motion must be continuously controlled to follow a path in space, with controlled orientation and velocity. Power source some robots use electric motors, others use hydraulic actuators. The former are faster, the latter are stronger and advantageous in applications such as spray painting, where a spark could set off an explosion; however, low internal airpressurisation of the arm can prevent ingress
Numbers of axes two axes are required to reach any point in a plane; three axes are required to reach any point in space. To fully control the orientation of the end of the arm (i.e. the wrist) three more axes (yaw, pitch, and roll) are required. Some designs (e.g. the SCARA robot) trade limitations in motion possibilities for cost, speed, and accuracy. Degrees of freedom -which is usually the same as the number of axes. Working envelope the region of space a robot can reach. Kinematics the actual arrangement of rigid members and joints in the robot, which determines the robot's possible motions. Classes of robot kinematics include articulated, cartesian, parallel and SCARA.
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of flammable vapours as well as other contaminants. Drive some robots connect electric motors to the joints via gears; others connect the motor to the joint directly (direct drive). Using gears results in measurable 'backlash' which is free movement in an axis. Smaller robot arms frequently employ high speed, low torque DC motors, which generally require high gearing ratios; this has the disadvantage of backlash. In such cases the harmonic drive is often used. Compliance - this is a measure of the amount in angle or distance that a robot axis will move when a force is applied to it. Because of compliance when a robot goes to a position carrying its maximum payload it will be at a position slightly lower than when it is carrying no payload. Compliance can also be responsible for overshoot when carrying high payloads in which case acceleration would need to be reduced.
ROBOT PROGRAMMING INTERFACES AND Teach pendant: Robots can also be taught via a teach pendant; a handheld control and programming unit. The common features of such units are the ability to manually send the robot to a desired position, or "inch" or "jog" to adjust a position. They also have a means to change the speed since a low speed is usually required for careful positioning, or while test-running through a new or modified routine. A large emergency stop button is usually included as well. Typically once the robot has been programmed there is no more use for the teach pendant.
A typical well-used teach pendant with optional mouse

The setup or programming of motions and sequences for an industrial robot is typically taught by linking the robot controller to a laptop, desktop computer or (internal or Internet) network. Software: The computer is installed with corresponding interface software. The use of a computer greatly simplifies the programming process. Specialized robot software is run either in the robot controller or in the computer or both depending on the system design.
Offline programming by ROBCAD
The teach pendant or PC is usually disconnected after programming and the robot then runs on the program that has been installed in its controller. However a computer is often used to 'supervise' the robot and any peripherals, or to provide
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additional storage for access to numerous complex paths and routines APPLICATION OF INDUSTRIAL ROBOTS materials handling welding inspection palletizing food products foundry spray painting
that are impossible for humans
RECENT AND DEVELOPMENTS
FUTURE
As of 2005, the robotic arm business is approaching a mature state, where they can provide enough speed, accuracy and ease of use for most of the applications. Other developments include downsizing industrial arms for light industrial use such as production of small products, sealing and dispensing, quality control, handling samples in the laboratory. Such robots are usually classified as "bench top" robots. Bench top robots are also used in consumer applications (micro-robotic arms). Industrial arms may be used in combination with or even mounted on automated guided vehicles (AGVs) to make the automation chain more flexible between pick-up and drop-off.
THE PURPOSE OF ROBOTS Repetitive tasks that robots can do 24/7. Robots never get sick or need time off. Robots can do tasks considered too dangerous for humans. Robots can operate equipment to much higher precision than humans. May be cheaper over the long term May be able to perform tasks
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ROBOTICS
Authors: Sajan1, Yatish Kumar2, 6th Sem, Mechanical Engineering, Vidya Vikas Institute of Engineering & Technology, VVIET Mysore - 10
Robotics is the engineering science and technology of robots, and their design, manufacture, application, and structural disposition. Robotics is related to electronics, mechanics, and software. ORIGINS Stories of artificial helpers and companions and attempts to create them have a long history, but fully autonomous machines only appeared in the 20th century. The first digitally operated and programmable robot, the Unimate, was installed in 1961 to lift hot pieces of metal from a die casting machine and stack them. Today, commercial and industrial robots are in widespread use performing jobs more cheaply or more accurately and reliably than humans. They are also employed in jobs which are too dirty, dangerous, or dull to be suitable for humans. Robots are widely used in manufacturing, assembly, and packing; transport; earth and space exploration; surgery; weaponry; laboratory research; safety; and mass production of consumer and industrial goods. POWER SOURCE At present batteries are used, but potential power sources could be: organic garbage (through anaerobic digestion) pneumatic (compressed gases) hydraulics (compressed liquids) flywheel energy storage Faces (human, animal); may be interesting in a military context as faces of
small combat groups may be reused for the energy requirements of the robot assistant. Actuation
Actuators are like the "muscles" of a robot, the parts which convert stored energy into movement. By far the most popular actuators are electric motors, but there are many others, powered by electricity, chemicals, and compressed air.
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Motors: The vast majority of robots use electric motors, including brushed and brushless DC on many robots and CNC machines, as their main can specify how much to turn, for more precise control, rather than a "spin and see where it went" approach. MANIPULATION Robots which must work in the real world require some way to manipulate objects; pick up, modify, destroy, or otherwise have an effect. Thus the 'hands' of a robot are often referred to as end effectors, while the arm is referred to as a manipulator. Most robot arms have replaceable effectors, each allowing them to perform some small range of tasks. Some have a fixed manipulator which cannot be replaced, while a few have one very general purpose manipulator, for example a humanoid hand. Mechanical Grippers. Vacuum Grippers. Locomotion Other methods of locomotion
Flying Skating Climbing Swimming
Human-robot interaction
If robots are to work effectively in homes and other non-industrial environments, the way they are instructed to perform their jobs, and especially how they will be told to stop will be of critical importance. The people who interact with them may have little or no training in robotics, and so any interface will need to be extremely intuitive. Science fiction authors also typically assume that robots will eventually be capable of communicating with humans through speech, gestures, and facial expressions, rather than a command-line interface.
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Robot research
robots
with human intelligence,
professor
Moravec predicts, would become possible, he does not predict this happening before around 2040 or 2050.
Education and training
Much of the research in robotics focuses not on specific industrial tasks, but on investigations into new types of robots, alternative ways to think about or design robots, and new ways to manufacture them but other investigations, such as MIT's cyberflora project, are almost wholly academic. A first particular new innovation in robot design is the open sourcing of robot-projects. To describe the level of advancement of a robot, the term "Generation Robots" can be used. This term is coined by Professor Hans Moravec, Principal Research Scientist at the Carnegie Mellon University Robotics Institute in describing the near future evolution of robot technology. First generation robots, Moravec predicted in 1997, should have an intellectual capacity comparable to perhaps a lizard and should become available by 2010. Because the first generation robot would be incapable of learning, however, Moravec predicts that the second generation robot would be an improvement over the first and become available by 2020, with an intelligence maybe comparable to that of a mouse. The third generation robot should have an intelligence comparable to that of amonkey. Though fourth generation robots,
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Robotics is a common undergraduate area of study. Some universities offer degrees in robotics. Robots recently became a popular tool in raising interests in computing for middle and high school students. First year computer science courses at several universities were developed which involves the programming of a robot instead of the traditional software engineering based coursework. Some Master courses in the field of Robotics are also offered. Employment in robotics
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5. Compete better by reducing undesirable task. 6. Improved worker safety. 7. Stabilizers production. ADVANTAGES OF ROBOTS:1. Robotics and automation can increase safety reliability production amount profit quality and quantity of products. 2. They can do jobs in danger situations. 3. They do not care about the comfort of their environment. As the number of robots increases, roboticsrelated jobs grow. Some jobs require existing job skills, such as building cables, assembling parts, and testing. APPLICATION:1. Painting. 2. Arc Welding. 3. Machine tending. 4. Material handling. 5. Palletizing. 6. Sealing. 7. Spot Welding. 8. Assembly. 9. Special environment. ADVANTAGES OF ROBOTICS:1. To solve important problems. 2. Increase quality of products. 3. Increase manufacturing flexibility. 4. Reduce scrap and manufacturing costs. 4. They do not get tired.
5. They dont feel hunger. 6. Their accuracy is so high. DISADVANTAGES:1. Expense . 2. ROI 3. Expertise. 4. Safety.
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ENERGY GENERATION USING MICROBIAL FUEL CELLS

Authors: Sachin V Hiremath1, Rahul Singh2,
1 th 4 Sem, Mechanical Engineering, Vidya Vikas Institute of Engineering & Technology, VVIET Mysore - 10 4 Sem, Information Science Engineering, Vidya Vikas Institute of Engineering & Technology, VVIET Mysore - 10
2 th
ABSTRACT
The increase in the global energy demand every year and the over-consumption of non renewable sources of energy has led to the identification and use of renewable and cost effective sources of energy. In this context, wastewater, which contains high levels of easily degradable organic material, has gained importance as a source of electricity generation using microbial fuel cells. Microbial fuel cell (MFC) research is a rapidly evolving field that lacks established terminology and methods for the analysis of system performance. This makes it difficult for researchers to compare devices on an equivalent basis. The construction and analysis of MFCs requires knowledge of different scientific and engineering fields, ranging from microbiology and electrochemistry to materials and environmental engineering. Describing MFC systems therefore involves an understanding of these different scientific and engineering principles. In this paper, we provide a review of the different materials and methods used to construct MFCs, techniques used to analyze system performance, and recommendations on what information to include in MFC studies and the most useful ways to present results. A typical microbial fuel cell consists of anode and cathode compartments separated by a cation specific membrane. In the anode compartment, fuel is oxidized by micro-organisms, generating electrons and protons. Electrons are transferred to the cathode compartment through an external electric circuit, and the protons are transferred to the cathode compartment through the membrane. Electrons and protons are consumed in the cathode compartment, combining with oxygen to form water.
Keywords bio-energy, fuel cells, renewable energy.
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I.
INTRODUCTION
The electrical activity of micro-organism is a fascinating and instructive area of science. Although much work remains to be done at the research level to elucidate the chemistry and biochemistry of such phenomena, recent studies of microbial fuel cells have greatly advanced our understanding of microbial electricity generation. Renewable and clean forms of energy are one of society's greatest needs. At the same time, 2 billion people in the world lack adequate sanitation and the economic means to afford it. In this paper, we are working to address both of these human needs by the implementation of MFC (microbial fuel cells). Energy costs are an important factor in wastewater treatment. And also the search for alternate energy sources are growing everyday due to the rapid rise in petroleum products and the massive capital needed to invest of renewable source such as solar or tidal. This paper gives a general description of the MFC operations, the future trends and the application aspects of this modern technological breakthrough.
II.
WORKING PRINCIPLE
A MFC consists of an anode, a cathode, a proton or cation exchange membrane and an electrical ciruit. The bacteria live in the anode and convert a substrate such as glucose, acetate but also waste water into CO2, protons and electrons. Under aerobic conditions, bacteria use oxygen or nitrate as a final electron acceptor to produce water. However, in the anode of a MFC, no oxygen is present and bacteria need to switch from their natural electron acceptor to an insoluble acceptor, such as the MFC anode. Due to the ability of bacteria to transfer electrons to an insoluble electron acceptor, we can use a MFC to collect the electrons originating from the microbial metabolism. The electron transfer can occur either via membrane-associated components, soluble electron shuttles or nano-wires. The electrons then flow through an electrical circuit with a load or a resistor to the cathode. The potential difference (Volt) between the anode and the cathode, together with the flow of electrons (Ampere) results in the generation of electrical power (Watt). The protons flow through the proton or cation exchange membrane to the cathode. At the cathode, an electron acceptor is chemically reduced. Idealy, oxygen is reduced to water. To obtain a sufficient oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) rate a Platina-catalyst has to be used. However, many researchers have tried to used other non-noble metal catalysts. Microbial fuel cells use inorganic mediators to tap into the electron transport chain of cells and steal these electrons that are produced. The mediator crosses the outer cell lipid membranes and plasma wall; it then begins to liberate electrons from the electron transport chain that would normally be taken up by oxygen or other intermediates. The now reduced mediator exits the cell laden with electrons that it shuttles to an electrode where it deposits them; this electrode becomes the electro-generic anode (negatively
When micro-organisms consume a substrate such as sugar in aerobic conditions they produce carbon dioxide and water, however when oxygen is not present they produce carbon dioxide, protons and electrons as described below: C12H22O11 + 13H20 ---> 12CO2 + 48H+ +48eEqt. 1 Bacteria are very small (size app. 1 m) organisms which can convert a huge variety of organic compounds into CO2, water and energy. The micro-organisms use the produced energy to grow and to maintain their metabolism. However, by using a MFC we can harvest a part of this microbial energy in the form of electricity.
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charged electrode). The release of the electrons means that the mediator returns to its original oxidised state ready to repeat the process. It is important to note that this can only happen under anaerobic conditions, if oxygen is present then it will collect all the electrons as it has a greater electronegativity than the mediator. A number of mediators have been suggested for use in microbial fuel cells, these include natural red, methylene blue, thionine or resorfuin. This is the principle behind generating a flow of electrons from most micro-organisms, in order to turn this into a useable supply of electricity this process has to be accommodated into a fuel cell. In order to generate a useful current it is necessary to create a complete circuit, not just shuttle electrons to a single point. The mediator and micro-organism, in this case yeast, are mixed together in a solution to which is added a suitable substrate such as glucose. This mixture is placed in a sealed chamber to stop oxygen entering, thus forcing the microorganism to use anaerobic respiration. An electrode is placed in the solution that will act as the anode as described previously. In the second chamber of the MFC is another solution and electrode. This electrode, called the cathode is positively charged and is the equivalent of the oxygen sink at the end of the electron transport chain only now it is external to the biological cell. The solution is an oxidizing agent that picks up the electrons at the cathode, as with the electron chain in the yeast cell this could be a number of molecules such as oxygen, however this is not particularly practical as it would require large volumes of circulating gas. A more convenient option is to use a solution of a solid oxidizing agent. Connecting the two electrodes is a wire and completing the circuit and connecting the two chambers is a salt bridge or ion exchange membrane, this last feature allows the protons
produced, as described in Eqt. 1 to pass from the anode chamber to the cathode chamber. The reduced mediator carries electrons from the cell to the electrode, here the mediator is reduced as it deposits the electrons, these then flow across the wire to the second electrode, which acts as an electron sink, from here they pass to an oxidising material.
III.
APPLICATION
Microbial fuel cells have a number of potential uses. The first and most obvious is harvesting the electricity produced for a power source. Virtually any organic material could be used to feed the fuel cell. MFCs could be installed to waste water treatment plants. The bacteria would consume waste material from the water and produce supplementary power for the plant. The gains to be made from doing this are that MFCs are a very clean and efficient method of energy production. A fuel cells emissions are well below regulations. MFCs also use energy much more efficiently than standard combustion engines which are limited by the Carnot Cycle, In theory a MFC is capable of energy efficiency far beyond 50% Using a new electrically-assisted microbial fuel cell (MFC) that does not require oxygen, researchers have developed the a process that enables bacteria to coax four times as much hydrogen directly out of biomass than can be generated typically by fermentation alone. However MFCs do not have to be used on a large scale, it has even been suggested that MFCs could be implanted in the body to be employed as a power source for a pacemaker, a microsensor or a microactuator. The MFC would take glucose from the blood stream or possibly other substrates contained in the body and use this to generate electricity to power these devices. Using small scale MFC which imply use the body glucose as the source can be used to power medical application nano-bots which can be used as surveillance, monitoring and curing
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tools.The usage of MFC using the body glucose as a the source can be used to construct pace makers and other bio-mechanical devices. The advantages to using a MFC in this situation as opposed to a normal battery is that it uses a renewable form of energy and would not need to be recharged like a standard battery would. Further to this they could also be built very small and they operate well in mild conditions, 20oC to 40oC and also at pH of around 7. Further more the device can be used to generate hydrogen directly for implementations in hydrogen fuel cells or any other hydrogen powered device. This can be done by using the same MFC used for energy generation and by keeping oxygen out of the MFC and adding a small amount of power into the system. In the new MFC, when the bacteria eat biomass, they transfer electrons to an anode. The bacteria also release protons, hydrogen atoms stripped of their electrons, which go into solution. The electrons on the anode migrate via a wire to the cathode, the other electrode in the fuel cell, where they are electrochemically assisted to combine with the protons and produce hydrogen gas. Other bacteria, some of which are found naturally in sewage, can enable a fuel cell to skip the hydrogen step altogether. These bacteria consume organic matter and directly transfer electrons to the fuel cells anode. This makes the fuel cell design much simpler, and also increases the feasibility of using the fuel cells to purify the waste fuel into clean water. A voltage in the range of 0.25 volts or more is applied to the circuit by connecting the positive pole of a programmable power supply to the anode and the negative pole to the cathode.
IV.
CONCLUSIONS
Many developing countries urgently need sewage processing plants, for example, but they are prohibitively expensive, largely because they use so much power. Offsetting this cost by producing electricity at the same time could make all the difference. The waste you flush down the toilet could one day power the lights in your home. ACKNOWLEDGMENT We heartly wish to acknowledge and thank the following eminent persons for their valuable guidance and help. DR. B.J.RANGANATH, PROF. & HOD, DEPT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, VVIET MYSORE. DR. MADHUSUDAN REDDY, PROF. DEPT OF CHEMISTRY, MAHARANI COLLAGE. MR. VIJAY. B. R, LECTURER, DEPT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, VVIET MYSORE.
REFERENCES 1) www.Wikipedia.org 2) www.Microbialfuelcells.org 3) Bennetto H Ps Energy generation from organisms. (July 2006) 4) books.google.co.in 5) www.sciencedaily.com 6) Bruce E. Logans Microbial Fuel Cells
micro-
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RENEWABLE SOURCES OF ENERGY

Authors: Ravi V1, Kamlesh Kumar2, 6th Sem, Mechanical Engineering, Vidya Vikas Institute of Engineering & Technology, VVIET Mysore - 10
INTRODUCTION: Oceans cover almost three-fourths of the earths surface. The oceans' waters, the air above the oceans, and the land beneath them contain enormous energy resources. These energy resources include non-renewable energy sources such as oil and gas, and renewable energy sources, such as offshore wind energy, wave energy, ocean current energy, offshore solar energy, the temperature gradient between deep water and surface water, and the pressure gradient between seawater and fresh water, known as the salinity gradient. Ocean energy systems transform this energy available in the marine environment into energy which may be used by mankind. Ocean Energy Systems transform the energy available in the marine environment into energy which may be used by mankind. The most obvious source is from waves. Other sources are marine and tidal currents, the temperature gradient between deep water and surface water, and the pressure gradient between seawater and fresh water, known as the salinity gradient. There are many ways to capture and transform this energy. The first concept was patented in 1799 (Girard & Son, France). Systems can be deployed either at the shoreline or near shore (water depths < 40m) or offshore (water depths > 40m).
1. ALTERNATIVE ENERGY SOURCES: Alternative energy is an umbrella term that refers to any source of usable energy intended to replace fuel sources without the undesired consequences of the replaced fuels. Ex: Coal as an alternative to wood, Petroleum as an alternative to whale oil, Alcohol as alternative to fossil fuels, Coal gasification as alternative to expensive petroleum, Renewable energy as alternative to non-renewable energy. Nonrenewable Petroleum Natural gas Coal Shale oil Gas hydrates Nuclear fission Geothermal Renewable Wood/other biomass Hydro-electric power Solar energy Wind energy Wave energy Tidal power Fusion
3. AVAILABLE RESOURCES:
OCEAN
ENERGY
Generating technologies for deriving electrical power from the ocean include tidal power, wave power, ocean thermal energy conversion, ocean currents, ocean winds and salinity gradients. Of these, the three most welldeveloped technologies are tidal power, wave power and ocean thermal energy conversion. 3.1 WAVE ENERGY: Wave energy is an irregular and oscillating low-frequency energy source, which comes from the movement of the ocean and the changing heights and speed of the swells, which can be converted to a 60-Hertz frequency and can then be added to the electric utility grid. The energy in waves is in the form of Kinetic energy. The total power of waves breaking on the world's coastlines is estimated at 2 to 3 million megawatts. An average 4-foot, 10second wave striking a coast puts out more than
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35,000 horsepower (this converts to a wave energy density of about 65 megawatts) per mile of coast. Three approaches to harness wave energy are4.11 Wave surge or focusing devices: One way to harness wave energy is to bend or focus the waves into a narrow channel, increasing their power and size. The waves can then be channeled into a catch basin, like tidal plants, or used directly to spin turbines. There arent any big commercial wave energy plants, but there are a few small ones. Small, onshore sites have the best potential for the immediate future, especially if they can also be used to protect beaches and harbors. They could produce enough energy to power local communities. 4.12 Oscillating water column: Oscillating water column (OWC) is one, which generates electricity from the wave-driven rise and fall of water in a cylindrical shaft or pipe. The rising and falling water drives air into and out of the top of the shaft, powering an air driven turbine. 4.13 Float devices: Float devices can generate electricity from the bobbing action of a floating object. The object can be mounted on a floating raft or to a device fixed on the ocean floor. These types of devices can power lights and whistles on buoys.
possible, but are less favored than ebb generating systems. Two way generating systems, which generate electricity on both the incoming and ebb tides, are also possible. Tidal fences can also harness the energy in the tides. A tidal fence has vertical axis turbines mounted within a fence structure called a caisson that completely blocks a channel, forcing all of the water through it. Unlike barrage stations, tidal fences can be used in unconfined basins, such as in a channel between the mainland and a nearby offshore island, or between two islands. As a result, tidal fences have much less impact on the environment, because they do not require flooding the basin. They are also significantly cheaper to install. Tidal fences have the advantage of being able to generate electricity once each individual module is installed. Tidal fences are not free of environmental and economic impacts, however, since the caisson can disrupt the movement of large marine animals and fishing. Tidal turbines are a new technology that can be used in many tidal areas. Tidal turbines are basically wind turbines that can be located wherever there is strong tidal flow, as well as in river estuaries. Since water is about 800 times as dense as air, tidal turbines will have to be much sturdier than wind turbines. They will be heavier and more expensive to build, but will be able to capture more energy.
3.3 OCEAN THERMAL ENERGY: Ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC) uses the temperature difference that exists between deep and shallow waters to run a heat engine. As with any heat engine, the greatest efficiency and power is produced with the largest temperature difference. This temperature difference generally increases with decreasing latitude, i.e. near the equator, in the tropics. Historically, the main technical challenge of OTEC was to generate significant amounts of power efficiently from this very small temperature ratio. Changes in efficiency of heat exchange in modern designs allow
3.2 TIDAL ENERGY: The generation of electricity from tides is similar to hydroelectric generation, except that tidal water flows in two directions. The simplest generating system for tidal plants involves a dam, known as tidal barrage, across an inlet. Sluice gates on the barrage allow the tidal basin to fill on the incoming high tides and to empty through the turbine system on the outgoing tide, known as the ebb tide. Flood-generating systems that generate power from the incoming tide as
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performance approaching maximum efficiency.
the
theoretical
for this are reverse electro dialysis (RED) and pressure retarded osmosis (PRO). Salinity gradient energy is based on using the resources of osmotic pressure difference between fresh water and sea water. All energy that is proposed to use salinity gradient technology relies on the evaporation to separate water from salt. Osmotic pressure is the "chemical potential of concentrated and dilute solutions of salt". When looking at relations between high osmotic pressure and low, solutions with higher concentrations of salt have higher pressure. Differing salinity gradient power generations exist but one of the most commonly discussed is Pressure Retarded Osmosis (PRO). Within PRO seawater is pumped into a pressure chamber where the pressure is lower than the difference between fresh and salt water pressure. Fresh water moves in a semi permeable membrane and increases its volume in the chamber. As the pressure in the chamber is compensated a turbine spins to generate electricity. In Braun's article he states that this process is easy to understand in a more broken down manner. Two solutions, A being salt water and B being fresh water are separated by a membrane. He states "only water molecules can pass the semi permeable membrane. As a result of the osmotic pressure difference between both solutions, the water from solution B thus will diffuse through the membrane in order to dilute the solution". The pressure drives the turbines and powers the generator that produces the electrical energy. Another method of harvesting is by electro dialysis or reverse dialysis, which is essentially the creation of a salt battery. This method was described by Weinstein and Leitz as an array of alternating anion and cation exchange membranes can be used to generate electric power from the free energy of river and sea water. The technology related to this type of power is still in its infant stages, even though the principle was discovered in the 1950s. Standards and a complete understanding of all the ways
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The Earth's oceans are continually heated by the sun and cover nearly 70% of the Earth's surface; this temperature difference contains a vast amount of solar energy, which can potentially be harnessed for human use. If this extraction could be made cost effective on a large scale, it could provide a source of renewable energy needed to deal with energy shortages and other energy problems. The total energy available is one or two orders of magnitude higher than other ocean energy options such as wave power; but the small magnitude of the temperature difference makes energy extraction comparatively difficult and expensive, due to low thermal efficiency. Earlier OTEC systems had an overall efficiency of only 1 to 3% (the theoretical maximum efficiency lies between 6 and 7%). Current designs under review will operate closer to the theoretical maximum efficiency. The energy carrier, seawater, is free, though it has an access cost associated with the pumping materials and pump energy costs. Although an OTEC plant operates at a low overall efficiency, it can be configured to operate continuously as a Base load power generation system. Any thorough cost-benefit analysis should include these factors to provide an accurate assessment of performance, efficiency, operational, construction costs, and returns on investment. OTEC systems may be either closedcycle or open-cycle. Closed-cycle engines use working fluids that are typically thought of as refrigerants such as ammonia or R-134a. Opencycle engines use the water heat source as the working fluid.
3.4 SALINITY GRADIENT POWER OF OSMOTIC POWER: Osmotic power or salinity gradient power is the energy retrieved from the difference in the salt concentration between seawater and river water. Two practical methods
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salinity gradients can be utilized are important goals to strive for in order make this clean energy source more viable in the future.
4. FUTURE OF OCEAN ENERGY: In this report, Greentech Media and the Prometheus Institute for Sustainable Development address the underlying fundamentals that will determine when ocean power technologies will become competitive with other renewable and traditional energy sources, what technologies will bring the industry to that point, and how investment, government policies and power sector buy-in will drive the growth of this industry. While today fewer than 10 MW of ocean power capacity has been installed worldwide, we believe that in six years the industry has the potential to break 1 GW of installed capacity on an annual market size of over $500 million. The Potential of Ocean Power
technologies in the long term. In this report, Greentech Media and the Prometheus Institute for Sustainable Development address the underlying fundamentals that will determine when ocean power technologies will become competitive with other renewable and traditional energy sources, what technologies will bring the industry to that point, and how investment, government policies and power sector buy-in will drive the growth of this industry. While today fewer than 10 MW of ocean power capacity has been installed worldwide, we believe that in six years the industry has the potential to break 1 GW of installed capacity on an annual market size of over $500 million. More than $2 billion will be invested in that time in commercial production and installation. Based on current trends, a similar amount will be invested in research, design and development during that time.
5. APPLICATIONS:
a) It is an energy source for the 'post-fossil

The value proposition for ocean power is twofold. First, ocean power technologies are based on well-understood principles derived from hydrodynamic physics, marine design and construction, and mechanical and electrical engineering. Unlike solar photovoltaics, which rely on innovations in materials research and processing technology to reap efficiency gains, the research, design and development processes for ocean power technology hav e been practiced for hundreds of years. As such, the capital and energy cost paths for ocean power technologies are relatively predictable. Second, ocean energy is an abundant, dense and predictable resource. Waves propagate over thousands of miles of ocean and their size and energy content can be known from three to five days in advance. Tides and marine currents are 832 times denser than the air flowing over wind turbines and are predictable up to the minute at least 100 years in advance. Understandable and rapidly declining costs coupled with high performance and output are the primary factors that will drive down the levelized cost of energy for ocean power fuel era'.
b) Prototypes and models have been built

and tested for short periods since the 1970s. Long-term tests have been conducted on only two devices and just one has been in operation for one year. Both have been funded under EC Framework Program projects. However, neither has achieved commercial viability because of the technical difficulties in adapting to marine conditions. c) The technology has improved as a result of national and international R&D. At current technologies power generation costs are estimated at around 0.25/kWh for a one-off prototype. But once this technology is proved costs could fall to below 0.04/kWh, opening up investment opportunities and renewed interest worldwide. d) The installed capacity of Ocean Energy Systems currently under development totals 900kWe. These only produce electricity.
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a) TRAINER, F. E., 1995, Can Renewable

6. CONCLUSION:
b)
Transition to an entirely renewable sustainable energy resource economy with resulting changes in lifestyles is inevitable. But it is need to be done with intelligence and foresight. As we all can see the current oil fuels demand and their hike in rate, anyone can easily understand the vital necessity of use of renewable energy sources. We have done remarkably little to reduce our dependence on a fuel [oil] which is a limited resource and for which there is no comprehensive substitute in prospect. Still with the wide range of application areas for the ocean energy resources, it is the time to properly utilize those sources to get the required energy. The challenge of conversion to alternative energy sources with the concurrent problems of population size and stabilization, and adjustment of economies and lifestyles is clearly at hand. A realistic appraisal of the future encourages people to properly prepare for the coming events. Delay in dealing with the issues will surely result in unpleasant surprises. Let us get on with the task of moving orderly into the post-petroleum paradigm.
c) d)
e)
f)
g)
h)
7. REFERENCES:
i)
j)
Energy Sources Sustain Affluent Society? Energy Policy, v. 23, n. 12, p. 1009-1026. IVANHOE, L. F., 1995, Future World Oil Supplies: There is a Limit: World Oil, November, p. 91-94. FLEAY, B., 1995, the Decline of the Age of Oil: Pluto Press Australia Limited, Annandale, NSW, Australia, 152 p. EDWARDS, J. C., 1997, Crude Oil and Alternative Energy Production Forecasts for the Twenty-first Century: The End of the Petroleum Era: Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists Bull. v. 81, n. 8, p. 1292-1305. EBENHACK, B. W., 1995, Energy Resources. Availability, Use and Impact: PennWell Publishing Co., Tulsa, Oklahoma, 290 p. DUEDNEY, D. and FLAVIN, C., 1983, Renewable Energy. The Power to Choose: W. W. Norton & Company, New York, 431 p. CAMPBELL, C. J., 1997, The Coming Oil Crisis: Multi-Science Publishing Company & Petro consultants, S. A., Essex, England, 219 p. BURNHAM, L., (exec. ed.), 1993, Renewable Energy. Sources for Fuels and Electricity: Island Press, Washington, D.C., 1160 p. BROWER, M., 1994, Cool Energy. Renewable Solutions to Environmental Problems: MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 215 p. Internet Sources.
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APPLICATIONS OF INDUSTRIAL ROBOTS

Authors: Prasanna Kumar K C1, Yogish .A.S2 8 SEM, Mechanical Engineering, Vidya Vikas Institute of Engineering and Technology, Mysore-10
th
used in many manufacturing industries. The INTRODUCTION Industrial Robots Robots are used in a wide range of industrial applications. The earliest applications were in materials handling, spot welding, and spray painting. Robots were initially applied to jobs that were hot, heavy, and hazardous such as die casting, forging, and spot welding. In the past, robotic was considered to be science friction. But today, robotic has become one of the most advanced technological tools DEFINATION OF ROBOT: The word ROBOT was derived by Karel Capek from a Czech word ROBOTA which means a forced or bonded labor. advent of the industrial robot has resulted in increased attention to product design to facilitate orientation, positioning and mating of assembly components. It is a combination of machine tool technology and computer science.
An industrial robot is a general purpose, (Man type robot called Android) reprogrammable, manipulator having and certain multifunctional anthropometric
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characteristics for the performance of variety of tasks.
Flexible automation
DEFINITION
ADOPTED
BY
THE
ROBOTS APPLICATIONS:
ROBOTIC INDUSTRIES MATERIAL TRANSFER/HANDLING: ASSOCIATION (USA): A robot is a reprogrammable In this application the robots are used to move parts/boxes from one location to another and to position materials in the manufacturing process. This is simplest and most suitable robot application in industries, which is economical and saves time. the important material handling application include
multifunctional manipulator designed to move material, parts, tools and specialized devices through variable. WHAT IS ROBOTICS? Robotics is the science and technology of robots, their design, manufacture and application. Robotics requires the working knowledge of electronics, mechanics and
Pick and place Palletizing operation Removing parts from boxes and loading on to conveyors Loading parts from conveyors to cartons
software and a person working in the field has known as roboticist. ROBOTS AND MANUFACTURING
Robots for such applications have to perform a sequence of operations. Hence they can be less sophisticated and low technology systems. For palletizing and depalletising they may need a bit of sophistication.
AUTOMATION: Automation and robotics are two clearly related technologies. Robotics is a form of industrial automation. Automation always
involves a capital investment that must be amortized through cost savings on each unit produced. There are three basic types of automation which are available to todays automation engineers they are; Fixed automation Programmable automation
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In
semiconductor
industry's
IC
chip
manufacturig facilities, various processses take place within a clean room. This requires that personnel as well as robots not introduce dirt, dust, or oil into the area. Since robots do not breath, sneeze, or have dandruff, they are especially suited to the clean room environment demanded by the semiconductor industry. MACHINE LOADING: Machine loading application is another material handling application, but specific to a machine. In this a robot is to load a work part/raw material for processing on a machine, and unload the finished work part from the machine. In machine loading the robots works directly with the processing machine but in (Robot palletiser with conveyors) Palletizing: Palletizing is the act of loading or unloading material onto pallets. The newspaper industry has been particularly hard hit by increased labor costs. Part of the solution to this problem was to use robots like Cincinnati Milacron Robot being used to palletize material transfer it does not. The job of punch press operator is historically has been one of the most dangerous factory jobs because of risk of amputation while feeding the press by hand. The risk has been greatly reduced in recent years due to 1. Increased use of robots and automated feeding equipment 2. Increased attention to industrial safety standards. Many companies in the United States and Canada have been forced to close in such areas as die casting and injection molding because they could not compete with foreign firms. The introduction of robotics into this process has allowed the same companies to remain viable. For example are used for the loading of NC milling machine, lathes and automatic presses.
advertising inserts for a newspaper
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(Robots with NC Machines Used For loading) Spray painting: Spray painting is a part and parcel of any engineering industry; it may be automobile, aircraft, consumer durables etcMost of the products are finished with a paint, which is mostly done by spray painting. The challenge of building a spray painting in conformance with all safety and health codes make a spray painting a natural application for industrial robots. In addition, robots are able to achieve a level of consistency that is difficult to except human spray painters to duplicate. Spray painting requires a robot capable of executing a smooth motion pattern, which will apply the paint or other fluid evenly and avoid runs. To The spray painting applications seems to epitomize the proper applications of robotics, relieving the human operator from a hazardous, albeit skillful job, while at the same time increasing work quality, uniformity, and cutting costs. WELDING: Welding is one of the most common applications of robots in industry. The reason for widespread use of robots for welding is that work environment is tedious, repetitive, hot and cramped, and unhealthy for human operators. The productivity is higher with the use of robots Another popular and efficient use for robots is in the field of spray painting. The consistency and repeatability of a robot's motion have enabled near perfect quality while at the same time wasting no paint. (Robots used for spray painting)
accomplish this the robot is equipped with continuous path control.
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in welding. Sometimes one skilled human welder can operate and control several robot arc welding systems making possible production levels two to four times that of a single welder working without the benefit of robots. This application is logically divided into two basic characteristics; Spot welding Arc welding The majority of these applications are in spot welding in such heavy assembly line
industries
as
automobile
and
truck
manufacturing, but arc welding robots are on the increase. A large determinant of the success of a robot arc-welding operation over a manual operation is the improvement in Arc on time.
The automotive industry is a major user of (Welding Robots) Perhaps the most popular applications of robots is in industrial welding. The repeatability, uniformity quality, and speed of robotic welding is unmatched. The two basic types of welding are spot welding and arc welding, although laser welding is done. Some environmental robotic spot welders. In 1985 Chrysler Motor Corporation's plants had a robot population of 900, 670 of which were used for spot welding. The total number was about 2,350 in 1990. The other major welding task performed by robots is arc or seam welding. In this application two adjacent parts are joined together by fusing them, thereby creating a seam.
requirements should be considered for a successful operation.
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MANUFACTURING PROCESS: This is where the utilization of the robot is dedicated to cutting, forming, finishing or processing materials for manufacturing. Just as in welding and spray painting, a specialized tool attached to the robots wrist as its end effectors performs the processing operation. The end effectors is typically a powered spindle, which holds and rotates a tool such a drill. In the
which the gripper place an active and primary role in one of the assembly steps, besides simply holding and piece parts. The basis of a decision to employ industrial robots in automatic assembly is usually to save labour cost. Therefore the assembly robot must be fast and efficient to compete with human assembly operator. The robot must be designed to mate or fasten parts together into an assembly. Assembly operations as seen as an area with big potential for robot applications for mass production assembly; the most economical method involves fixed automation.
aerospace industry the robots are used to drill and rout aluminum sheet metal and graphite composite panels.
(Robots used in Aerospace Industry for Drilling Sheet Metal) (Programmable Robots) ASSEMBLY: The most challenging arena for robot application is robotic assembly. Assembly requires precision, repetability, variety of Assembly Operations Robots lend themselves well to the tedious and repetitive nature of assembly tasks provided that the proper planning and design
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Assembly
System
Using
motions, sophisticated gripper devices, and sometimes compound gripper mechanisms in
226
have been done. In addition, their high level of repeatability has allowed the development of some new technologies in electronic assembly. INSPECTION: A robot for this application will generally position materials, parts or the precision measuring instruments itself for the purpose of checking some aspect of the parts or
material for inspection. Some assembly defects such as missing or loose screws may not be obvious to assembly inspectors or final
inspectors. In these cases unethical human assembly operators occasionally get by with contributing product inferiority, whereas the robot is programmed to perform the operation exactly the same way every time.
suitable. Robot with suitable smoke and heat (ROBOT INSPECTION) PERFORMING PART sensors can be programmed to move ahead and perform fire extinguishing operations. Robotic fire fighters are most successful inside high FIRE FITTING: Fire fitting is another important area where robots are finding wide applications. Especially in fire hazard areas where heat and smoke prevent human fire-fighters from entering with conventional equipment, robots are most technology electronic compartments and in industries. They can easily reach places which are difficult to approach (Due to heat/smoke) by human beings.
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part of assembly operation, which can be NUCLEAR REACTOR OPERATION: This is one of the most hazardous areas where robots are being successfully used. Nuclear power reactor involves many operations where operation by human beings is dangerous to their health due to radiation problems. Robots with sophisticated to technology perform can be like successfully performed by robots. UNUSUAL APPLICATIONS: At least 90 percent of all robot applications fall into the four categories such as welding, machine loading, spray painting, and assembly. It is worthwhile, however, to consider a small number of unusual applications that are opening the field of tasks previously considered impossible for robots.
programmed
operation
replacement of nuclear fuels, handling of nuclear waste, radiation affected parts, vessels, fluids, etc. PACKING AND SEALING: Operations like filling, sealing, gasketing and packaging are simple but attentive activities requiring concentration. It is difficult to perform such operations manually. Robots can be programmed to perform such operations. Example of such operations includes fitting gasker in engine/cyclinder, fluid valves, pressure lines, joints, etc. Packing can be considered as a
SHEEP-SHEARING ROBOTS: The shearing of sheep is a large-volume operation in many countries of the world, especially in Australia and New Zealand, where sheep populations far outnumber the human population. The principle task is to keep the cutter close to the skin, and this is accomplished by tactile and proximity sensors providing realtime information with respect to a continuously changing work piece.
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BENEFITS OF ROBOTS: Increased productivity Improve and consistence product quality Reduced scrap and waste Reduced reworking costs Reduced raw goods inventory Direct labor cost saving Savings in overhead costs like lighting, heating and cooling Savings from correctly forecasting
CONCLUSION:
The
automation
of
work
through
robotics will lead to substantial increase in productivity and permit humans to engage in activities that are more cultural and recreational. Robots are very much useful in
Hazardous/un confertable working conditions (Spray panting, hot forging, furnance operations, die casting, chemical industries, atomic power stations) In regular repetitive operations like some pick and place
production schedules
assembly works,
operations, machine loading and un loading, etc., are the tasks which can best be performed by robots.
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Difficult handling heavy
handling forging
situations operations,
like ingot
With robots, the job of human being is converted from physical operation to
castings, ladle handling, cores/box handling in foundries, loading/unloading of heavier boxes of trucks, etc can be easily done by robots than by human operators. For large scale and continuous
supervisory type; there by dissociating him from the actual risk area. This enhances the safety factor in production system. In the future days we can come across through some more researches which leads to wide spread of human like robots in the manufacturing industries and other industries.
production, where multi-shift operations are common, robots are best suited. Manual labour is replaced by the robots, there by reducing the high cost of labour. Manual skill is variable and scarce any times, while with automation, robots give a constant products. Robots decreases the lead time for manufacture, i.e., the time between the order acceptance and delivery. Automation results less scarps/wastages and defective products, their by resulting in a lower input cost. With Robots, the systems have the capability to control the quality and produce products with greater consistency. output and results in improved
BIBILOGRAPHY: Mikell. P.Groover, Emory.W.Zimmers Jr.-CAD/CAM Computer Aided Design And Manufacturing A.C.Niranjan.., -Computer Integrated Manufacturing. C.Ray Asfahl-Robots and
Manufacturing Automation Gordon.M. Mair-Industrial Robotics Internet Sources
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INTERCONNECTION OF VERY SMALL CAPACITY ROOFTOP PV PANEL WITH LOW VOLTAGE DISTRIBUTION NETWORK
Authors: B.S.Srikanthan1, Somaraju L2,
1
Lecturer, Department of Electrical Engineering, VVIET Mysore

2 nd
2 year M.Tech, Electrical Engineering, SJCE, Mysore
ABSTRACT:
Of all the sectors of a modern economic system the energy sector has become a subject of major universal concern. The sustainable develop of a country requires, energy security, economic growth and environmental sustainability. The relation between energy, environment and sustainable development is now well established. There is worldwide endeavor to reduce green house gas emissions and mitigate climate change. All around the world there is increasing use of renewable energy sources and more
efficient use of energy.

India is the first country to have separate ministry for New and Renewable Energy. It has established National Solar Mission for the development and Promoting the deployment of solar energy technologies in India. Under this Mission there is a strong incentive in integrating small and medium scale renewable generation schemes into the distribution networks. For instance, a viable option for many households would be to invest in solar PV panels and reduce Electricity, especially for peak periods. During other periods, these systems could supply power to the distribution utilities with the right pricing incentives. In this paper very small capacity Rooftop PV panel is proposed to be installed by the consumer, utilize the converted energy for his own applications and supply surplus energy back into the grid. The related Technical, Economical and Regulatory issues are discussed.
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INTRODUCTION: Harnessing of non polluting renewable energy resources to control green house gases is receiving impetus from the government of India. The solar mission has been set up to promote the development and use of solar energy for power generation and other uses with the ultimate objective of making solar energy competitive with fossil based energy options. Guidelines are being formulated by the MNRES,Govt.of India,to encourage the entrepreneurs to go in for the grid connected solar PV power generation.In the first instant,the guidelines intend to cover only the entrepreneurs for installing solar PV panels of large and medium capacity viz. 1MW or more.However,it involves the following constraints. a.) Requirement of land for the installation of the PV Plant. b.) Way-leave problems for construction of evacuation lines. c.) Energy loss due to transmission. d.) Environmental effect due to cutting of trees and loss of valueable space. e.) Involvement of additional cost to augment the existing network. f.) Attracts only selective investors with affordability. g.) Initial cost will be more. Hence, the thrust should be given to encourage very small capacity roof-top PV panels(of the range of 1kW-10kW capacity) in view of the following compelling reasons. a.) Attracts more number of investors even with low affordability. b.) Attracts more number of consumers to start investing to generate, consume and as well as sell the energy. c.) Ensures zero environmental pollution because no new lines are drawn for interconnection with the grid, since the energy produces can be directly linked to the existing LT-installations only. d.) Efficient optimum usage of energy produced since there is no additional transmission network. e.) Ensuring energy security and reliability of power supply. f.) Reduces the lead-time. g.) Low initial cost of the plant due to the above reasons. h.) Due to mass participation of investors, the cost of PV panels will get reduced. i.) Effective implementation of DSM measures by the utility by involving all stake holders in the play(i.e., manufacturers, consumers and the utility) and ensuring nation building on firm foothold. j.) Convenient Monitoring and remote controlling of roof-top PV plant energy generation is possible by the utilities by employing advanced communication and smart metering technologies. The various issues relating to very small capacity roof-top PV panels involving technical, economical and regulatory aspects are discussed below. COMPONENTS OF GRID TIED ROOFTOP PV SYSTEM: The grid tied roof-top PV system comprises of the following components: 1. Solar PV panel 2. Inverter 3. Grid charger (for system with batteries) 4. Charge controller (for system with batteries) 5.Batteries (optional) 6. Mounting structure 7. Earthing materials 8. Junction Boxes 9. Instruments and protection equipments
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limited manual adjustments, which take into account the different elevations of the sun at various times of the year will become sufficient. Due to practical reasons that the rain water cannot be drained off effectively the solar panel is placed to face south and set to the next smallest tilting angle which is 15 degrees to the horizon. PV modules are very sensitive to shading. Since current generated by the solar panel will be limited to the current generated by the weakest cell, Shading of few cells can therefore reduce output current drastically. In practical condition, solar panel would be deployed in areas that are cleared from shading. If some soft sources of shading are inevitable shadetolerance solar panel shall have to be used. These are designed by connecting a bypass diode across each cell. This allows the current from the panel to travel through the diode even though the cell is shaded. The DC power produced by PV panel is converted into AC through the inverter. The output of the inverter must synchronize automatically to the exact AC voltage and frequency of the grid. AC power shall be fed to the grid during daytime as long as the grid is available. When solar power is not available building loads shall be served by drawing power from the grid or from the battery. Inverter will continuously monitor the condition of the grid and in the event of under voltage or over voltage in the grid or in case of grid failure the inverter automatically switches to off grid supply within 20-50 milliseconds. The solar system is resynchronized with the grid within two minutes after the restoration of grid. The output of the inverter shall be pure sine wave and can contain THD not more than 5%. The injection of DC power into the grid shall be limited to less than 1% by using an isolation transformer at the output of the inverter.Energy meters are required to measure the solar gross generation, import and export energy from and to the utility network and energy consumed by the building.
Solar PV panel convert the light reaching them into DC power.The basic building block of PV panel is the solar cell.Number of cells are connected in series depending on the voltage rating to form a module.Number of modules are connected in parallel depending on the current rating to form an array. The amount of power they produce is highly dependent on the light intensity or irradiance,duration and angle of the light reaching them. They are therefore required to be positioned in such a manner that the maximum power is obtained within the suns movements during the day.The maximum power output occurs when the sun rays are perpendicular to the solar panel.The maximum power point (MPP) is defined by the point on the I V curve of solar module under illumination where the product of the current and voltage is maximum.As the amount of solar radiation is not constant through out the day,the MPP changes and therefore MPP trackers are used to make the PV module to operate at its optimal condition at all times. However, these tracking mechanisms tend to add a fair bit to the cost of the system, so for small capacity PV panels either fixed panels or some
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Hot dip galvanized iron mounting structures are used for mounting PV panels on the rooftop at an angle of tilt with the horizontal in accordance with the latitude of the place of installation. The mounting structure is designed to withstand wind speed of the location. All the non-current carrying metal parts are bonded together and connected to earth to prevent shock to the manpower and protect the equipment in case of any accidental contact.The size of the earthing conductor shall not be less than 1.6 sq mm and the earth resistance shall not be more than 5 ohms. The size of the Battery is depends on the loss of power supply probability.The cable shall be 1.1 grade, heavy duty, stranded copper conductor PVC type A insulated, flame retardant low smoke.Grid charger is provided to charge the battery from the grid supply in case of non availability of solar power. Charge controller is provided to avoid overcharging of the battery. The inverter, charge controller and grid charger can be built in one unit called power conditioning unit.Ideally, Technical Specification: DC output of PV array(Wp) Area required(Square feet) No. of cells in one PV module DC rating of one module(Wp) Rated DC current of one module(Amps) Rated DC voltage of one module(Vmpp) No. of PV modules in one Array(All in series) No. of Arrays Rating of inverter(KVA) Nominal AC output voltage Variation in output voltage Nominal frequency(Hz) Grid frequency variation DC injection into Grid(Max) Ripple content on DC side Minimum efficiency of inverter(%) No-load losses of inverter(Max) Total voltage distortion on AC side
grid tied systems do not require battery backup as the grid acts as the back-up for absorbing excess solar power and feeding the customer load in case of shortfall. However, to enhance the performance reliability of the overall systems, a minimum battery backup of one hour of load capacity could also be considered where grid supply is not reliable and erratic. Distribution systems are traditionally passive and designed to facilitate unidirectional energy flow, not as the transmission system is designed for two way power flow. In planning and operating, it is assumed that power always flows from the secondary winding of the transformer to the end users. With the newly introduced rooftop PV panel generation, the distribution system becomes an active system with both energy generation and consumption at the formerly exclusive load nodes. Bidirectional power flows in distribution networks should be incorporated in the network design and operation criteria.
1000 150 36 80 4.45 18 2 7 1.1 240 +/- 1% 50 +/-3% 1% 3% 94 1% 5%

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Individual voltage harmonic distortion Total current Harmonic distortion(AC side) POWER GENERATED BY ROOF- TOP PV PANEL The power generating capacity of a PV system is denoted in kWp (Kilowatt peak) measured at standard test conditions of solar radiation of 1000W per sq meter at 25 degree centigrade and air mass (Thickness of the atmosphere)1.5. TABLE -1 RT PV generation details for 1 year. Month Solar radiation PV energy generation kWh/M2/day kWh Jan 3.75 133 Feb 5.03 151 Mar 6.00 165 Apr 6.75 156 May 7.08 155 June 6.47 132 Jul 5.14 115 Aug 4.92 115 Sep 5.50 135 Oct 5.22 155 Nov 4.19 136 Dec 3.72 138 Annual 5.31 1686 Item PV panel(1KWp) Battery One set for 3 years Inverter Energy import cost With Battery and inverter(Rs) without PV panel 100000
3% 8%
As per common thumb rule the average power is equal to 20% of the peak power, so that each peak kW power output of PV panel corresponds to energy production of 1kWp*20%*24=4.8 kWh per day per kWp.
Capacity utilization factor % 17.9 21.7 22.17 21.00 20.8 18.4 15.4 15.4 18.8 20.8 19.1 18.5 19.16 With PV Grid-fed (Rs) 40000 100000
With PV Nongrid fed(Rs) 40000 100000
10000 250*12*25*7.00 = 525000
10000 (250*12*25)(1686*25) =32850*7.00 =229950 379950
10000 250*12*25*7.00 =525000
Energy export cost Total
635000
1686*25*18.45 = -777667 - 102667
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Note: 1. The average monthly consumption is taken as 250 units 2. Adopting normative cost estimate and capacity utilization factor The levelised tariff works out as Rs.18.45 3. Useful life of solar PV system is taken as 25 years 4. PV Energy generation per annum 1686units From the above table it is clear that 1. Without PV panel the amount that could be spent works out to Rs.635000/2. With PV panel but not selling the energy produced to the grid but for own consumption, the amount spent works out to Rs.379950/3. With PV panel energy produced being sold to the gird and after deducting all the expenditure the net profit works out to Rs. 102667/Regulatory Issues: 1. Guidelines are in the pipeline as regards to generation based incentives, generation and distribution of solar power. 2. CEA of India are working out necessary guideline for fixing the tariff of solar Power. 3. State Electricity Regulatory commissions have to decide the modalities for incorporating any new tariff guidelines for buying and selling, wheeling and banking of solar power.
4. Technical standards and specifications have to evolved for testing, commissioning and inter connecting the new RT PV generation system into the LT networks, duly considering all the safety precautions.
CONCLUSION: RT PV Power generation is a new concept and yet to be implemented by developing countries. However, pilot studies have been successfully carried out by countries like Canada, America and the results are very encouraging. Even in India at CPRI, Bangalore arrangements are being done to install a 3KW capacity RP TV panel and connecting it to the LT network on a pilot basis. In the present Energy Shortage Scenario RT PV promises a clean, renewable convenient, in exhaustible pollution free power and tremendous Business opportunities for the future.
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2

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Dedicated to Bharat Ratna Sir. M. Visvesvaraya

An Inspiration for all engineers

PROCEEDINGS OF STUDENTS TECHNICAL SEMINAR

Department of Mechanical Engineering

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

MEMBERS OF THE EDITORIAL COMMITTEE

Sri. A. S. Srikantappa Associate Editor Assistant Professor Department of Mechanical Engineering

Sri. B.R. Vijay Associate Editor Lecturer Department of Mechanical Engineering

Karthik B.S. Editor 4th Semester Department of Mechanical Engineering

Abhijit Editor 4th Semester Department of Mechanical Engineering

Varun Kumar Editor 4th Semester Department of Mechanical Engineering

PROCEEDINGS OF STUDENTS TECHNICAL SEMINAR

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

PROCEEDINGS OF STUDENTS TECHNICAL SEMINAR

HYDROGEN & FUEL CELLS THE RELIABLE FUTURE SOURCE OF ENERGY

MAJOR TYPES OF FUEL CELLS:

1) Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM)

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

3) Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell

2) Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell [PAFC]

4) Solid Oxide Fuel Cell

PROCEEDINGS OF STUDENTS TECHNICAL SEMINAR

5) Alkaline Fuel Cell

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

USE OF FUEL CELLS IN OTHER FIELDS:

Laptops can be powered for 20 hours without recharging.

COST OF FUEL CELLS:

PROCEEDINGS OF STUDENTS TECHNICAL SEMINAR

emissions assuming new biomass is grown

in place of that converted to hydrogen.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

PROCEEDINGS OF STUDENTS TECHNICAL SEMINAR

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

ECONOMICS AND FEASIBILITY

PROCEEDINGS OF STUDENTS TECHNICAL SEMINAR

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

PROCEEDINGS OF STUDENTS TECHNICAL SEMINAR

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

PROCEEDINGS OF STUDENTS TECHNICAL SEMINAR

m/s (200 ft/s). Blade count

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

PROCEEDINGS OF STUDENTS TECHNICAL SEMINAR

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

PROCEEDINGS OF STUDENTS TECHNICAL SEMINAR

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

PROCEEDINGS OF STUDENTS TECHNICAL SEMINAR

mimicking of various human characteristics. Sound concepts in many is Speed. It

environment. To perform repetitive task. Efficiency Accuracy

WHAT IS A ROBOT? A re-programmable, designed multifunctional to move manipulator

TYPES OF ROBOTS WHEELED

material, parts, tools, or specialized devices through various programmed

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

No interaction with humans

CURRENT ROBOTS Design Goals:

TRADITIONAL ROBOTICS Industrial robot manipulators

PROCEEDINGS OF STUDENTS TECHNICAL SEMINAR

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

PROCEEDINGS OF STUDENTS TECHNICAL SEMINAR

autonomy, including being able to find power sources on their own.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Intelligence has researched on this problem.