Spin Fluctuation Theory

Ruairi Hanan, Department of Physics, Trinity College, Dublin

26.3.2005
1 Introduction
During the course of the development of a quantum mechanical description of
the solid state in the early 20th century it became evident that previously held
conceptions of magnetic phenomena on the microscopic scale, namely its depic-
tion of magnetic moments as being localized on atoms, whilst providing fruitful
insight into the behaviour of many systems such as the f electrons of the rare
earth, proved inadequate in explaining metallic magnetism, especially that of
the transition metals. Experimentally determined magnetic moments of such
systems, being of non integer value, suggested that the conduction electrons are
instead at least partially free. Treatment of itinerant electrons in metals as a
free electron gas eventually evolved into the Stoner model which signicantly
retained the molecular eld concept of the Weiss model whilst abandoning dis-
cretised angular momentum. Although quite successful in its description of
itinerant electron at T = 0, its extension to nite temperatures, with is pre-
diction of numerous phenomena in direct conict with experiment, including a
Curie temperature 4 8 times too large and an inverse susceptibility with a
T
2
dependence rather than the experimentally observed T dependence, proved
disastrous. The key to resolving these diculties would lie in abandoning the
previously held concept of single particle excitations to describe the nite T
dependence. An approach by Moriya [2] to introduce thermally induced collec-
tive excitations into systems with itinerant electrons was further developed by
Murata and Doniach proved considerably successful in reducing these discrep-
ancies.
This article begins with a discussion on itinerant electrons and the Stoner
model for the spin polarized elecron gas. Its generalisation to nite temper-
atures is briey presented followed by a motivation of the concept of spin
uctuations. Finally the theory of spin uctuations from a phenomenologi-
cal viewpoint, within the framework of the Landau theory of phase transitions
is developed in detail.
2 The Rhodes-Wohlfarth Plot
A description of nite temperature properties of itinerant magnetic systems was
clearly a pressing concern for the magnetism community, especially since many
commonly used materials lacked any useful theory predicting their properties. A
method of providing some measure of quantication to the degree of itinerancy
of the electrons in a material is provided by the Rhodes aWohlfarth plot. The
1
plot exploits the deviation of behaviour from the Weiss model describing weakly
interacting localized magnetic moments to obtain a rough classication of the
extent of the nonlocality. According to Hunds rule the occupation of the J
levels at T = 0 is given by
M
0
n
B
= q
S
= g
j
J = 2J
Where M is the magnetic moment, n is the total number of atoms and |g| = 2
if the carriers of the moment are assumed to be electrons. q
S
is the magnetic
carrier per atom The calculation for the Curie temperature gives
C =
1
3
(J + 1)g
j

B
n
2
g
j

B
J
nk
B
=
1
3
g
j
J(g
j
J +g
j
)
n
2

B
2
nk
B
=
1
3
q
c
(q
c
+ 2)
n
2

B
2
R
where R is the gas constant R = Lk
B
with L = n being Avogadros num-
ber. Again q
c
= g
j
J is dened as a magnetic carrier but since it is calculated
from the Curie constant is a characteristic of the system for T > T
c
. The
Rhodes-Wohlfarth plot is then obtained by plotting the ratio of
q
c
q
s
, both ob-
tained experimentally, as a function of the Curie temperature of the particular
system. For a localized system the value of the ratio will be close to 1, since the
value of the moment does not change much above or below T
c
. In the case of
itinerant systems, q
s
0 if T
c
0 but since q
c
remains independent of T the
ratio diverges. The rather uniform distribution of systems on the plot implies
that the completely localized or delocalized extremes are hardly ever found.
3 The Stoner Model
By way of motivating spin uctuation theory and the concept of multiple spin
excitations, the awed Stoner model is presented here complete with a discussion
of how and why its fails for non zero temperature.
The Stoner Theory diers from that of the Weiss molecular eld theory,
in that the electrons are no longer treated as localized and occupying energy
levels dependent on their angular momentum, instead they are free to move in
a periodic potential. Since the orbital moment is quenched by the crystal eld,
the momentum k and the spin describe the electrons. The Stoner model is based
on the following three postulates.
1 The magnetic carriers are the unsaturated spins in the d band. 2 The
eects of exchange are incorporated through a molecular eld term. 3 Fermi
statistics must be obeyed.
By analogy with the Weiss model [1] a molecular eld containing the inter-
actions is introduced. The molecular eld per atom is
H
M
= NM = NM
0

, where =
M
M
0
2
Figure 1: Rhodes-Wohlfarth Plot
Therefore the energy shift caused by the molecular eld is

m
=
B
H
M
=
B
NM
0
= k
B

Where is dened as =

B
NM
0
k
B
, a characteristic temperature. For a
complete derivation [3].
The logical next step for the Stoner Theory is its extension to the nite
temperature regime. From the outset it was clear that the nite temperature
Stoner Theory was doomed to fail; the temperature dependences predicted were
far too weak and often in conict with experiment and very few systems such as
ZrZn
2
and NiAl could be described with any degree of accuracy. Although it
is merely a curiosity, at best a minor correction to the collective excitations of
the spin uctuation theory discussed later, the nite temperature Stoner theory
can be found in [3]. The model predicts the Curie temperature to scale linearly
with the magnetic moment.
1
3
|c|
2
= |a|T
c
2
Where a and c are constants. As will be shown later this neither agrees with
spin uctuation theory nor experiment.
The Curie temperature according to the Stoner model is given by
T
c
2
= T
F
2
(I
S
N(
F
) 1)
Where T
F
is the Fermi degeneracy temperature and usually of the order of
several thousand Kelvin, I
s
is the Stoner exchange integral and is calculated
from the exchange interaction, N(
F
) is the density of states at the fermi level,
thus (I
S
N(
F
) 1) must be very small for a resonable T
c
, hence the theory
3
Figure 2: The ranges of magnetic order described in the Stoner model for parabolic band
can only be expected to apply to very weak itinerant systems and fails for most
everyday magnetic materials.
The derivation shows that the for weak excitations with << 1 the suscep-
tibility in the magnetic state is half that of the non magnetic state. The reason
for this is that the Stoner Model shows no magnetic order above T
c
, however the
application of an external eld allows for the creation of spins from the vacuum.
Below the Curie temperature, any applied eld has to ip the sign of the spin,
a signicant energy barrier when all spins are aligned as they will be below T
c
.
the factor of 2 is obvious by analogy with the rotating of a vector corresponding
to the spin by 180
o
eectively multiplying it by 2.
4 Landau Theory for the Stoner Model
The formulation of the nite T dependence will be developed here using the
phenomenological Landau theory of phase transitions [1].
Consider the free energy
F =
1
2
AM
2
+
1
4
BM
4
MH
From the extremal conditions (
dF
dM
= 0 and
d
2
F
dM
2
> 0, the coecient A and
B are given by
A =
1
2
0
(1
T
2
T
c
2
) B =
1
2
0
M
0
2
and
4
M
0
2
=
A
B
F =
M
0
2
8
0
M
2
= M
0
2
(1
T
2
T
c
2
)
where
0
is the susceptibility at T = 0 and M
0
is dened as the equilibrium
moment at T = 0, F is the free energy dierence between the magnetic and
non-magentic state at T = 0 and M is the magnetic moment at a given tem-
perature T. Subbing in these relations for H = 0 gives the following expression
for the free energy.
F
m
=
M
0
2
8
0
(1
T
2
T
c
2
)
2
The magnetic contribution to the specic heat and the entropy can then be
calculated.
c
m
= T
d
2
F
dT
2
=
M
0
2
2
0
T
c
T
T
c
(1 3
T
2
T
c
2
) .
This produces a pronounced discontinuity above T
c
where the magnetic moment
and the specic heat vanish.
c
m
=
M
0
2

0
T
c
For low temperatures, the specic heat can be approximated to
c
m
=
m
T
where
m
=
M
2
0
2
0
T
c
This for often referred to as the Wohlfarth correction. Unfortunately the
magnetic specic heat is a very dicult object to observe in practice since the
electronic specic heat is proportional to T and the phonon specic heat is
proportional to T
3
.
An interesting prediction of the Landau Theory for the Stoner Model are the
magneto-elastic phenomena, including volume magnetostriction. The volume
change induced by a magnetic moment can be explained as follows, consider
a slightly more than half lled d band, the removal of electrons from the spin
down bonding state into the spin up antibonding state because of bandsplitting
due to magnetism leads to a weakening of the bond strength and hence a volume
expansion. Thus in general, the volume in the magnetic state is larger than that
of the non magnetic state.
The important point which should be noted is that the various discontinuities
between the magnetic and nonmagnetic states predicted by the Stoner model
are too large in comparison with experimental results. The reason for this
5
inconsistancy is that the Stoner model fails to predict the paramagnetic state
above T
c
, where the local moments still exist despite the breakdown of long
range order.
5 Spin Fluctuation Theory
Following the argument presented in [3], the temperature dependence of the
magnetic properties was assumed to arise from the temperature dependence of
the Fermi distribution, this assumption proved inadequate leading to unrealistic
or exaggerated magnetic behaviour, however the Heisenberg model when applied
to localized systems, through its use of collective excitations of the whole system
proved to be most fruitful. It was thought then that perhaps similar such con-
siderations of itinerant systems may rectify the problem. However for itinerant
electrons the concept of the spin wave no longer has meaning, instead it must be
replaced with a statistical uctuation of the magnetic moment or spin density.
Figure 3: Sketch of Spin Fluctuation, (r) is the spin density
The following arguments are presented in the framework of Landau-Ginsberg
theory as introduced by Murata and Doniach [4] and applied to Ni
3
Al and
MnSi by Lonzarich [5]
When a system is in equilibrium, the physical properties characterizing the
system will always be very close to their equilibriums value although still sub-
ject to small deviations (uctuations) from the average, consider nding the
probability distribution of these uctuations.
Let x be the physical quantity in question in a system in equilibrium, the
uctuation can then be formulated in terms of Gaussian statistics.
The Boltzmann formula gives the probability distribution
w(x) = Const exp(S(x))
In equilibrium the entropy is a maximum. Therefore
S(x)
x
= 0,

2
S(x)
x
2
< 0 for
the equilibrium condition x = < x > = 0. These assumptions are problematic
close to T
c
where both rst and second derivatives vanish, therefore we shall
restrict ourselves to regions far from the critical point. Expanding S(x) in a
taylor series, the linear term vanishes by the above condition. Thus
S(x) = S(0)

2
x
2
Which gives
w(x)dx = kexp(

2
x
2
)dx
6
The constant k is the normalization factor given by
_
w(x) dx = 1 giving
k =
_

2
_1
2
This yields a probability distribution for x
w(x) =

2
1
2
exp(

2
x
2
) dx
This is a Gaussian distribution, peaked at x = 0, the statistical average for
even powers of the variable x is now:
< x
2k
>=
_

2
_1
2
_

x
2k
exp(

2
x
2
) dx =
k
(2k 1)!!
6 Fluctuations of the Magnetic Moment
Previously in the treatment of the magnetization as the order parameter in
the Landau theory of phase transitions, the vector nature of m was ignored,
this was acceptable since it only ever appeared in even powers, however now
that uctuations must be considered the vector properties can no longer be
neglected. Obviously since the uctuation vector is equally likely to point in
any given direction, the volume integral over odd powers of the uctuation must
vanish. So if m(r) is the locally uctuating magnetic moment
1
V
_
(m(r))
n
d =< m
n
>
for n = 2k otherwise 0
Example: Calculation of the lowest two powers of the total magnetic mo-
ment. For convenience take M = (0, 0, M
z
) using the usual cartesian axes, so
there are two uctuations perpendicular to M and one parallel. So the new
order parameter becomes
M
2n

__
M +
3

i=1
m
i
_
2n
_
Setting n = 1
_
(M +
3

i=1
m
i
_
2
_
=
_
M
2
+ 2M
3

i=1
m
i
+
3

i=1
3

j=1
m
i
m
j
_
= M
2
+ 2 < m

2
> + < m

2
>
On averaging, all terms with odd powers vanish. This implies that there is
one component < m

2
>, parallel to M and two perpendicular < m

2
>.
7
Setting n = 2, after some algebra gives
__
M +
3

i=1
m
i
_
4
_
= M
4
+M
2
(6 < m

2
> +4 < m
2

>)
+8< m

2
>
2
+ 3< m

2
>
2
+4 < m

2
>< m
2

>
The modied free energy is then calculated by replacing M in equation with
the corrected values. The so called dynamical form of the free energy is
F =
A
2
(< M
2
> +2 < m

2
> + < m

2
>)
+
B
4
[M
4
+M
2
(6 < m

2
> +4 < m

2
>)
+8< m

2
>
2
+ 3< m

2
>
2
+4 < m

2
>< m
2

>]
Obviously at T = 0, the free energy reverts to its previous value. Landau theory
predicates T
c
to lie at the point where the susceptibility diverges with M = 0,
since the bulk magnetization vanishes at T
c
there no longer exists a dierence
between the parallel and perpendicular uctuations, the M vector vanishes.
Therefore at T Tc, with M = 0, must diverge,
1
=
d
2
F
dM
2
gives

1
= A+
B
2
10 < m
2
>= 0
for T = T
c
.
This gives the magnitude of the uctuations at the critical point also known
as the Moriya formula
< m
c
2
>=
M
0
2
5
Hence the amplitude is entirely given by the groundstate properties at T =
0 An approximate temperature dependence for the uctuations can now be
formulated. Since the uctuations must vanish at T = 0 and the amplitude at
T = T
c
has been derived, using the uctuation dissipation theorem [6] which
states that classical uctuations change linearly with T the following relation is
arrived at
< m
2

> (T) =< m

2

> (T) < m

2
c
>
T
T
c
=
M
0
2
5
T
T
c
Note that < m
2

> and < m

2

> are largely identical for isotropic systems.

8
The temperature dependence of the bulk moment is as follows:
dF
dM
= 0 M
2
= M
0
2
3 < m
2

> +2 < m
2

>
M
2
= M
0
2
(1
T
T
c
)
By comparison with the Stoner model, here the reduction of the magnetic mo-
ment at low temperature is stronger. The reason being that the collective modes
of the spin uctuation model can easily be excited at low T whereas the Stoner
excitations are still very small.
Figure 4: Temperature dependence of the Stoner model (dashed curve) and spin-uctuation
model (full curve)
The behaviour of the total magnetic moment is given by
< (M +
3

i=1
m
i
)
2
> M
0
2
(1
2T
5T
c
)
for T < T
c
M
0
2
(
3T
5T
c
)
for T T
c
The susceptibility is given by
=
0
(1
T
T
c
)
1
for T < T
c
= 2
0
((
T
T
c
1)
1
) for T T
c
which gives a Curie constant C
C =
d
1
dT
=
1
2
0
T
c
9
This is no longer temperature dependent as the Stoner model has it, instead
it describes a CurieWeiss behaviour.
Following work by Lonzarich and Taillefer [7], Mohn and Wohlfarth derived
a model for the Curie temperature in weakly itinerant systems.
T
c
T
SF
=
M
0
2
10k
B

0
Where T
SpinFluctuation
is a characteristic temperature which scales with the
system
Figure 5: The relation between T
SF
and the experimental T
c
Deviations from the graph are based on whether the system is more localized
or itinerant, localized systems are generally found below the line, itinerant one
above. The equation for T
c
is derived from the Mohn-Wohlfarth model which
assumes the equation is describing the long wave length limit for the uctua-
tions in a weakly itinerant system, hence an eective cut o for the collective
excitations is assumed, thus the model can be expected to breakdown for strong
ferromagnets. The model explains the large Curie temperature of Co relative
to Fe. Although Fe has a larger magnetic moment, Co has a much smaller
susceptibility.
7 Observable Tests of the Model
Specic Heat of Spin Fluctuations The specic heat is calculated from the ther-
modynamic relation.
c
m
= T
d
2
F
dT
2
By neglecting single spin excitations, a reasonable approximation for low
temperatures, the thermal dependence of the coecient A can be ignored. The
following results are obtained
10
For T < T
c
c
m
<
=
B
2
< m

2
> [6
< m

2
>
T
+4
< m

2
>
T
]
+B < m

2
> [2
< m

2
>
T
]
2
< m

2
>
T
]
ForT T
c
c
m

=
B
2
< m
2
> 15
< m
2
>
T
The negative contribution to the total specic heat has been experimentally
conrmed for the Invar system Fe-Pt.The discontinuity in the specic heat at
T
c
is
c
m
=
B
2
< m
2
> 15
< m
2
>
T
At T = T
c
Using the Moriya formula
c
m
=
M
0
2
4
0
T
c
Comparison with the Stoner Model shows that the discontinuity is reduced
by a factor of 4, this is because above T
c
the Stoner model neglects the para-
magnetic state and assumes the system to be non-magnetic. Hence spin uc-
tuation model provides better agreement with experiment, for bcc Fe the spin
uctuation model predicts a discontinuity of 36 J/mole K quite close to the
experimental value of 43 J/mole K.
Mageto-Volume Coupling Consider the coupling between the volume and
magnetic moment via a coupling constant
The gives a free energy of
F =
A
2
(< M
2
+ 2 < m

2
>
+ < m

2
>
+
B
4
[M
4
+M
2
(6< m

2
>
+4 < m

2
>) + 8< m

2
>
2
+3< m

2
>
2
+4 < m

2
>< m
2

>] + +V
+V
2
+V (M
2
+ 2 < m

2
> + < m
2

>)
11
After some algebra
T
c
(P) = T
c
(P = 0)(1
P
P
c
)
A linear dependence of Curie temperature on applied pressure is predicted,
the Stoner model gives a square root dependence.
T
c
(P) = T
c
(P = 0)(1
P
P
c
)
1
2
For the derivation of the volume dependance see [3]
The magnetic contribution to the thermal expansion
m
is given by
T < T
c
1
T
c
_
V
NM
V
0
1
__
1 3
< m
c
2
>
< M
0
2
>
_
T T
c
1
T
c
(1
V
NM
V
0
)(3
< m
c
2
>
M
0
2
)
Where V
0
is the equilibrium volume at T = 0K and V
NM
is the volume of
the non magnetic state, which will also be the volume of the Stoner model at
T
c
So the volume at T
C
in the uctuation model is
V (T
c
) = V
NM
3(V
NM
V
0
)
< m
c
2
>
M
0
2
Which is considerably smaller than that given by the Stoner model and in
line with experiment.
8 Practical uses of the Spin Fluctuation model
The spin uctuation theory has proved highly successful in recent years in re-
solving many outstanding diculties in solid state magnetism. Amongst these,
three of the major triumphs which will be outlined here, include i) the Invar ef-
fect, ii) the temperature dependence of the susceptibility and the critical eld of
metamagnets and iii) the Curie temperature of the transition metal impurities
in Pd.
i)Many alloys, most notably Fe
65
Ni
35
display a range of curious thermal
phenomena known collectively as the Invar eect. The most intriguing of which
being the vanishing thermal expansion in a certain temperature range. The rst
attempt to explain this phenomena is attributed to R. Weiss who proposed the
2 state model. The assumption being that in Invar alloys there existed a ferro-
magnetic ground state with a larger volume and a metastable antiferromagnetic
state of a smaller volume. The idea being that as the temperature increased the
12
system would be excited from the ferromagnetic state into the metastable anti-
ferromagnetic state with the magnetically induced volume shrinking countered
exactly, within a certain temperature range, by the thermally driven phonon vol-
ume expansion. This model appears to be roughly correct at least in principle
despite the fact that the antiferromagnetic ground state has never actually been
located in an experiment, it does however provide a guide on how to proceed.
Once again the Stoner model proves inadequate as it predicts a very negative
contribution to the thermal expansion which would in fact describe a shrinking
of the system above T
c
. The spin uctuation theory leads to a much smaller
value for the spontaneous magnetostriction and a more realistic .
ii)Spin uctuations also inuence other thermal properties such as the sus-
ceptibility. Some predictions include, for ordinary paramagnets a Curie-Weiss
behaviour as can be expected as for localized systems. Another prediction is that
the susceptibility reaches a maximum before entering the Curie-Weiss regime
as in the case of Pd and Y Co
2
. This susceptibility maximum was considered
a necessary condition for metamagnetism by Wohlfarth and Rhodes. Incorpo-
rating spin uctuation theory into band structure calculations it can be shown
that for Pd, only a deviation from the linear temperature dependence of
1
exists and not a discontinuous phase transition to metamagnetism. This phase
transition does exist for Y Co
2
at low temperatures, but above T = 35K the spin
uctuations tend to suppress the discontinuity as is conrmed experimentally.
iii) A study of the nite temperature behaviour of transition metal impuri-
ties in palladium through spin uctuation theory has proved most fruitful. Only
a small amount a transition metal need be added to the Pd matrix in order to
turn it into a ferromagnet. This arises from the very large susceptibility of the
Pd host, the transition metal impurities can easily polarize the surrounding Pd
atoms causing a region of polarization extending over more than 1000 atoms.
This was once erroneously attributed to the impurities alone, giving them a mas-
sive moment of up to 10
b
. Experimental results suggest the Curie temperature,
not to be a linear function of the concentration, as predicted by earlier models,
instead a slowing down of its increase is observed for concentrations > 5%. The
magnetic behaviour of these systems can be understood by treating the local-
ized impurity moment within a Weiss model and the polarizing eld generated
by the impurity, which acts on the Pd host as an enhanced Pauli-paramagnet
with strong spin uctuations.
Spin uctuation theory is not conned to ferromagnetic systems, it has also
been applied to antiferromagnets and ferrimagnets too. System which have
proved amenable to the theory include Mn and FeRh. In the case of FeRh a
phase transition from antiferromagnetic to a ferromagnetic occurs, by comparing
the diering free energies the properties of this phase transition can be analysed.
9 Comparison of Spin Fluctuation theory and
Stoner Model
The table below shows a comparison between spin uctuation model and Stoner
model. In both cases the results are based on a Landau expansion of the free
energy up to the fourth order in M and the second order in V . Since the spin
uctuations are treated within the mean eld theory, the critical exponents for
13
both models will be the same although the models exhibit dierent power law
behaviour for susceptibility and magnetic moment. The spin uctuations lead to
a linear temperature dependence of the Curie temperature with a temperature
independent Curie constant, as expected for localized moments. The magnetic
contribution to the thermal expansion coecient is smaller for the spin uctu-
ation model and exists above T
c
and the discontinuity in specic heat at T
c
is
also reduced by a factor of 4.
Figure 6: Table of comparisons between the spin uctuation model and Stoner model
10 Landau-Ginzburg Model for Spin Fluctua-
tions
Previously the concept of spin uctuations was introduced in a rather phe-
nomenological fashion with little discussion on the nature of the spin uctua-
tions themselves or the exact nature of their temperature dependence. For most
practical purposes this is really all that is required however its worth mentioning
in brief that there does exist an exact (within the mean eld approximation)
theory of magnetic uctuations, the Landau-Ginzburg formulation. The deriva-
tion of the theory itself is quite mathematically intensive and beyond the scope
of this article however the main result will be summarized here.
The expansion of the free energy now contains a local term to account for the
spatial dependence of the uctuations. This insures that only uctuations which
are larger than the electronic range of interaction are considered. Short range
intratomic uctuations are initially suppressed and should only be considered
at high temperatures.
14
H =
1
V
_
dr(E(M +
3

i=1
m
i
(r))
+
C
2

i,j
(
j
m
i
(r))
2
)
The theory predicts T
c
=
M
2
0
10
0
k
B
4
2

2
V k
c
. It now contains information about
the nite wavelength dependence of the uctuations, where is the correlation
length.
Landau -Ginzburg theory provides good agreement with experiment, the
deviations of the Curie temperature and the susceptibilities are within 15% of
experiment. So much of the important physics of magnetic coupling is con-
tained within the model. However it is not without its problems, the order of
the phase transitions are not so well described, the theory predicts rst order
phase transitions, this is thought to arise from the use of Gaussian uctuations.
Currently a detailed explanation for this discrepancy does not exist.
11 Conclusion
Presently spin uctuation theory provides one of the most promising phe-
nomenological frameworks to study itinerant magnetism. It has combined the
best elements of the Stoner Theory, namely its accurate predictions for the
quantum mechanical magnetic groundstate with a classical treatment of collec-
tive excitations with considerable success as veried by experiment. Despite
the obvious sucesses of spin uctuation theory there still exist a number of out-
standing diculties most noteably the incorrect predictions for the order of the
phase transition, it is still very much an active and exciting eld at the forefront
of magnetism.
Figure for Section 6
Figure 7:
15
The temperature dependence of the bulk moment
q
1
T
T
c
, (dotted curve) the uctu-
ations
q
3
5
T
T
c
, the total moment
q
(1
2
5
T
T
c
) for T T
c
and
q
3
5
T
T
c
for T T
c
(dashed
curve)
References
[1] JMC Coey ,Magnetism Notes
[2] T. Moriya ,Spin Fluctuations in Itinerant Electron Magnetism,Springer Series
[3] P.Mohn,Magnetism in the Solid State, An Introduction, Springer (Germany),2003
[4] K.K Murata and S. Doniach ,Physics Review Letters 29 285,1972
[5] G.G Lonzarich,J. Magn. Magn. Mater 45,43 (1984)
[6] L.D Landau, E. M. Lifschitz Lehrbuch der Theoretischen Physik vol. 5 p318 (1979)
[7] G.G Lonzarich, J. Tailefer, J. Phys. C: Condens Matter18, 4339 (1985)
The gures used in this article are taken from ref [3]
16