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TheSociologyofReligion

MaxWeber

(A)ORIGINSOFRELIGION (A.1)PrimordialNotionsOfReligion (A.1.a)Viewpoint Itisnotpossibletodefinereligion,tosaywhatit"is,"atthestartofapresentationsuch asthis.Definitioncanbeattempted,ifatall,onlyattheconclusionofthestudy.The "essence"ofreligionisnotevenourconcern,aswemakeitourtasktostudythe conditionsandeffectsofaparticulartypeofsocialaction.Theexternalcoursesof religiousbehavioraresodiversethatanunderstandingofthisbehaviorcanonlybe achievedfromtheviewpointofthesubjectiveexperiences,notion,andpurposesofthe individualsconcernedinshort,fromtheviewpointofthereligiousbehavior's "meaning." (A.1.b)ThisworldlyOrientation Themostelementaryformsofreligiouslyormagicallymotivatedactionareorientedto thisworld."Thatitmaygowellwithyou...Andthatyoumayprolongyourdaysupon theearth"[1]showsthemotivationofreligiouslyormagicallycommandedactions.Even humansacrifices,althoughuncommonamongurbanpeoples,wereperformedinthe Phoenicianmaritimecitieswithoutanyotherworldlyexpectationswhatsoever. Furthermore,religiouslyormagicallymotivatedactionisrelativelyrationalaction, especiallyinitsearliestforms.Itfollowsrulesofexperience,thoughitisnotnecessarily actioninaccordancewithmeansendrationality.Rubbingwillelicitsparksfrompiecesof wood,andinlikefashionthemimeticactionsofa"magician"willevokerainfromthe heavens.Thesparksresultingfromtwirlingthewoodensticksareasmucha"magical" effectastherainevokedbythemanipulationsoftherainmaker.Thus,religiousor magicalactionorthinkingmustnotbesetapartfromtherangeofeverydaypurposive

action,particularlysincetheelementaryendsofthereligiousandmagicalactionsare predominantlyeconomic. (A.1.c)Magic Onlywe,judgingfromthestandpointofourmodemviewsofnature,candistinguish objectivelyinsuchbehaviorthoseattributionsofcausalitywhichare"correct"fromthose whichare"incorrect,"andthendesignatetheincorrectattributionsofcausalityas irrational,andthecorrespondingactsas"magic."Quiteadifferentdistinctionwillbe madebythepersonperformingthemagicalact,whowillinsteaddistinguishbetweenthe greaterorlesserordinarinessofthephenomenainquestion.Forexample,noteverystone canserveasafetish,asourceofmagicalpower.Nordoeseverypersonhavethecapacity toachievetheecstaticstateswhichareviewed,accordancetorulesofexperience,asthe preconditionsforproducingcertaineffectsinmeteorology,healing,divination,and telepathy.Itisprimarily,thoughnotexclusively,theseextraordinarypowersthathave beendesignatedbysuchspecialtermsas"Mana,""Orenda,"andtheIranian"Maga"(the termfromwhichourword"magic"isderived).Weshallhenceforthemploytheterm "charisma"forsuchextraordinarypowers. (A.1.d)Charisma Charismamaybeeitheroftwotypes.Wherethistermisfullyserved,charismaisagift thatinheresinanobjectorpersonsimplybynaturalendowment.Suchprimarycharisma cannotbeacquiredbyanymeans.Butcharismaoftheothertypemaybeproduced artificiallyinanobjectorpersonthroughsomeextraordinarymeans.Eventhen,itis assumedthatcharismaticcapabilitycanbedevelopedonlyinwhichthegermalready existedbutwouldhaveremaineddormantunless"awakened"bysomeasceticorother means.Thus,evenattheearlieststageofreligiousdevelopmenttherewerealready presentallformsofthedoctrineofreligiousgrace,fromthatofabsolutegracetograceby goodworks.Thestronglynaturalisticnotion(latelytermed"preanimistic")ofcharisma isstillafeatureoffolkreligion.Tothisday,nodecisionofchurchcouncils, differentiatingthe"worship"ofGodfromthe"adoration"oftheiconsofsaints,and definingtheiconsasmerelyadevotionalmeans,hassucceededindeterringasouth Europeanfromspittinginfrontofthestatueofasaintwhens/heholdsitresponsiblefor withholdingananticipatedresulteventhoughthecustomaryprocedureswereperformed. (A.1.e)BeliefinSpirits

Aprocessofabstraction,whichonlyappearstobesimple,hasusuallyalreadybeen carriedoutinthemostprimitiveinstancesofreligiousbehavior.Alreadycrystallizedis thenotionthatcertainbeingsareconcealed"behind"andresponsiblefortheactivityof thecharismaticallyendowednaturalobjects,artifacts,animals,orpersons.Thisisthe beliefinspirits.Attheoutset,"spirit"isneithersoul,demon,norgod,butsomething indeterminate,materialyetinvisible,impersonalandyetsomehowendowedwithwill.By enteringintoaconcreteobject,spiritendowsthelatterwithitsdistinctivepower.The spiritmaydepartfromitshostorvessel,leavingthelatterinoperativeandcausingthe magician' scharismatofail.Inothercases,thespiritmaydiminishintonothingness,orit mayenterintoanotherpersonorobject.Thatanyparticulareconomicconditionsare prerequisitesfortheemergenceofabeliefinspiritsdoesnotappeartobedemonstrable. Butbeliefinspirits,likeallabstraction,ismostprevailedinthosesocietieswithinwhich certainpersonspossesscharismatic"magical"powersthatwereheldonlybythosewith specialqualifications.Indeeditisthiscircumstancethatlaysthefoundationfortheoldest ofall"vocations,"thatoftheprofessionalmagician. (A.1.f)EcstasyandOrgy Incontrasttotheordinaryperson,the"layperson"inthemagicalsense,themagicianis endowedwithenduringcharisma.Inparticular,themagicianundertake,astheobjectof an"enterprise,"toevokeecstasy:thepsychicstatethatrepresentsormeditatescharisma. Forthelayperson,incontrasttorationalactionofthemagician,ecstasyisaccessibleonly inoccasionalactionsandoccursinthefromoforgy:theprimitiveformofcommunal action.Buttheorgyisanoccasionalactivity,whereastheenterpriseofthemagicianis continuousandheisindispensableforitsoperation.Becauseofthedemandsofeveryday life,thelaypersoncanexperienceecstasyonlyoccasionally,asintoxication.Toinduce ecstasy,onemayemployanytypeofalcoholicbeverage,tobacco,orsimilarnarcotics andespeciallymusicallofwhichoriginallyservedorgiasticpurposes.Besidesthe rationalmanipulationofspiritsforeconomicinterests,ecstasybecametheanother importantobjectofthe"enterprise"ofthemagician,thoughhistoricallysecondary, which,naturallydevelopedalmosteverywhereintotheartofsecretlore. (A.1.g)SoulandSupernaturalPower Onthebasisoftheexperiencewiththeconditionsoforgies,andinalllikelihoodunder theinfluenceofhisprofessionalpractice,thereevolvedtheconceptof"soul"asa separateentitypresentin,behindornearnaturalobjects,evenasthehumanbody containssomethingthatleavesitindream,lossofconsciousness,ecstasy,ordeath.This isnottheplacetotreatextensivelythediversityofpossiblerelationshipsbetween spiritualbeingsandtheobjectsbehindwhichtheylurkandwithwhichtheyaresomehow

connected.Thesespiritsorsoulsmay"dwell"moreorlesscontinuouslyandexclusively nearorwithinaconcreteobjectorprocess.Or,theymaysomehow"possess"events, things,orcategoriesthereof,thebehaviorandefficacyofwhichtheywilldecisively determine.Theseandsimilarviewsarespecificnotionof"animism."Thespiritsmay temporarily"embody"themselvesintothings,plants,animals,orhumans;thisisafurther stageofabstraction,achievedonlygradually.Atthehigheststageofabstractionwhichis scarcelyevermaintainedconsistently,spiritsmayberegardedasinvisibleessencesthat followtheirownlaws,andaremerely"symbolized"byconcreteobjects.Inbetweenthese extremesofanimismandabstractiontherearemanytransitionsandcombinations. Yetevenatthefirststageofthesimplerformsofabstraction,thereispresentinprinciple thenotionof"supernaturalpowers"thatmayinterveneinthedestinyofpeopleinthe samewaythatapersonmayinfluenceone's courseoflife.Attheseearlierstages,not eventhe"gods"or"demons"areyetpersonalorenduring,andsometimestheydonot evenhavenamesoftheirown.Asupernaturalpowermaybethoughtofasapower controllingthecourseofoneparticularevent,towhomnoonegivesasecondthought untiltheeventinquestionisrepeated.[2]Ontheotherhand,asupernaturalpowermay bethepowerwhichsomehowemanatesfromagreatheroafterhisdeath.Either personificationordepersonalizationmaybealaterdevelopment.Then,too,wefind supernaturalpowerswithoutanypersonalname,whoaredesignatedonlybytheprocess theycontrol.Atalatertime,whenthesemanticsofthisdesignationisnolonger understood,thedesignationofthisprocessmaytakeonthecharacterofapropernamefor thegod.Conversely,thepropernamesofpowerfulchieftainsorprophetshavebecome thedesignationsofdivinepowers,aprocedureemployedinreversebymythtoderivethe righttotransformpurelydivineappellationsintopersonalnamesofdeifiedheroes. Whetheragivenconceptionofa"deity"becomesenduringandthereforeisalways approachedbymagicalorsymbolicmeans,dependsuponmanydifferentcircumstances. Themostimportantoftheseiswhetherandinwhatmannerthemagicianorthesecular chieftainacceptthegodinquestiononthebasisoftheirownpersonalexperiences. Herewemaysimplynotethattheresultofthisprocessistheriseononehandoftheidea ofthe"soul,"andontheotherofideasof"gods,""demons,"henceof"supernatural" powers,theorderingofwhoserelationstohumansconstitutestherealmofreligious action.Attheoutset,the"soul"isneitherapersonalnoranimpersonalentity.Itis frequentlyidentified,inanaturalisticmanner,withsomethingthatdisappearsafterdeath withthebreathorwiththebeatoftheheartinwhichitresidesandbytheeatingofwhich onemayacquirethecourageofthedeadadversary.Farmoreimportantisthefactthatthe soulisfrequentlyviewedasaheterogeneousentity.Thus,thesoulthatleavesperson duringdreamsisdistinguishedfromthesoulthatleaveshimin"ecstasy"whenhisheart beatsinhisthroatandhisbreathfails,andfromthesoulthatinhabitshisshadow. Differentyetisthesoulthat,afterdeath,clingstothecorpseorstaysnearitaslongas somethingisleftofit,andthesoulthatcontinuestoexertinfluenceatthesiteofthe

person' sformerresidence,observingwithenvyandangerhowtheheirsarerelishing whathadbelongedtoitinitslife.Stillanothersoulisthatwhichappearstothe descendantsindreamsorvisions,threateningorcounseling,orthatwhichentersinto someanimalorintoanotherperson,especiallyanewbornbaby,bringingblessingor curse,asthecasemaybe.Theconceptionofthe"soul"asanindependententitysetover againstthe"body"isbynomeansuniversallyaccepted,eveninthereligionsofsalvation. Indeed,someofthesereligions,suchasBuddhism,specificallyrejectthisnotion. (A.2)Symbolism Whatisprimarilydistinctiveinthiswholedevelopmentisnotthepersonality, impersonalityorsuperpersonalityofthesesupernaturalpowers,butthefactthatnew experiencesnowplayaroleinlife.Thenotionofsupernaturalpowersorprocessesnot onlyexistedbutalsoplayedaroleinlifebecauseit"signified"something.Thusmagicis transformedfromadirectmanipulationofforcesintoasymbolicactivity. (A.2.a)FearofSoul Atfirst,anotionthatthesoulofthedeadmustberenderedharmlessemergedbesidesthe directfearofthecorpse(afearmanifestedevenbyanimals),whichdirectfearoften determinedburialforms,forexample,thesquattingposture,cremation,etc.Afterthe developmentofnotionsofthesoul,thebodyhadtoberemovedorrestrainedinthegrave toprovidewithatolerableexistence,andpreventfrombecomingenviousofthe possessionsenjoyedbytheliving;oritsgoodwillhadtobesecuredinotherways,ifthe survivorsweretoliveinpeace.Ofthevariousmagicalpracticesrelatingtothedisposal ofthedead,themostfarreachingeconomicconsequenceswasthenotionthatthecorpse mustbeaccompaniedtothegravebyallitspersonalbelongings.Thisnotionwas graduallyattenuatedtotherequirementthatthegoodsofthedeceasedmustnotbe touchedforatleastabriefperiodafterhisdeath,andfrequentlytherequirementthatthe survivorsmustnotevenenjoytheirownpossessionslesttheyarousetheenvyofthe dead.ThefunerealprescriptionsoftheChinesestillfullyretainthisview,with consequencesthatareequallyirrationalinboththeeconomicandthepoliticalspheres. (Oneofthetaboosduringthemourningperiodrelatedtotheoccupancyofanoffice; sincetherightofofficethereofconstitutedapossession,ithadtobeavoided.) (A.2.b)DisplacementofNaturalism

However,oncetherealmsofsouls,demons,andgodsareconceived,itinturnaffected themeaningofthemagicalarts.Forthesebeingscannotbegraspedorperceivedinany everydayexistencebutpossessakindofsupernaturalexistencewhichisnormally accessibleonlythroughthemediationofsymbolsandmeanings,andwhichconsequently appearstobeshadowyandsometimesaltogetherunreal.Sinceifthereissomethingelse distinctiveandspiritualbehindactualthingsandevents,whichareonlythesymptomsor indeedthesymbols,aneffortmustbemadetoinfluencenottotheactualbuttothe spiritualpowerthatexpressesitselfinsymptoms.Thisisdonethroughmediumthat addressthemselvestoaspiritorsoul,hencebysymbolsthat"signify"something. Thereafter,afloodofsymbolicactionsmaysweepawaynaturalism.Theoccurrenceof thisdisplacementofnaturalismdependsuponthepressurewhichtheprofessionalmasters ofsuchsymbolismcanputontheirbelieversthroughitsmeaningconstructs,hence,on thepowerpositionwhichtheygainedwithinthecommunity.Inotherwords,the displacementofnaturalismdependsupontheimportanceofmagicfortheeconomyand uponthepoweroftheorganizationthemagicianssucceedincreating. Theproliferationofsymbolicactsandtheirdisplacementoftheoriginalnaturalismhad farreachingconsequences.Thus,ifthedeadpersonisaccessibleonlythroughsymbolic actions,andindeedifthegodexpresseshimselfonlythroughsymbols,thenthecorpse maybesatisfiedwithsymbolsinsteadofactualthings.Asaresult,actualsacrificesmay bereplacedbyshowbreadsandpuppetlikerepresentationsofthesurvivingwivesand servantsofthedeceased.Itisofinterestthattheoldestpapermoneywasusedtopay,not theliving,butthedead.Asimilarsubstitutionoccurredintherelationshipsofhumansto godsanddemons.Moreandmore,thingsandeventsareinterpretedbytheirmeanings thatactuallyorpresumablyinheredinthem,andeffortsweremadetoachieverealeffects bymeansofsymbolicallysignificantaction. (A.2.c)SpreadofSymbolism Everypurelymagicalactthathadprovedsuccessfulinanaturalisticsensewas,ofcourse, repeatedintheformonceestablishedaseffective.Subsequently,thisprincipleextended totheentiredomainofsymbolicsignificance,sincetheslightestdeviationfromthe provedmethodmightrendertheprocedureinefficacious.Thus,allareasofhuman activityweredrawnintothiscircleofmagicalsymbolism.Forthisreasonthegreatest contradictionofpurelydogmaticviews,evenwithinrationalizedreligions,maybe toleratedmoreeasilythaninnovationsinsymbolism,whichthreatenthemagicalefficacy ofactionorevenandthisisthenewconceptsucceedinguponsymbolismarousethe angerofagodoranancestralspirit.Thus,thequestionwhetherthesignofthecross shouldbemadewithtwoorthreefingerswasabasicreasonfortheschismoftheRussian churchaslateastheseventeenthcentury.Again,thefearofgivingseriousindignationto twodozensaintsbyomittingthedayssacredtothemfromthecalendaryearhashindered

thereceptionoftheGregoriancalendarinRussiauntiltoday(1914).Amongthe magiciansoftheAmericanIndians,faultysingingduringritualdanceswasimmediately punishedbythedeathoftheguiltysinger,toremovetheevilmagicortoaverttheanger ofthegod. (A.2.d)StereotypingEffect Thereligiousstereotypingoftheproductsofpictorialart,theoldestformofstylization, wasdirectlydeterminedbymagicalconceptionsandindirectlydeterminedbythefactthat theseartifactscametobeproducedprofessionallyfortheirmagicalsignificance; professionalproductiontendedautomaticallytofavorthecreationofartobjectsbased upondesignratherthanuponrepresentationofthenaturalobject.Thefullextentofthe influenceexertedbythereligioussymbolismisexemplifiedinEgypt,wherethe devaluationofthetraditionalreligionbythemonotheisticcampaignofAmenhotepIV (Akhenaton)(135363BC)immediatelystimulatednaturalism.Otherexamplesofthe religiousstylizationmaybefoundinthemagicalusesofalphabeticalsymbols;the developmentofmimicryanddanceashomeopathic,apotropaic,exorcistic,ormagically coercivesymbolism;andthestereotypingofadmissiblemusicalscales,oratleast admissiblemusicalkeynotes(RagainIndiaincontrasttothechromaticscale).Another manifestationofsuchreligiousinfluenceisfoundinthewidespreadsubstitutionsof therapybaseduponexorcismoruponsymbolichomeopathyfortheearlierempirical methodsofmedicaltreatment,whichfrequentlywereconsiderablydevelopedbutseemed onlyacureofthesymptoms,fromthepointofviewofsymbolismandtheanimistic teachingofpossessionbyspirits.Fromthestandpointofsymbolismitstherapeutic methodsmightberegardedasrationalifitcureseveryone,asastrologygrewfromthe samerootsinempiricalcalculation.Alltheserelatedphenomenahadincalculable importanceforthesubstantivedevelopmentofculture,butwecannotpursuethishere. Thefirstandfundamentaleffectofreligiousviewsupontheconductoflifeandtherefore uponeconomicactivitywasgenerallystereotyping.Thealterationofanypracticewhich issomehowexecutedundertheprotectionofsupernaturalforcesmayaffecttheinterests ofspiritsandgods.Tothenaturaluncertaintiesandresistancesfacingeveryinnovator, religionthusaddspowerfulimpedimentsofitsown.Thesacredistheuniquely unalterable. (A.2.e)Transitions Thetransitionsfrompreanimisticnaturalismtosymbolismarealtogethervariablecase bycase.Whentheprimitivetearsouttheheartofaslainfoe,orwrenchesthesexual organsfromthebodyofhisvictim,orextractsthebrainfromtheskullandthenmounts theskullinhishomeoresteemsitasthemostpreciousofbridalpresents,oreatspartsof

thebodiesofslainfoesorthebodiesofespeciallyfastandpowerfulanimalshereally believesthatheiscomingintopossession,inanaturalisticfashion,ofthevariouspowers attributedtothesephysicalorgans.Thewardanceisinthefirstinstancetheproductofa mixtureoffuryandfearbeforethebattle,anditdirectlyproducestheheroicecstasy;to thisextentittooisnaturalisticratherthansymbolic.Thetransitiontosymbolismisat handinsofarasthewardance(somewhatinthemannerofourmanipulationsby "sympathetic"magic)mimeticallyanticipatesvictoryandtherebyendeavorstoinsureit bymagicalmeans,insofarasanimalsandhumansareslaughteredinfixedrites,insofaras thespiritsandgodsofthetribearesummonedtoparticipateintheceremonialrepast,and insofarastheconsumersofasacrificialanimalregardthemselvesashavinga distinctivelyclosekinrelationshiptooneanotherbecausethe"soul"ofthisanimalhas enteredintothem. (A.2.f)MythologicalAnalogy Theterm"mythologicalthinking"hasbeenappliedtothewayofthoughtthatisthebasis ofthefullydevelopedrealmofsymbolicconcepts,andconsiderableattentionhasbeen giventothedetailedelucidationofitscharacter.Wecannotoccupyourselveswiththese problemshere.Onlyonegenerallyimportantaspectofthiswayofthinkingisofconcern tous:thesignificanceofanalogy,especiallyinitsmosteffectiveform,theparable. Analogyhasexertedalastinginfluenceupon,indeedhasdominatednotonlyformsof religiousexpressionbutalsojuristicthinking,eventhetreatmentofprecedentsinpurely empiricalformsoflaw.Thedeductiveconstructionsofconceptsthroughrational propositiononlygraduallyreplacedanalogicalthinking,whichoriginatedinsymbolically rationalizedmagic,whosestructureiswhollyanalogical. (A.3)ConceptsOfGod (A.3.a)EnduringBeing "Gods,"too,werenotoriginallyconceivedas"humanlike"beings.Tobesuretheycame topossesstheformofenduringbeings,whichisessentialforthem,onlyafterthe suppressionofthepurelynaturalisticviewstillevidentintheVedas(forexample,thata fireisthegod,orisatleastthebodyofaconcretegodoffire)infavoroftheviewthata god,foreveridenticalwithoneself,possessesallfires,producesorcontrolsthem,or somehowisincorporatedineachofthem.Thisabstractconceptionbecomeactually perceivedonlythroughthecontinuingactivityofa"cult"dedicatedtooneandthesame godthroughthegod's connectionwithacontinuingband,forwhichthegodhasspecial significanceastheenduringbeing.Weshallpresentlyconsiderthisprocessfurther.Once

thecontinuityofthegodshasbeensecured,theconceptualactivityofthoseconcernedin aprofessionalwaywithsuchgodsmaybedevotedtothesystematicorderingofthese notions. (A.3.b)Pantheon The"gods"frequentlyconstitutedanunorderedmiscellanyofaccidentalentities,held togetherfortuitouslybythecult,andthisconditionwasbynomeansconfinedtoperiods oflowsocialdifferentiation.Thus,eventhegodsoftheVedasdidnotformanorderly commonwealth.Butasarulea"pantheon"wasbuiltoncesystematicthinkingconcerning religiouspracticeandtherationalizationoflifegenerally,withitsincreasingdemands uponthegods,havereachedacertainlevel,thedetailsofwhichmaydiffergreatlyfrom casetocase.Theemergenceofapantheonentailsthespecializationandcharacterization ofthevariousgodsaswellastheallocationofconstantattributesandthedifferentiation oftheir"competence."Yettheincreasinghumanized"personification"ofthegodsisin nowayidenticalwithorparalleltotheincreasingdifferentiationofcompetence. Frequentlytheoppositeistrue.Thus,theRomangods(numina)hadincomparablymore fixedandclearerfunctionthanthatoftheHellenicgods.Ontheotherhand,the humanizationandplasticrepresentationofthelatterasspecific"personalities"wentvery muchfurtherthanintheoriginalRomanreligion. (A.3.c)RomanGods Sociologically,themostimportantbasisforthisdevelopmentistobefoundinthefact thatthegenuineRomanviewconcerningthegeneralnatureofthesupernaturalremained anationalreligiosityofpeasantryandpatrimonialstrata.Ontheotherhand,Greek religionwassituatedintheinterlocalregionalknightlyculture,suchasthatofthe Homericagewithitsheroicgods.Thepartialreceptionoftheseconceptionsandtheir indirectinfluenceonRomansoilchangednothingofthenationalreligion,manyofthese conceptionsattainingonlyanestheticexistencethere.Theprimarycharacteristicsofthe Romantraditionwereconservedvirtuallyunchangedinritualpractices.Incontrasttothe Greekway,theRomanattitudealsoremainedpermanentlyadversetoreligionsofthe orgiasticormysterytype(forreasonstobediscussedlater).Quitenaturally,thecapacity ofmagicalpowerstodevelopdifferentiatedformsismuchlesselasticthanthe "competence"ofa"god"conceivedasaperson.Romanreligionremainedreligio,thatis, whetherthewordbederivedetymologicallyfrom"totie"(religare)or"toconsider" (relegere),atiewithtestedculticformulaeanda"consideration"forspirits(numina)of alltypeswhichareactiveeverywhere.

ThedistinctiveRomanreligiosityhad,besidesthefeatureofformalismwhichresulted fromthefactorsjustmentioned,anotherimportantcharacteristictrait,incontrastwith Greekculture,namelytheimpersonalitywhichhadanaffinitywithobjectiverationality. TheconsiderationoftheRomansinentiredailylifeandeveryactweretemporallyand quantitativelyoccupiedbytheritualobligationsandcasuistryofasacredlawquiteas muchasthatoftheJewsandHinduswasoccupiedbytheirrituallaws,quiteasmuchas thatoftheChinesewasoccupiedbythesacredlawsofTaoism.TheRomanpriestlylists (indigitamenta)containedanalmostinfinitenumberofgods,particularizedand specialized.Everyactandindeedeveryspecificelementofanactstoodunderthe influenceofspecialgod(numina).Itwasthereforeaprecautionforoneengagedinan importantactivitytoinvokeandhonor,besidesthecertaingod(diicerti)towhom traditionhadalreadyestablishedcausalrelationshipsandcompetence,theuncertaingods (incerti)whosecompetencewasnotestablishedandindeedwhosesex,effectiveness,and possiblyevenexistenceweredubious.Asmanyasadozenofthecertaingodsmightbe involvedincertainfarmingactivities.WhiletheRomanstendedtoregardtheekstasis (Latin:superstitio)oftheGreeksasamentalalienation(balienatiomentis)thatwas sociallyreprehensible,thecasuistryofRomanreligio(andoftheEtruscan,whichwent evenfurther)appearedtotheGreekasslaverydemon.TheRomaninterestinkeepingthe godssatisfiedhadtheeffectofproducingaconceptualattributionofallindividualactions intotheircomponents,eachbeingassignedtotheaparticulargodwhosespecial protectionitenjoyed. AlthoughanalogousphenomenawasfoundinIndiaandelsewhere,thelistednumberof godstobederivedandformallylistedonthebasisofpurelyconceptualanalysis,and hencethoughtabstraction,wasnowhereaslargeasamongtheRomans,forwhomritual practicewasthoroughlyconcentrateduponthisprocedure.Thecharacteristicdistinction oftheRomanwayoflifewhichresultedfromthisabstraction(andthisprovidesan obviouscontrasttotheinfluenceofJewishandAsiaticritualsupontheirrespective cultures)wasitsceaselesscultivationofapractical,rationalcasuistryofsacredlaw,the developmentofasortofsacredjurisprudenceandthetendencytotreatthesematterstoa certainextentaslawyers'pr oblems.Inthisway,sacredlawbecamethemotherofrational juristicthinking.ThisessentiallyreligiouscharacteristicofRomancultureisstillevident inLivy's(59BC 17AD)"HistoryofRome."Incontrasttothepragmaticorientationof theJewishcasuistry,theRomancasuistrywasalwaysonthedemonstrationofthe "correctness"ofanygiveninstitutionalinnovation,fromthepointofviewofsacredand nationallaw.InRomanthoughtcentralquestionswereofjuristicetiquette,notofsin, punishment,penitenceandsalvation. (A.3.d)GodsofEconomy

Fortheconceptofgod,however,towhichwemustherefirstdevoteourattention,both processesofthehumanizationandthelimitationofcompetenceranpartlyparalleland partlyinoppositiontoeachother.Theyhadthetendencytopropeleverfurtherthe rationalizationoftheworshipofthegodsaswellasoftheveryconceptofgod,even thoughthestartingpointwasthegivenvarietyofdeities. Forourpurposeshere,theexaminationofthevariouskindsofgodsanddemonswould beofonlyslightinterest,althoughorratherbecauseitisnaturallytruethatthey,likethe vocabularyofalanguage,havebeenshapeddirectlybytheeconomicsituationandthe historicaldestiniesofdifferentpeoples.Sincethesedevelopmentsareconcealedfromus bythemistsoftime,itisfrequentlynolongerpossibletodeterminethereasonsforthe predominanceofoneoveranotherkindofdeity.Thesemaylieinobjectsofnaturethat areimportanttotheeconomysuchasseasonalchanges,orinorganicprocessesthatthe godsanddemonspossessorinfluence,evokeorimpedesuchasdisease,death,birth,fire, drought,rainstorm,andharvestfailure.Theoutstandingeconomicimportanceofcertain eventsmayenableaparticulargodtoachieveprimacywithinthepantheon,asfor exampletheprimacyofthegodofheaven.Hemaybeconceivedofprimarilyasthe masteroflightandwarmth,butamonggroupsthatraisecattleheismostfrequently conceivedofasthelordofreproduction. (A.3.e)EarthlyandHeavenlyGods ThattheworshipofearthlydeitiessuchasMotherEarthgenerallypresupposesarelative importanceofagricultureisfairlyobvious,butsuchparallelisnotalwaysthecase.Nor canitbesaidthattheheavenlygods,asrepresentativesofaheroes'pa radisebeyondthe earth,haveeverywherebeennoblegodsratherthanearthlydeitiesofthepeasantry.Even lesscanitbesaidthatthedevelopmentof"MotherEarth"asagoddessparallelsthe developmentofmatriarchalorganization.Nevertheless,theearthlydeitieswhocontrolled theharvesthavecustomarilyborneamorelocalandfolkcharacterthantheothergods.In anycase,theinferiorityofearthdivinitiestoheavenlypersonalgodswhoresideinthe cloudsoronthemountainsisfrequentlydeterminedbythedevelopmentofaknightly culture,andthereisatendencytopermitoriginallyearthlydeitiestotaketheirplacein theheavenlyresidences.Conversely,theearthlydeitiesfrequentlycombinetwofunctions inprimarilyagrariancultures:theycontroltheharvest,thusgrantingwealth,andtheyare alsothemastersofthedeadwhohavebeenlaidtorestintheearth.Thisexplainswhy frequently,asintheEleusinianmysteries,thesetwomostimportantpracticalinterests, namelyearthlyrichesandfateinthehereafter,dependuponthem.Ontheotherhand,the heavenlygodsarethelordsofthestarsintheircourses.Thefixedlawsbywhichthe celestialbodiesareobviouslyregulatedfavoradevelopmentwherebytherulersofthe celestialbodiesbecomemastersofeverythingthathasoroughttohavefixedlaws, particularlyofjudicialordersandmorality.

(A.3.f)SpecializationofGods Boththeincreasingobjectivesignificanceoftypicalcomponentsandtypesofaction,and subjectivereflectionaboutthem,leadtofunctionalspecializationamongthegods.This maybeofaratherabstracttype,asinthecaseofthegodsof"incitation"andmany similargodsinIndia.Oritmayleadtoqualitativespecializationaccordingtoparticular linesofactivity,forinstance,praying,fishing,orplowing.Theclassicexampleofthis fairlyabstractformofdeityformationisthehighestconceptionoftheancientHindu pantheon,Brahma,asthe"lordofprayer."JustastheBrahminpriestsmonopolizedthe powerofeffectiveprayer,namely,oftheeffectivemagicalcoercionofthegods,sodida godinturnnowmonopolizethedispositionofthiscapacity,therebycontrollingwhatis ofprimaryimportanceinallreligiousbehavior;asaresult,hefinallycametobethe supremegod,ifnottheonlyone.InRome,Janus,asthegodofthecorrect"beginning" whothusdecideseverything,achievedmoreimplicitlyapositionofrelativelyuniversal importance. Yetspecializedgodshadnothingtodowithprivateactionsofhumanbeings.Rathera godmustbespecializedtosocialfunctionifasocialrelationshipistobepermanently guaranteed.Wheneverabandorasocialrelationshipisnottheprivateenterpriseofa personalpowerholderbutthecommonenterpriseofa"society,"ithasneedofagodof itsown. (A.3.g)GodsofHousehold Thus,firstofall,householdandkingroupneedadeityoftheirown,whichisnaturally connectedtothespiritsoftheactualorfictionalancestors.Tothesedeitiesarelateradded thenuminaandthegodsofthehearthandthehearthfire.Theimportancehouseholdcult, whichisperformedbytheheadofthehouseor"gens,"isquitevariableanddependson thestructureandpracticalimportanceofthefamily.Ahighdegreeofdevelopmentinthe domesticcultofancestorsgenerallyrunsparalleltoapatriarchalstructureofthe household,sinceonlyinapatriarchalstructurethehomebecomesacentralimportance forthemen.ButastheexampleofIsraeldemonstrates,therelationshipbetweenancestor cultandpatriarchalstructureisnotalwaysparallel,forthegotofothersocial relationships,especiallyofareligiousorpoliticalband.Thepriests'powe rmay effectivelysuppressorentirelydestroytheancestorcultandthepriestlyfunctioningof thefamilyhead. Butwherethepowerandsignificanceofthehousecultandhousepriestremain unbroken,theynaturallyformanextremelystrongpersonalbond,whichexercisesan

intensiveinfluenceonthefamilyandthekinship,unifyingthemembersfirmlyintoa stronglycohesivegroup.Thiscohesiveforcealsoexertsastronginfluenceontheinternal economicrelationshipsofthehouseholds.Iteffectivelydeterminesandstereotypesallthe legalrelationshipsofthefamily,thelegitimacyofthewifeandheirs,andtherelationof sonstotheirfatherandofbrotherstooneanother.Fromtheviewpointofthefamilyand kinship,thereligiousreprehensibilityofmaritalinfidelityisthatitmaybringabouta situationwhereastranger,namely,onenotrelatedbyblood,mightoffersacrificetothe ancestorsofthekingroup,whichwouldtendtoarousetheirindignationagainsttheblood relatives.Forthegodsandspiritsofastrictlypersonalbandwillrefusesacrificesbrought byonelackinglegitimaterelationship.Strictobservanceoftheprincipleofkin relationship,whereveritisfound,certainlyiscloselyconnectedwiththis,asareall questionsrelatingtothelegitimationoftheheadofthehouseholdforhisfunctioningas priest. Thesereligiousmotivationshaveinfluencedtherightsofsuccessionoftheeldestson (primogenitor),eitherassoleorpreferredheir,thoughmilitaryandeconomicfactorshave alsobeeninvolvedinthismatter.Furthermore,itislargelytothisreligiousmotivation thattheAsiatic(ChineseandJapanese)familyandclan,andthatofRomeinthe Occident,owethemaintenanceofthepatriarchalstructurethroughoutallchangesin economicconditions. (A.3.h)PoliticalGod Whereversuchareligiousbondofhouseholdandkinshipexists,onlytwopossibletypes ofmoreextensiveband,especiallyofthepoliticalvariety,mayemerge.Oneoftheseis thereligiouslydedicatedconfederationofactualorimaginarykinship.Theotheristhe patrimonialruleofaroyalhouseholdovercomparablehouseholdsofthe"subjects." Whereverthepatrimonialrulershiphasdeveloped,theancestorspirits(numinagenii)or personalgodsofthatmostpowerfulhouseholdtookplacebesidethehousedeities belongingtosubjecthouseholdsandthuslegitimizeareligioussanctionoftheruler.This wasthecaseintheFarEast,asinChina,wheretheemperorashighpriestmonopolized thecultofthesupremespiritsofnature.Inasimilarconsequence,thesacredsanctionof the"charisma"(genius)oftheRomanruler(princeps)conditionedtheuniversalreception ofthepersonoftheemperorintothelaycult. (A.3.h.1)GodofIsrael Wherethepoliticalbandwasformedasareligiouslysanctionedconfederation,there developedaspecialgodofthebandassuch,aswasthecasewithYahweh.ThatYahweh

wasaGodofthefederationwhichaccordingtotraditionwasanalliancebetweenthe JewsandtheMidianledtoafatefulconsequence.[3]Hisrelationtothepeopleof Israel,whohadacceptedhimunderoath,togetherwiththepoliticalconfederationandthe sacredorderoftheirsocialrelationships,tooktheformofa"covenant"(berith),a contractualrelationshipimposedbyYahwehandacceptedsubmissivelybyIsrael.[4] Fromthis,variousritual,canonical,andethicalobligationswhichwerebindinguponthe humanpartnerwerepresumedtoflow.Butthiscontractualrelationshipalsoinvolved verydefinitepromisesbythedivinepartner;itwasdeemedappropriateforthehuman partnertoremindhimoftheirinviolability,withinthelimitsaspropervisavisan omnipotentgod.ThisistheprimaryrootofthepromissorycharacterofIsraelitereligion, acharacterthatdespitenumerousanaloguesisfoundnowhereelseinsuchintensity. (A.3.h.2)LocalGodandForeignGod Ontheotherhand,itisauniversalphenomenonthattheformationofapoliticalband entailsinstallationofitscorrespondinggod.TheMediterraneanformationofapolitical band(synoikismos)wasalwaysareorganization,ifnotnecessarilyanewcreation,ofa culticcommunityunderacitystategod.Theclassicalbeareroftheimportant phenomenonofapolitical"localgod"wasofcoursethecitystate,yetitwasbynomeans theonlyone.Onthecontrary,everyenduringpoliticalbandhadaspecialgodwho guaranteedthesuccessofthepoliticalactionofthegroup.Whenfullydeveloped,this godwasaltogetherexclusivewithrespecttooutsiders,andinprincipleheaccepted offeringsandprayersonlyfromthemembersofhisband,oratleasthewasexpectedto actinthisfashion.Butsinceonecouldnotbecertainofthis,disclosureofthemethodof effectivelyinfluencingthegodwasusuallyprohibitedstrictly.Thestrangerwasthusnot onlyapolitical,butalsoareligiousalien.Evenwhenthegodofanotherpoliticalband hadthesamenameandattributesasthatofone's ownpolity,hewasstillconsideredtobe different.ThustheJunooftheVenetianisnotthatoftheRomans,justasforthe NeapolitantheMadonnaofeachchapelisdifferentfromtheothers;hemayadoretheone andberateordishonortheotherifshehelpshiscompetitors.Abandmaycallandadore thegodofenemyinone's ownlandifthegodabandontheenemy.Thisinvocationtothe godsofarivalbandtoabandontheirbandinbehalfofanotherwaspracticedbyCamillus beforeVeii.Thegodsofonebandmightbestolenorotherwiseacquiredbyanotherband, butthisdoesnotalwaysaccruetothebenefitofthelatter,asinthecaseofthearkofthe IsraeliteswhichbroughtplaguesuponthePhilistineconquerors. Ingeneral,politicalandmilitaryconquestalsoentailedthevictoryofthestrongergod overtheweakergodofthevanquishedband.Ofcoursenoteverygodofapoliticalband wasalocalgod,boundtothecenterlocationtheband's territory.Thegod(lares)ofthe Romanhouseholdchangedtheirlocationasthehouseholdmoved;theGodofIsraelwas

represented,inthenarrativeofthewanderinginthewilderness,asjourneyingwithandat theheadofhispeople. Yet,incontradictiontothisaccount,Yahwehwasalsorepresentedandthisishis decisivehallmarkasaGod"fromafar,"aGodofthenationswhoresidedonSinai,and whoapproachedinthestormwithhisheavenlyhostsonlywhenthemilitaryneedofhis peoplerequiredhispresenceandparticipation.[5]Ithasbeenassumedcorrectlythatthis distinctivequalityof"workingfromafar,"whichresultedfromthereceptionofaforeign godbyIsrael,wasafactorinthedevelopmentoftheconceptofYahwehastheuniversal andomnipotentGod. Asarule,alocalgodandalsoa"monolatry"godwhodemandedofhisadherents exclusiveworshipdidnotleadtouniversalmonotheism,buttendedtostrengthen particularismofthegod.Thus,thedevelopmentoflocalgodsresultedinanunusual strengtheningofpoliticalparticularism. (A.3.h.3)CitystateGod Thiswastrueevenofthecitystate,whichwasasexclusiveofothercommunitiesasone churchistowardanother,andwhichwasabsolutelyopposedtotheformationofaunified priesthoodoverarchingthevariousbands.Inmarkedcontrasttothe"nationalstate,"a compulsoryrelationshiptoaterritorial"institution,"thecitystateremainedessentiallya personalrelationshiptoculticcommunityofthecivicgod.Thecitystatewasfurther constitutedofpersonalculticbandsoftribal,clan,andhousegods,whichwereexclusive oneanotherwithrespecttotheirpersonalcults.Moreover,thecitystatewasalso exclusiveinternally,withregardtothosewhostoodapartfromtheparticularcultsof kinshipandhouseholds.ThusinAthens,apersonwhohadnohouseholdgod(zeus herkeios)couldnotholdoffice,aswasthecaseinRomewithanyonewhodidnotbelong tothebandoftheclans(patres).Thespecialplebeianofficial(tribuniplebis)was coveredonlybyahumanoath(sacrosanctus);hehadnoassociationtotheclans,and hencenolegitimateofficial(imperium),butonlyaprotectoroftheplebeian(podesta).[6] Thelocalgeographicalconnectionoftheband' sgodreacheditsmaximumdevelopment wheretheverysiteofaparticularbandcametoberegardedasspecificallysacredtothe god.ThiswasincreasinglythecaseofPalestineinrelationtoYahweh,withtheresultthat thetraditiondepictedhimasagodwho,livingfaroffbutdesiringtoparticipateinhis culticcommunionandtohonorit,tookcartloads(theArkofthecovenant)tobebrought tothePalestiniansoil.[7]

(A.3.h.4)BandsandGod Theriseofgenuinelylocalgodsisconditionednotonlybypermanentsettlement,but alsobycertainotherfactorsthatmarkthelocalbandasacarrierofpoliticalgoal. Normally,alocalgodandhisculticcommunityreachfullestdevelopmentonthe foundationofthecityasaseparatepoliticalbandwithcorporaterights,independentof thecourtandthepersonoftheruler.Consequently,suchafulldevelopmentofthelocal godisnotfoundinIndia,theFarEast,orIran,andoccurredonlyinlimitedmeasurein northernEurope,intheformofthetribalgod.Ontheotherhand,outsidethesphereof autonomouscitiesthisdevelopmentoccurredinEgypt,asearlyasthestageofanimistic religion,intheinterestofguaranteeingdistricts.Fromthecitystates,localgodsspreadto confederaciessuchasthoseoftheIsraelites,Aetolians,etc.,whichwereorientedtothis model.Fromtheviewpointofthehistoryofideas,thisconceptofthebandasthelocal carrierofthecultisanintermediatetypebetweenthestrictpatrimonialnotionofpolitical actionandthepurelyantirationalnotionofthebandactionandcompulsoryinstitution, suchasthemodern"territorialcorporateorganization." Notonlypoliticalbandsbutalsooccupationalandvocationalbandshavetheirspecial godsorsaints.ThesewerestillentirelyabsentintheVedicpantheon,correspondingthe stageofeconomicdevelopment.Ontheotherhand,theancientEgyptiangodofscribes indicatesbureaucratization,justasthepresenceallovertheglobeofspecialgodsand saintsformerchantsandallsortsofcraftsreflectsincreasingoccupationaldifferentiation. Aslateasthe19thcentury,theChinesearmycarriedthroughthecanonizationofitswar godsignifyingthatthemilitarywasregardedasaspecial"vocation"amongothers.This isincontrasttotheconceptionofthewargodsoftheancientMediterraneanseacoasts andoftheIran,whowerealwaysgreatnationalgods. (A.3.i)Monotheism Justasthenotionofthegodsvary,dependingonnaturalandsocialconditions,sotoo therearevariationsinthepotentialofagodtoachieveprimacyinthepantheon,orto monopolizedivinity.OnlyJudaismandIslamarestrictly"monotheistic"intheir fundamental.TheHinduandChristiannotionsofthesoleorsupremedeityare theologicalmasksofanimportantanduniquereligiousinterestinsalvationthroughthe humanincarnationofadivinity,whichstandinthewayofpuremonotheism.Thepathto monotheismhasbeentraversedwithvaryingdegreesofconsistency,butnowherenot evenduringtheReformationwastheexistenceofspiritsanddemonspermanently eliminated;rather,theyweresimplysubordinatedunconditionallytotheonegod,atleast intheory.

(A.3.i.1)PrimaryGod Inpractice,thedecisiveconsiderationwasandremains:whoisdeemedtoexertthe strongerinfluenceontheinterestsoftheindividualinone' severydaylife,the theoretically"supreme"godorthe"lower"spiritsanddemons?Ifthespirits,thenthe religionofeverydaylifeisdecisivelydeterminedbythem,regardlessoftheofficial conceptofgodinevenrationalizedreligions.Whereapoliticalgodofalocality developed,itwasnaturalenoughthathefrequentlyachievedprimacy.Whenevera pluralityofsettledcommunitieswithestablishedlocalgodsexpandedtheterritoryofthe politicalbandthroughconquest,theusualresultwasthatvariouslocalgodsofthenewly amalgamatedcommunitieswerethereuponassociatedintoareligioustotality.Withinthis amalgam,theempiricalandfunctionalspecializationsofthegods,whetheroriginalor subsequentlydeterminedbynewexperiencesconcerningthespecialspheresofthegods' influences,wouldreappearinadivisionoflabor,withvaryingdegreesofclarity. Thelocaldeitiesofthemostimportantpoliticalandreligiouscenters(andhenceofthe rulersandpriestsinthesecenters),forexample,MardukofBabelorAmonofThebes, thusadvancedtotherankofthehighestgods,onlytodisappearagainwiththeeventual destructionorremovaloftheresidence,ashappenedinthecaseofAssurafterthefallof theAssyrianempire.Onceapoliticalbandcameunderthepatronageofaparticulargod, itsprotectionappearedinadequateuntilthegodsoftheindividualmemberswerealso incorporated,"associated,"andadoptedlocallyinasortof"bandingtogether" (synoikismos).Thispractice,socommoninAntiquity,wasreenactedwhenthegreat sacredrelicsoftheprovincialcathedralsweretransferredtothecapitaloftheunified Russianempire.[8] Thepossiblecombinationsofthevariousprinciplesinvolvedintheconstructionofa pantheonorintheachievementofapositionofprimacybyoneoranothergodarealmost infiniteinnumber.Indeed,thecompetenceofthedivinefiguresisasfluidasthoseofthe officialsofpatrimonialrulership.Moreover,thedifferentiationofcompetenceamongthe variousgodsisintersectedbythepracticeofreligiousattachmenttoaparticularlyreliable god,orcourtesytoaparticulargodwhohappenstobeinvoked.Heisthentreatedas functionallyuniversal;thusallkindsoffunctionsareattributedtohim,evenfunctions whichhavebeenassignedpreviouslytootherdeities.[9]Intheattainmentofprimacyby aparticulargod,purelyrationalfactorshaveoftenplayedanimportantrole.Wherevera considerablemeasureofconstancyinregardtocertainprescriptionsbecameclearly evidentmostofteninthecaseofstereotypedandfixedreligiousritesandwherethis wasrecognizedbyrationalizedreligiousthought,thenthosegodsthatevincedthe greatestregularityintheirbehavior,namelythegodsofheavenandthestars,hada chancetoachieveprimacy.

(A.3.i.2)DivineOrder Yetinthereligionofeverydaylife,onlyacomparativelyminorrolewasplayedbythose godswhoexertedamajorinfluenceuponuniversalnaturalphenomena,andtherebywere interpretedbymetaphysicalspeculationasveryimportantandoccasionallyevenasworld creators.Thereasonforthisisthatthesenaturalphenomenavarybutlittleintheircourse, andhenceitisnotnecessarytoresortineverydayreligiouspracticetothedevicesof magicianandpriestsinordertoinfluencethem.Aparticulargodmightbeofdecisive importancefortheentirereligionofapeopleifhemetapressingreligiousinterest, withoutachievingprimacyinthepantheon(forexample,theinterestinsalvationtoOsiris inEgypt)."Reason"favoredtheprimacyofthegodsoftheheavens;andeveryconsistent formationofapantheonfollowedsystematicrationalprinciplestosomedegree,sinceit wasalwaysinfluencedbypriestlyrationalismorbytherationalorderingonthepartof secularindividuals.Aboveall,itistheaforementionedaffinityoftherationalregularity ofthestarsintheirheavenlycourses,asregulatedbydivineorder,totheinviolable sacredsocialorderintheearth,thatmakestheuniversalgodstheresponsibleguardians ofboththesephenomena.Uponthesegodsdependbothrationaleconomyandthesecure rulershiporderedbysacrednormsinthesociety.Thepriestsareprimaryinterestedinand representedtothesesacrednorms.HencethecompetitionofthecelestialgodsVaruna andMitra,theguardiansofthesacredorder,withthestormgodIndra,aformidable warriorandtheslayerofthedragon,wasareflectionoftheconflictbetweenthe priesthood,strivingforafirmregulationandcontroloflife,andthepowerfulwarrior nobility.Amongthiswarriorclass,unregulatedheroicgodsandthedisorderly irrationalityofadventureandfatearefamiliarnotionsofsupernaturalpowers.Weshall findthissamecontrastsignificantinmanyothercontexts. Theascensionofcelestialorstarrygodsinthepantheonisadvancedbyapriesthood's interestinsystematizedsacredordinances,asinIndia,Iran,orBabylonia,andisassisted byarationalizedsystemofregulatedsubordinationofsubjectstotheiroverlords,suchas wefindinthebureaucraticstatesofChinaandBabylonia.InBabylonia,religionplainly evolvedtowardabeliefinthedominionofthestars,particularlytheplanets,overall things,fromthedaysoftheweektothefateoftheindividualintheafterworld. Developmentinthisdirectionculminatesinastrologicalfatalism,whichwasactuallya productoflaterpriestlyscienceandofpoliticallyindependentstatefromforeignpowers. Agodmaydominateapantheonwithoutbeinganinternationalor"universal"deity.But hisdominanceofapantheonusuallysuggeststhatheisonhiswaytobecomingthat. (A.3.i.3)Universalism

Asthoughtconcerningthegodsdeepened,itwasincreasinglyfeltthattheexistenceand natureofthegodmustbeestablisheddefinitelyandthatthegodshouldbe"universal"in thissense.AmongtheGreeks,philosophersinterpretedwhatevergodswerefound elsewhereasequivalenttoandsoidenticalwiththedeitiesofthemoderatelyordered Greekpantheon.Thistendencytowarduniversalizationgrewwiththeincreasing predominanceoftheprimarygodofthepantheon,thatis,asheassumedmoreofa "monotheistic"character.ThegrowthofempireinChina,theextensionofthepowerof theBrahmincastethroughoutallthevariedpoliticalformationsinIndia,andthe developmentofthePersianandRomanempiresfavoredtheriseofbothuniversalismand monotheism,thoughnotalwaysinthesamemeasureandwithquitedifferentdegreesof success. Thegrowthofempire(orcomparableadjustmentprocessesthattendinthesame direction)hasbynomeansbeenthesoleorindispensableleverforthisdevelopment.In theYahwehcult,themostimportantinstanceinthehistoryofreligion,thereevolvedat leastafirstapproachtouniversalisticmonotheism,namelymonolatry,asaresultofa concretehistoriceventtheformationofaconfederacy.Inthiscase,universalismwasa productofinternationalpolitics,ofwhichthepragmaticinterpretersweretheprophetic advocatesofthecultandethicofYahweh.Asaconsequenceoftheirpreaching,thedeeds ofothernationsthatwereprofoundlyaffectingIsrael's vitalinterestsalsocametobe regardedaswroughtbyYahweh.Atthispointonecanseeclearlythedistinctivelyand eminentlyhistoricalcharacterofthoughtsoftheHebrewprophets,whichstandsinsharp contrasttothenaturalisticcharacterofspeculationsofthepriesthoodsofIndiaand Babylonia.EquallystrikingistheinescapabletaskresultingfromYahweh's promises:the necessityofinterpretingtheentirehistoryoftheHebrewnationasconsistingofthe "deedsofYahweh,"andhenceasconstitutingapartof"worldhistory"inviewofthe manydirethreatstothepeople's survival,thehistoricalcontradictionstothedivine promises,aswellasthedestinyofownpeople.Thus,theancientwarriorgodofthe confederacy,whohadbecomethelocalgodofthecityofJerusalem,tookonthe propheticanduniversalistictraitsoftranscendentlysacredomnipotenceandsovereign. InEgypt,themonotheistic,andhencenecessarilyuniversalistictransitionofAmenhotep IVtothesolarcultresultedfromanentirelydifferentsituation.Onefactorwasagainthe extensiverationalismofthepriesthood,andinalllikelihoodthelayrationalismaswell, whichwasofapurelynaturalisticcharacter,inmarkedcontrasttoIsraeliteprophecy. Anotherfactorwasthepracticalneedofamonarchattheheadofabureaucraticunified statetobreakthepowerofthepriestsbyeliminatingthemultiplicityoftheirgods,andto restoretheancientpowerofthedeifiedPharaohbyelevatingthemonarchtotheposition ofsupremesolarpriest.

Ontheotherhand,theuniversalisticmonotheismofChristianityandIslammustbe regardedasderivativeofJudaism,whiletherelativemonotheismofZoroastrianismwas inalllikelihooddeterminedatleastinpartbyNearEasternratherthanwithinIranian influences.Allofthesemonotheismswerecriticallyinfluencedbythedistinctive characterof"ethical"prophecythanbythe"exemplary"type,adistinctiontobe discussedlater.[10]Allotherrelativelymonotheisticanduniversalisticdevelopmentsare theproductsofthephilosophicalspeculationsofpriestsandlaypersons.Theyachieved practicalreligiousimportanceonlywhentheybecameinterestedinsalvation.Weshall returntothismatterlater.[11] Almosteverywhereabeginningwasmadetowardsomeformofconsistentmonotheism, butpracticalinterestsblackedoutthisdevelopmentintheeverydaymassreligion,with theexceptionsofJudaism,Islam,andProtestantChristianity.Therearedifferentreasons forthefailureofaconsistentmonotheismtodevelopindifferentcultures,butthemain reasonwasgenerallythepressureofthepowerfulmaterialandideologicalinterests vestedinthepriests,whoresidedintheculticcentersandregulatedthecultsofthe particulargods.Stillanotherhindrancetothedevelopmentofmonotheismwasthe religiousneedofthelaityforanaccessibleandtangiblefamiliarreligiousobjectwhich couldbebroughtintorelationshipwithconcretelifesituationsorintodefiniteclosed relationshipstowardtheexclusionofoutsiders.Andaboveallitwastheneedofthelaity thatagodwouldbeanobjectmanipulabletomagicalinfluences.Thesecurityprovided byatestedmagicalmanipulationisfarmorereassuringthantheexperienceofworshiping agodwhopreciselybecauseheisomnipotentisnotsubjecttomagicalinfluence.The developedconceptionsofsupernaturalforcesasgods,evenasasingletranscendentgod, bynomeansautomaticallyeliminatedtheancientmagicalnotionsofsupernatural powers,noteveninChristianity.Itdidproduce,however,thepossibilityofadual relationshipbetweenhumansandthesupernatural.Thismustnowbediscussed. (B)EMERGENCEOFRELIGION (B.1)ReligionAndGod (B.1.a)CoercionofGod Apowerthoughtbyanalogytohumanpossessedbyasoulmaybecoercedintothe serviceofhuman,justasthenaturalistic"power"ofaspiritcouldbecoerced.Whoever possessescharismaforemployingthepropermeansisstrongereventhanthegod,whom hecancoercetodohisdesire.Inthesecases,religiousbehaviorisnot"worshippingthe god"butrather"coercingthegod,"andinvocationisnotprayerbutmagicalformulae.

Suchisoneineradicablebasisofpopularreligion,particularlyinIndia.Indeed,such magicalcoercionisuniversallydiffused,andeventheCatholicpriestcontinuesto practicesomethingofthismagicalpowerinexecutingthemiracleofthemassandin exercisingthepowerofthekeys.Byandlargethisistheorigin,thoughnotexclusive,of theorgiasticandimitativecomponentsofthereligiouscultespeciallyofsong,dance, drama,andthetypicalfixedformulaeofprayer. (B.1.b)WorshipOfGod Humanizationofthegod,byanalogyofthehumanbehavior,mayalsotaketheformofa mightyterrestriallord,whosediscretionaryfavorcanbeobtainedbyentreaty,gifts, service,tributes,adulation,andbribes.Orgod'sfa vormaybeearnedasaconsequenceof theobedientattitudeconformedwiththehiswill.Intheseways,thegodsareconceived byanalogytoearthlyrulers:mightybeingswhosepowerdiffersonlyindegree,atleastat first.Asthistypeofgoddevelops,theconceptof"worship"comestobenecessary. (B.1.b.1)Prayer Ofcourse,thetwocharacteristicelementsof"worship,"prayerandsacrifice,havetheir origininmagic.Inprayer,theboundarybetweenmagicalformulaandentreatyremains fluid.Thetechnicallyrationalizedenterpriseofprayer(intheformofprayerwheelsand similardevices,orofprayerstripshunginthewindorattachedtoiconsofgodsorsaints, orofcarefullymeasuredrosarybeadcountingvirtuallyallofwhichareproductsofthe methodicalcoercionofthegodsbytheHindus)everywherestandsfarclosertomagic thantoentreaty.Individualinvocationasrealprayerisfoundinundifferentiated religions,butinmostcasessuchinvocationhasapurelybusinesslikerationalizedform thatoncetheinvocationisdoneforthegod,thenthecorrespondingrecompenseis expected. (B.1.b.2)Sacrifice Sacrifice,atitsfirstappearance,isamagicalinstrumentalitythatinpartstandsatthe immediateserviceofthecoercionofthegods.Forthegodsalsoneedthesomajuiceof themagicianpriests,thesubstancewhichengenderstheirecstasyandenablesthemto performtheirdeeds.ThisistheancientnotionoftheAryansastowhyitispossibleto coercethegodsbysacrifice.Orsacrificemaybeheldasaobligationofthepactwiththe godswhichimposedmutualobligationsofbothparties;thiswasthefatefulconceptionof

theIsraelitesinparticular.Orsacrificemaybeamagicalmeansofdeflectingthewrathof thegoduponanotherobject,ascapegoatoraboveallahumansacrifice. Butanothermotiveforsacrificeisofgreaterimportance,anditisprobablyoldertoo:the sacrifice,especiallyofanimals,isintendedfora"communion"betweentheparticipants andthegodasbrotherhoodoftablecommunity.Thisrepresentsasignificant transformationoftheevenoldernotionthattorendandconsumeastrong(andlatera sacred)animalenablestheeaterstoabsorbitspower.Somesucholdermagicalmeaning andtherearevariousotherpossibilitiesmaystillpresentthecharacterofsacrifice, evenaftergenuine"cultic"concepthavecometoexertconsiderableinfluence.Indeed, suchamagicalsignificancemayevenregaindominanceovertheculticmeaning.The sacrificialritualsoftheBrahmanas,andevenoftheAtharvaVeda,werealmostpurely magical,incontrasttotheancientNordicones.Ontheotherhand,thereareasignificant departurefrommagicwhensacrificesareinterpretedastribute.Forexample,firstfruits maybesacrificedinorderthatthegodmaynotdeprivetheremainingfruitsfromthe consumptionbyhumans.Anotherdeparturefrommagicissacrificeasselfimposed "punishment"or"atonement"toavertthewrathofthegods.Tobesure,thisdoesnotyet involveany"consciousnessofsin,"anditinitiallytakesplaceinaattitudeofcooland calculatedtrading,asforexampleinIndia. Anincreasingpredominanceofnonmagicalmotivesislaterbroughtaboutbythe growingrecognitionofthepowerofagodandofhischaracterasapersonaloverlord. Thegodbecomesagreatlordwhomayactashewishes,andwhomonecannotapproach bymeansofmagicalcoercion,butonlywithentreatiesandgifts.Butifthesemotivesadd anythingnewtomere"magic,"itisinitiallysomethingassoberandrationalasthe motivationofmagicitself.Thepervasiveandcentralmotiveis:"makethegodwork"(do utdes).Thisaspectattachestotheeverydayandthemassreligiosityofallpeoplesatall timesandinallreligions.Thenormalcontentsofallprayers,eveninthemostother worldlyreligions,istheaversionoftheexternalevilsofthisworldandtheinducementof theexternaladvantagesofthisworld. (B.1.c)DefinitionOfReligion Everyaspectthatstepsbeyondtheeverydayandthemassreligiosityistheworkofa specialdevelopmentalprocesscharacterizedbydistinctivelydualaspects.Ontheone hand,thereisaneverincreasingrationalsystematizationoftheconceptofgodandofthe thinkingconcerningthepossiblerelationshipsbetweenhumanandthegod.Ontheother hand,thereisacharacteristicallyrecessingprocessoftheoriginal,practicaland calculatingrationalism.Paralleltorationalizationofthinking,the"meaning"of distinctivelyreligiousbehaviorissoughtlessandlessinthepurelyexternalsuccessof

everydayeconomicinterest.Thus,thegoalofreligiousbehaviorissuccessively "irrationalized"untilfinally"otherworldly"noneconomicgoalscometorepresent religiousproper.Butforthisveryreasonthedevelopmentofextraeconomicgoal presupposestheexistenceofspecificpersonalcarriers. Therelationshipsofhumanstosupernaturalpowerswhichtaketheformsofprayer, sacrificeandworshipmaybetermed"cult"and"religion,"anddistinguishedfrom "magic"ascoercion.Correspondingly,thosebeingsthatareworshipedandentreated religiouslymaybetermed"gods"incontrastto"demons,"whicharemagicallycoerced andcharmed.Theremaybenoinstanceinwhichitispossibletoapplythis differentiationabsolutely,sincethecultswehavejustcalled"religious"practically everywherecontainnumerousmagicalcomponents.Thehistoricaldevelopmentofthe differentiationfrequentlycameaboutinaverysimplefashion:whenasecularorpriestly powersuppressedacultinfavorofanewreligion,theoldergodscontinuedtoliveonas" demons." (B.2)Priest (B.2.a)Cult Thesociologicalcauseofthisdifferentiationintogodsanddemonsistheriseofthe "priesthood"assomethingdistinctfrom"magician."Appliedtoreality,thiscontrastis fluid,asarealmostallsociologicalphenomena.Eventheconceptualdistinctionofthese typesarenotstraitlydeterminable.Followingthedistinctionbetween"cult"and"magic," onemaycontrast"priests"whoinfluencethe"gods"bymeansofworshipwithmagicians whocoerce"demons"bymagicalmeans;butinmanygreatreligions,including Christianity,theconceptofthepriestincludessuchamagicalqualification. (B.2.b)Enterprise Ortheterm"priest"maybeappliedtothefunctionariesofaregularlyorganizedand enduringenterpriseconcernedwithinfluencingthegods,incontrastwiththeindividual andoccasionalperformanceofmagicians.Eventhiscontrastisbridgedoverbyasliding scaleoftransitions,butasa"pure"typethepriesthoodisdistinctivelycharacterizedby thepresenceofcertainfixedculticcentersassociatedwithsomeactualculticapparatus.

Oritmaybedecisiveforthetermthatthepriests,regardlessofwhethertheirofficeis hereditaryorpersonal,areregularlyservedwithsomepurposivesocialband,ofwhich theyareemployedasorgansintheinterestsoftheban's members,incontrastwith magicians,whoareselfemployed.Yeteventhisdistinction,whichisclearenough conceptually,isfluidinreality.Themagicianisfrequentlyamemberofaclosedguildor occasionallythememberofahereditarycaste,whichmayholdamonopolyofmagic withintheparticularcommunity.EventheCatholicpriestisnotalways"employed."In Romeheisoccasionallyapoormendicantwholivesahandtomouthexistencefromthe proceedsofsinglemasseswhichheperforms. (B.2.c)Doctrine Yetanotherdistinguishingqualityofthepriestsmaybeprofessionsofspecialknowledge, fixeddoctrine,andvocationalqualifications,whichbringthemintocontrastwitheither magicianor"prophets,"whoexerttheirinfluencebypersonalgifts(charisma) demonstratingmiracleandrevelation.Butthisagainisnosimpleandabsolute distinction,sincethemagicianmaysometimesbeverylearned,whiledeeplearningneed notalwayscharacterizepriests.Rather,thedistinctionbetweenpriestandmagicianmust beestablishedqualitativelywithreferencetothedifferentnatureofthelearninginthe twocases.Asamatteroffactwewilllater,inourdiscussionofthetypesofrulership, [12]distinguishtherationaltraininganddisciplineofpriestsfromthecharismatic preparationofmagicians.Thelatterpreparationproceedsinpartasan"awakening"using irrationalmeansandaimingatrebirth,andproceedsinpartasatraininginpurely empiricallore.Butinthiscasealso,thetwocontrastedtypesflowintooneanother. "Doctrine"hasalreadybeenadvancedasoneofthefundamentaltraitsofthepriesthood. Wemayassumethatthemarksofdoctrinearethedevelopmentofarationalsystemof religiousconceptsand(whatisoftheutmostimportanceforushere)thedevelopmentof asystematicanddistinctively"religiousethic,"whicharebaseduponacollectedand fixedteachingvalidatedby"revelation."AnexampleisfoundinIslam,whichcontrasted scripturalreligionwithsimplefolkreligion.Butthisdistinctionofpriesthoodbydoctrine isnotapplicabletotheJapanesepriesthoodofShintoandalsothemightyhierocracyof thePhoenicianpriesthood.Doctrineasadecisivemarkofpriesthoodisofcourse fundamentalforitsfunction,butnotuniversal. (B.2.d)SociologicalDefinition Itismorecorrectforsociologicalpurpose,justifyingtheabovediscussionofthediverse andmixedmanifestationsofthisphenomenon,tosetupasthecrucialfeatureofthe

priesthoodthespecializationofaspecificgroupofpersonsinacultenterprise, regularlyrelatedtoparticularnorms,placesandtimes,andassociatedwithspecific socialbands.Therecanbenopriesthoodwithoutacult,althoughtheremaywellbea cultwithoutaspecializedpriesthood.ThelatterwasthecaseinChina,wherestate officialsandtheheadsofhouseholdsexclusivelyconductedthecultoftheofficialgods andtheancestralspirits.Ontheotherhand,bothinitiationanddoctrinearetobefound amongtypical,puremagicians,asinthebrotherhoodoftheHametzeamongtheIndians, andelsewhereintheworld.Thesemagiciansmaywieldconsiderablepower,andtheir magicalcelebrationsmayplayacentralroleinthelifeoftheirpeople.Yettheylacka continuouscultenterprise,andsotheterm"priests"cannotbeappliedtothem. Arationalizationofmetaphysicalnotionsandaspecificallyreligiousethicareusually missinginthecaseofacultwithoutpriests,asinthecaseofamagicianwithoutacult. Thefulldevelopmentofbothametaphysicalrationalizationandareligiousethicisa consequenceofanindependentandprofessionallytrainedpriesthood,occupiedwith continuousactivityofthecultandthepracticalneedofthecureofsouls.Consequently, ethicsdevelopedintosomethingquitedifferentfromametaphysicallyrationalized religioninclassicChinesethought,byreasonoftheabsenceofanindependent priesthood;andthisalsohappenedwiththeethicsofancientBuddhism,whichlacked bothcultandpriesthood. Moreover,asweshalldiscusslater,[13]therationalizationofreligiouslifewasbrokenor entirelymissingwhereverthepriesthoodfailedtoholdindependentstatusandpower,as inclassicalAntiquity.Whereverastatusgroupofprimitivemagiciansandsacred musiciansdidrationalizemagic,butfailedtodevelopagenuinelypriestlyoffice(aswas thecasewiththeBrahminsinIndia),thepriesthooddevelopedinapeculiarway. However,noteverypriesthooddevelopedwhatisdistinctivelynewasagainstmagic:a rationaldoctrineandareligiousethic.Suchdevelopmentsgenerallypresupposedthetwo forcesoutsidethepriesthood:prophets,thebearersofidealorreligiousethical "revelation,"andthe"laity,"thenonpriestlydevoteesofthecult. Beforeweexaminethemannerinwhichthesetwoforcesoutsidethepriesthood sufficientlytransformedmagic,whicharerathersimilartheworldover,intothestagesof religion,wemustdiscusssometypicaltrendsofreligiousdevelopmentwhicharesetin motionbytheexistenceofvestedinterestsofapriesthoodinacult. (B.3)ConceptualDevelopmentOfSupernatural (B.3.a)DemonstrationOfPower

Whetheroneshouldatalltrytoinfluenceaparticulargodordemonbycoercionorby entreatyisthemostbasicquestion,andtheanswertoitdependsonlyuponitsresult.As themagicianmustproveitscharisma,sotoothegodmustcontinuallydemonstrateits power.Iftheefforttoinfluenceagodiscontinuallyinefficacious,itisconcludedthat eitherthegodisimpotentorthecorrectprocedureofinfluencingthegodisunknown,and heisabandoned.InChina,tothisday,afewstrikingsuccessessufficetoenableagodto acquirefameandpower(shenling),therebywinningasizeablecircleofadherents.The emperor,astherepresentativeofhissubjectstotheheavens,providesthegodswithtitles andotherdistinctionswhenevertheyhaveproventheirpower.Yetafewstrikingfailure subsequentlywillsufficetoemptyatempleforever.Conversely,thehistoricalaccident couldprovidethefoundationofagodanditsprophet.Isaiah' ssteadfastpropheticfaith GodwouldnotpermitJerusalemtofallintothehandsoftheAssyrianrulers,ifonlythe JudeankingremainedfirminthefaithofGod,whichwasineveryaspectsridiculed, cametofulfillmentbythehistoricalaccident.[14]Andthisaccidentwasthe subsequentlyunshakablefoundationofthegodanditsprophetIsaiah.Somethingofthis kindoccurredearlierinrespecttothepreanimisticfetishandthecharismaofthose possessingmagicalendowment. (B.3.b)AttributeofFailure Incontrast,theeventoffailurepossiblycausedtopaythemagicianwithhislife.Priests, ontheotherhand,havetheadvantageofbeingabletodeflecttheblameforfailureaway fromthemselvesandintotheirgod.Yetthepriests'pr estigeisfallenwiththatoftheir gods.However,priestsmayfindwaysofinterpretingfailuresinsuchamannerthatthe responsibilityfalls,notuponthegod,butuponthebehavioroftheadherents.Theremight evenarisefromsuchinterpretationtheideaof"worshipingthegod,"asdistinctfrom "coercingthegod."Thequestionofwhythegoddidnotheartohisadherentsmightthen beexplainedbystatingthattheyhadnotworshippedtheirgodsufficiently,thattheyhad notprovidedenoughforhisdesiresofsacrificialbloodorsomajuice,orfinallythatthey neglectedhiminfavorofothergods.However,ifrenewedandincreasedworshipofthe godisofnoavail,insomesituations,sincethegodsoftheadversariesremainmore powerful,theendofhisreputationisathand.Insuchcases,theremaybeadefectionto thestrongergods,althoughtherestillremainmethodsofexplainingthewaywardconduct oftheoldgodinsuchawaythathisprestigemightnotdwindleandmightevenbe enhanced.Undercertaincircumstancespriestssucceededevenininventingsuchmethods. ThemoststrikingexampleisthatofthepriestsofYahweh,whoseattachmenttohis peoplebecame,forreasonstobediscussedlater,everstrongerasIsraelbecame increasinglydoomedinthetoilsoftragedy.Butforthistohappen,aseriesofnew attributestodivinitymustbedeveloped. (B.3.c)DifferentiationofSupernatural

Thequalitativesuperiorityofhumanizedgodsanddemonsoverhumanisatfirstonly relative.Theirpassionsanddesireforpleasurearebelievedtobeunlimited,likethoseof stronghumans.Buttheyareneitheromniscientnoromnipotent(obviouslyonlyone couldpossesstheseattributes),nornecessarilyeternal(thegodsofBabylonandofthe Germanswerenot).However,theyoftenhavetheabilitytosecuretheirglamorous existencebymeansofmagicalfoodanddrinkwhichtheyhavereservedforthemselves, muchashumanlivesmaybeprolongedbythemagicaldrinkofthemedicineperson.The qualitativedifferentiationbetweenthesehumanizedgodsanddemonsismadeonly betweenusefulandharmfulpowerstohumans.Naturally,theusefulpowersareusually consideredthegoodandofgods,whoaretobeworshipped,whiletheharmfulpowersare loweredtodemons,frequentlyendowedwithincredibleguileorlimitlessspite,whoare nottobeworshippedbutmagicallycoerced. Yetthedifferentiationdidnotalwaystakeplacealongthisparticularline,andcertainly notalwaysinthedirectionofdegradingthemastersofthenoxiousforcesintodemons. Themeasureofculticworshipthatgodsreceivedoesnotdependupontheirgoodness, norevenupontheiruniversalimportance.Indeed,someverygreatandgoodgodsof heavenfrequentlylackcults,notbecausetheyaretooremotefromhuman,butbecause theirinfluenceseemsequable,andbyitsveryregularityappearstobesosecurethatno specialinterventionisrequired.Ontheotherhand,powersofclearlydiabolicalcharacter, suchasRudra,theHindugodofpestilence,arenotalwaysweakerthanthegoodgods, butmayactuallybeendowedwithatremendouspowerpotential. (B.3.d)EthicalGod Inadditiontotheimportantqualitativedifferentiationbetweenthegoodanddiabolical power,however,undercertaincircumstances,theremightdevelopadistinctivelyethical godwithinthepantheonandthisisparticularlyimportanttousatthispoint.The qualificationofaethicalgodisbynomeansconfinedtomonotheism.Indeed,theethical godexistsatvariousstagesintheformationofapantheon;butitisatthestageof monotheismthatthischaracterofgodhasparticularlyfarreachingconsequences. Naturallytheethicalcharacterisfoundamongthegodsspecializedtolawfindingand oraclepower. (B.3.e)Divination Theartof"divination"atfirstgrowsoutofthemagicbasedonthebeliefinspirits,who functioninaccordancewithcertainrules,asdolivingcreatures.Onceknowinghowthe spiritsoperate,onecanpredicttheirbehaviorfromsymptomsoromensthatmakeit

possibletosurmisetheirintentions,onthebasisofrulesofexperience.Whenonebuilds houses,graves,androads,orwhenoneundertakeseconomicandpoliticalactivities,one hastodecidebyreferencetopreviousexperience,whereandwhenarefavorabletodoso. Whereverasocialgroup,asforexamplethesocalledpriestsofTaoisminChina,makes itslivingfromthepracticeofthedivination,itsart(fengshui)mayachieveineradicable power.Whenthishappens,allattemptsofeconomicrationalizationfacestheopposition ofthespirits.Thus,nolocationforarailroadorfactorycouldbesuggestedwithout creatingsomeconflictwiththem.Capitalismwasabletogetridofthisresistanceonly afterithadreacheditsfullestpower.AslateastheRussoJapaneseWar(1905),the Japanesearmyseemedtohavemissedseveralfavorableopportunitiesbecausethe divinershaddeclaredthemtobeofillomen.Ontheotherhand,theSpartanregent PausaniasatPlataea(479BC)hadalreadyconsciously"manipulated"thedivination, favorableandotherwise,tomakethemfittherequirementsofmilitarystrategy. Wheneverthepoliticalpowerappropriatedjudicialorlawfindingfunctions(forexample, totransformmerelyunconditionalrevengeinaclanfeudintoamandatoryverdict,orto transformtheprimitivelynchjusticeofanendangeredganginthereligiousandpolitical turmoilintoanorderlyjusticeprocedure),thesolutiontofindthetruthwasalmostalways mediatedbyadivinerevelation(ajudgmentofthegod).Wherevermagicianssucceeded inappropriatingthepreparationandinterpretationoftheoraclesorthedivinejudgments, theyfrequentlyachievedapositionofenduringdominance. (B.3.f)GodofLaw Quiteintherealitiesofactuallife,theguardianofthelegalorderwasnowhere necessarilythestrongestgod:neitherVarunainIndianorMaatinEgypt,muchless Lykos,Dike,ThemisorevenApolloinGreece.Whatalonecharacterizedthesegodswas theirethicalqualification,whichcorrespondedtothenotionthattheoracleordivine judgmentsomehowalwaysrevealedthe"truth."Itwasnotbecausethesegodswerethe ethicalgodwhoguardsthegoodcustomandthelegalorder,forthehumanizedgods originallyhadbutlittletodowithethics,infactlessthanhumanbeings.Rather,the reasonforsuchagod's legalpreeminencewasthathehadtakenthisparticularsphereof actionunderhisguidance. Increasedethicaldemandsuponthegodswereparallelwithfourdevelopments.First,the increasingpoweranddemandoforderlyjudicialdecisionwithinlargeandpacified politicalbands.Second,theincreasingsignificanceofarationalcomprehensionofan enduringandorderlycosmos.(Thecauseofthisistobesoughtinthemeteorological orientationofeconomicactivity.)Third,theincreasingregulationofevernewtypesof humanrelationshipsbyconventionalrules,andtheincreasingdependenceuponthe observanceoftheserulesintheirinteractionswitheachother.Andespecially,fourth,the growthinsocialandeconomicimportanceofthereliabilityofthegivenwordwhetherof

friends,vassals,officials,partnersinanexchangetransaction,debtors,orwhomeverelse. Whatisbasicallyinvolvedinthesefourdevelopmentsistheincreasedimportanceofan ethicalbindingofindividualstoacosmosof"obligation,"makingitpossibletocalculate whatthebehaviorofagivenpersonmaybe. Thegodstowhomoneseeksforprotectionarehenceforthregardedaseithersubjecttoan orderorlikethegreatkingsasthecreatorsofsuchanorder,whichtheymadethe specificcontentoftheirdivinewill.Inthefirstcase,asuperdivineandimpersonalpower makesitsappearancebehindthegods,controllingthemfromwithinandmeasuringthe valueoftheirdeeds.Ofcourse,thissuperdivinepowermaytakemanydifferentforms.It appearsfirstas"fate."AmongtheGreeks"fate"(moira)isanirrationaland,aboveall, ethicallyindifferentpredeterminationofhumandestiny.Suchpredeterminationiselastic withincertainlimits,butflagrantinterferenceswithpredeterminedfatemaybevery dangerouseventothegreatestofthegods.Thisprovidesoneexplanationforthefailure ofsomanyprayers.Thiskindofpredeterminedviewisverycompatibletothenormal innerattitudeofamilitaryhero,whoareparticularlyunreceptivetotherationalisticbelief inanethicallymeaningful,yetimpartial,wiseandkindly"providence."Inthiswe glimpseonceagainthedeepvocationalcleftbetweenawarriorclassandeverykindof religiousorpurelyethicalrationalism.Wehavealreadymadebriefreferencetothiscleft, andweshallhaveoccasiontoobserveitinmanycontexts.[15] (B.3.g)ImpersonalPowers Quitedifferentistheimpersonalpowerconceivedbybureaucraticortheocraticstrata,for example,theChinesebureaucracyortheHinduBrahmins.Theirsistheprovidential poweroftheharmoniousandrationalorderoftheworld,whichmayinanygivencase inclinetoeithermorecosmicormoreethicalandsocialcharacter,althoughasaruleboth aspectsareinvolved.InConfucianismasinTaoism,thisorderhasbothacosmicand specificallyethicalrationalcharacter;itisanimpersonal,providentialpowerthat guaranteestheregularityandproperorderofworldhistory.Thisistheviewofa rationalisticbureaucracy.EvenmorestronglyethicalistheHinduimpersonalpower (rita)ofthefixedorderofreligiousceremonial,ofthecosmos,andhenceofhuman activityingeneral.ThisistheviewoftheworldheldbytheVedicpriesthood,which practicedanessentiallyempiricalartofcoercingratherthanofworshippingthegods. AlsotobeincludedthisviewisthelaterHindunotionofasuperdivineallunitedbeing, whichisindependentfromthesenselesschangeandtransitorinessoftheentire phenomenalworld.Thisistheworldviewofspeculativeintellectualswhowere indifferenttoworldlyconcerns.

Ontheotherhand,wheretheorderofnatureandofthesocialrelationshipswhichare regulatedbyrules,especiallylaw,arenotregardedassubordinatingthegods,butrather asgod's creations(laterweshallinquireunderwhatcircumstancesthisoccurs),[16]itis selfevidentlypostulatedthatgodwillprotectagainstviolationoftheorderhehas created.Theconceptualpenetrationofthispostulatehasfarreachingconsequencesfor religiousactionandforthegeneralattitudetowardthegod.Itstimulatedthedevelopment ofareligiousethic,aswellasthedifferentiationofdemandsofthegodfromdemandsof aninadequate"nature."Hitherto,therehadbeentwoprimordialmethodsofinfluencing supernaturalpowers.Onewastosubjectthemtohumanpurposesbymeansofmagic. Theotherwastowintheirfavorbymakingoneselfpleasingtothem,notbytheexercise ofanyethicalvirtue,butbyfulfillingtheiregotisticdemands.Hereappearedobedienceto thereligiouslawasthedistinctivewaytowinthegod's favor. (B.4)DevelopmentOfReligiousEthic (B.4.a)Taboo Tobesure,religiousethicsdonotreallybeginwiththiscontextofimpersonalpower.On thecontrary,therewasalreadyanotherandhighlyeffectualcontextofreligiousethics, thatis,purelymagicallymotivatednormsofconduct,theviolationofwhichwasregarded asareligiousabomination.Whereverabeliefinspiritsisdeveloped,itisheldthat unusualoccurrencesinlifearegeneratedbytheentranceintoapersonofaparticular spirit,forexample,insickness,atbirth,atpuberty,oratmenstruation.Thisspiritmaybe regardedaseither"sacred"or"unclean";thisspiritisvariableandoftentheproductof accident,butthepracticaleffectisthesame.Ineithercaseonemustavoidirritatingthe spirit,lestitenterintotheoffensiveintruder,ormagicallyharmoneselforanyother personswhopossessedbyit.Asaresult,theindividualwhowasregardedasintrudedby thespiritwillbeshunnedphysicallyandsociallyandmustavoidcontactwithothersand sometimesevenwithhisbody.Insomeinstances,forexample,Polynesiancharismatic princes,suchapersonmustbecarefullyfedlesthemagicallycontaminatehisownfood. Naturally,oncethissetofnotionshasdeveloped,variousobjectsorpersonsmaybe labeledas"taboo"bytheinvocationofacharismaticmagician;thereupon,contactwith thenewpossessoroftaboowillcauseevilmagic,forhistaboomaybetransmitted.This charismaticpowertotransfertaboounderwentconsiderablesystematicrationalization, especiallyinIndonesiaandtheSouthSeaarea.Numerouseconomicandsocialinterests stoodunderthesanctionsoftaboos.Amongthemwerethefollowing:theconservationof forestsandwildlife(afterthepatternoftheprohibitedforestsofearlymedievalkings); theprotectionofscarcecommoditiesagainstuneconomicconsumptionduringperiodsof economicdifficulty;theprovisionofprotectionforprivateproperty,especiallyforthe

propertyofprivilegedpriestsoraristocrats;thesafeguardingofcommonwarbooty againstindividualplundering(asbyJoshuainthecaseofAchan);[17]andthesexualand personalseparationofstatusgroupsintheinterestofmaintainingpurityofbloodor prestige.Thus,taboowasoftenappliedforthebenefitsoftheprivileged.Thismost generalinstanceofthedirectutilizationofreligiontabootononreligiousinterestalso revealsthearbitraryautonomyofthereligiousdomainintheincredibleirrationalityofits highlyquestionablenorms. Therationalizationoftaboosleadsultimatelytoasystemofnormsaccordingtowhich certainactionsarepermanentlyconstruedasreligiousabominationssubjecttosanctions, andoccasionallyevenentailingthedeathofthemalefactorinordertopreventevilmagic fromovertakingtheentiregroupbecauseofthetransgressionoftheguiltyindividual.In thismannertherearisesasystemoftabooedethic.Thissystemcomprisesdietary restrictions,theproscriptionofworkontabooor"unlucky"days(theSabbathwas originallyataboodayofthistype),andcertainprohibitionsagainstmarriagetospecified individuals,especiallywithinthecircleofone' sbloodrelations.Theusualprocesshereis thatsomethingwhichhasbecomecustomary,forexample,fromexperiencesofillnessor othereffectsofevilmagicwhetheronrationalorirrationalgrounds,comestoberegarded as"sacred." (B.4.b)Totemism Insomefashionnotclearlyunderstood,theredevelopedforcertaingroupsacharacteristic connectionbetweenspecifictabooandvariousimportantspiritsindwellingparticular objectsoranimals.Egyptprovidesthemoststrikingexampleofhowtheincarnationof spiritsassacredanimalsmaygiverisetoculticcentersoflocalpoliticalsociety.Such sacredanimals,aswellasotherobjectsandartifacts,mayalsobecomethecentersof socialgroupings,whichinanyparticularcasemaybemorenaturalobjectorartificial one. Themostwidespreadofthesocialinstitutionswhichdevelopedinthisfashionisthat knownastotemism,whichisaspecificrelationshipofanobject,usuallyanaturalobject andinthepuresttypesananimal,withaparticularsocialgroup.Forthelatter,thetotemic animalisasymbolofbrotherhood;andoriginallytheanimalsymbolizedthecommon possessionbythegroupofthespiritoftheanimal,afterithadbeenconsumedbythe entiregroup.Thereare,ofcourse,variationsinthecontextofthisbrotherliness,justas therearevariationsinthenatureoftherelationshipofthememberstothetotemicobject. Inthefullydevelopedtypeoftotemism,thebrotherlinessofthegroupcomprisesallthe brotherlyobligationofanexogamouskingroup,whilethetotemicrelationinvolvesa prohibitionofslayingandconsumingthetotemicanimal,exceptattheculticmealsofthe

group.Thesedevelopmentsculminateinaseriesofculticobligationsfollowingfromthe common,thoughnotuniversal,beliefthatthegroupisdescendedfromthetotemanimal. Thecontroversyconcerningthedevelopmentofthesewidelydiffusedtotemic brotherhoodsisstillunresolved.Forusitwillsufficetosaythatthetotemsfunctionally aretheanimisticcounterpartsofthegodsofculticsocietywhich,aspreviously mentioned,[18]areassociatedwiththemostdiversesocialbands,sincenonrational thinkingcanconceiveapurelyartificialandpurposivebandbasedonpersonaland religiouslyguaranteedbrotherhood.Forthisreasontheregulationofsexualbehavior, whichthekinshipundertooktoeffect,especiallyattachedtoreligioussanctionsoftaboo, whichwerebestprovidedbytotemism.Buttotemismwasnotlimitedtothepurposesof sexualregulation,norwasitconfinedtothekinship,anditcertainlydidnotnecessarily arisefirstinthiscontext.[19]Rather,itisawidelydiffusedmethodofplacingfraternal bandsundermagicalsanctions.Yettotemismhasfrequentlybeenveryinfluentialin producingadivisionoflaborbetweenthesexeswhichisguaranteedandenforcedby magicalsanctions.Thentoo,totemismhasfrequentlyplayedaveryimportantroleinthe developmentandregulationofexchangeasaregularintragroupphenomenon(as contrastedwithtradeoutsidethelimitsofthegroup). (B.4.c)TableCommunity Taboos,especiallythedietaryrestrictionsconditionedbymagic,showusanewsourceof theinstitutionoftablecommunitywhichhassuchfarreachingimportance.Wehave alreadynotedonesourceofthisinstitution,namelythehousehold.[20]Anothersourceis therestrictionoftablecommunitytothemembershipofequalmagicalqualifications, whichisconditionedbythetabooisticdoctrineofimpurity.Thesetwomotivesoftable communitymayenterintocompetitionorevenconflict.Forexample,therearefrequently restrictionsuponwifesittingatthesametablewithhusband,andinsomecasessheis evenprohibitedfromseeinghimeatbecauseshecamefromanotherkinshipthan husband's .Noristablecommunitywithotherspermittedtothekingwhoisenclosedin bytaboos,ortomembersoftabooisticallyprivilegedstatusgroupssuchascastes,or tabooedreligiouscommunities.Furthermorehighlyprivilegedcastesmustbeshielded fromtheglancesof"unclean"strangersduringculticmealsoreveneverydaymeals. Conversely,theprovisionoftablecommunityisfrequentlyamethodofproducing religiousfellowship,whichmayonoccasionleadtopoliticalandethnicalliances.Thus, thefirstgreatturningpointinthehistoryofChristianitywasthetablecommunion arrangedatAntiochbetweenPeterandtheuncircumcisedproselytes,wherethatPaul accusedPeter' sattempttoavoidthecommunionhaddecisiveimportance.[21] (B.4.d)TabooandSocialIntercourse

Ontheotherhand,normsoftaboomayproduceextraordinarilyseverehindrancestothe developmentoftradeandofthemarket,andothertypesofsocialintercourse.The absoluteimpurityofthoseoutsideone' sownreligion,astaughtbytheShiiteofIslam,has createdinitsadherentscrucialhindrancestointercoursewithothers,eveninrecenttimes, thoughrecoursehasbeenmadetofictionsofallsortstoeasethesituation.Thecaste taboosoftheHindusrestrictedintercourseamongpeoplefarmoreforcefullythanthe beliefsystemofspirits(fengshui)interferedwithtradeinChina.Ofcourse,eveninthese matterstherearenaturallimitstothepoweroftabooinrespecttothebasicneedsof everydaylife.Thus,accordingtotheHinducastetaboo,"Thehandofthecraftspersonis alwaysclean."Alsocleanaremines,workshops,andwhatevermerchandiseisavailable forsaleinstores,aswellaswhateverarticlesoffoodhavebeentouchedbymendicant students(asceticdisciplesoftheBrahmins).TheonlyHinducastetaboothatwasaptto beviolatedinconsiderableextentwasthetabooonsexualrelationshipsbetweencastes, underthewealthypeople' sinterestinconcubines.Thus,itbecamepermissibletotake girlsoflowercastesasconcubines.ThecasteorderoflaborinIndia,likethefengshuiin China,isbeingslowlybutsurelybecomeillusorywhereverrailroadtransportation develops. (B.4.e)CasteEthic Intheory,thesetaboorestrictionsofcasteneednothaverenderedcapitalismimpossible. Yetitisobviousthateconomicrationalizationwouldneverhavearisenoriginallywhere taboohadachievedsuchmassivepower.Despitealleffortstoreducecastesegregation, certaininnerresistancesbasedonthecastetabooremainedoperative,preventingcrafts personsofdifferentcraftsfromworkingtogetherinthesamefactory.Thecasteorder tendstoperpetuateaspecializationoflaborofthehandicrafttype,ifnotbypositive prescription,thenasaconsequenceofitsgeneral"spirit"andpresuppositions.Thenet effectofthereligioussanctionofcasteuponthe"spirit"ofeconomicactivityis diametricallyoppositetothatofrationalism.Inthecasteorderparticularcraftsaremade eachassignedareligiouscharacterandsanctionedasasacred"vocation."Eventhemost despisedofHinducastes,notexcludingthatofthieves,regardsitsownactivityas sanctionedbyparticulargodsorbyaspecificdivinewill,assignedtoitsmembersastheir specialfulfillmentinlife;andeachcastenourishesitssenseofdignitybyitstechnically completeexecutionofitsassignedvocation. Butthisvocationalethicofcasteisatleastasfarasthecraftsareconcernednotably traditionalistic,ratherthanrational.Itfindsitsfulfillmentandconfirmationinthe absolutelyqualitativeperfectionoftheproductinthefieldofthecraft.Thismodeof thinkingisveryalientothepossiblerationalizationofthemethodofproduction,which isbasictoallmodernrationaltechnology,orthesystematicenterpriseinarational businesseconomy,whichisthefoundationofmoderncapitalism.Onemustgotothe

ethicsofasceticProtestantismtofindethicalsanctionforeconomicrationalismandfor theentrepreneur.Casteethicsglorifiesthespiritofcraftsmanship,notineconomic earningsmeasuredbymoney,norinthewondersofrationaltechnologyasappliedinthe rationaluseoflabor,butratherinthepersonalvirtuosityoftheproducerasmanifestedin thebeautyandgoodnessoftheproductappropriatetoone' sparticularcaste. Finally,weshouldnoteinanticipationofourgeneralargumentaboutthese relationshipsthatwhatwasdecisivefortheHinducasteorderinparticularwasits connectionwithabeliefintransmigration,andespeciallyitsbeliefinthepossible improvementofone' schancesinsubsequentrebirthonlybythefaithfulexecutionofthe vocationofone' scaste.Anyefforttodeviatefromone's caste,andespeciallytointrude intothevocationofotherandhighercastes,wasexpectedtoresultinevilmagicandthe unfavorablerebirthhereafter.Thisexplainswhy,accordingtonumerousobservationsin India,itispreciselythelowestclasses,whowouldnaturallyhavehighestchanceof improvingtheirstatusinsubsequentrebirth,thatclingmoststeadfastlytotheircaste obligations,neverthinkingoftopplingthecasteorderthroughsocial"revolutions"or "reforms."AmongtheHindus,aBiblicalcommandmentstronglyemphasizedbyLuther, "Remainsteadfastinyourvocation,"[22]waselevatedintoacardinalreligious obligationandwasstrengthenedbypowerfulreligiousexpectation. (B.4.f)ConceptofSin Wheneverthebeliefinspiritsbecamerationalizedintothebeliefingods,thatis, wheneverthecoercionofspiritsgavewaytotheworshipofthegodsthroughcult,the magicalethicofthebeliefinspiritwasreorientedtoo.Thisreorientationwasdirectedby thenotionthatwhoeverviolateddivinelyappointednormswouldcausetheethical displeasureofthegodwhohadthesenormsunderhisspecialprotection.Thisposition madepossibletotakethepostulatethatwhenenemiesconqueredorothercalamities befellgod'sow npeople,thecausewasnottheweaknessofthegodbutratherhisanger againsthisadherentscausedbytheirtransgressionagainsttheethicallawunderhis guardianship.Hence,thesinsofthepeopleweretoblameifsomeunfavorableoutcome; thegodmightwellbeusingthecalamitytopunishanddisciplinehisbelovedpeople. Thus,theprophetsofIsraelwerealwaysabletoaccusetotheirpeople' ssinsintheirown generationorintheirancestors' ,towhichGodhadreactedwithalmostinexhaustible wrath,asevidencedbythefactthathepermittedhisownpeopletobecomesubjectto anotherpeoplewhodidnotworshiphimatall: (B.4.g)ReligiousEthic

Thisidea,diffusedinallconceivablemanifestationswherevertheconceptofgodhas takenonuniversalisticquality,developsa"religiousethic"outofthemagicaltaboo whichoperateonlywiththenotionofevilmagic.Henceforth,transgressionagainstthe willofgodisanethical"sin"whichburdensthe"conscience,"beingindependentfromits directresults.Evilsbefallingtheindividualaregod's designatedpunishmentandthe consequencesofsin,fromwhichtheindividualhopestobefreedby"piety"(attitude pleasingtogod)whichwillbringtheindividual"salvation."IntheOldTestament,the ideaof"salvation,"appearedonlyintheelementaryhoweverrationalmeaningof liberationfromconcretesufferings. Initsearlystages,thereligiousethicconsistentlysharesanothercharacteristicwithmagic ethicinthatitisfrequentlycomposedofacomplexofheterogeneousprescriptionsand prohibitionsderivedfromthemostdiversemotivesandoccasions.Withinthiscomplex thereis,fromourmodernpointofview,littledifferentiationbetween"important"and "unimportant"commandments,thetransgressionofwhichconstitutes"sin." (B.4.h)SystematizationofEthic Later,asystematizationoftheseethicalconceptsofgod'sc ommandmentfromthe personaldesireofthegodtofillhisexternalpleasuresmayleadtoaviewofsinasthe unifiedpoweroftheantigodwhosepowerhumanmayfallinto.Goodnessisthen conceivedasanintegralcapacityforanattitudeofholiness,andforconsistentaction resultedfromsuchanattitude.Duringthisprocessofsystematization,therealsodevelops ahopeforsalvationfromanirrationalyearningforbeing"good"tosimplegraceful consciousattitudetowardsuchgoodness. Analmostinfiniteseriesofthemostdiverseconceptions,crossedagainandagainby purelymagicalnotions,leadstothesublimationofpietyastheenduringbasisofa specificconductoflife,bythecontinuousmotivationitengenders.Ofcoursesucha sublimationisextremelyrareandisattainedinitsfullpurityonlyintermittentlyby everydayreligion.Wearestillintherealmof"magic"if"sin"and"piety"areviewedas integralpowersofmaterialsubstances;atthisstage,thenatureofthe"good"or"evil"of theactingpersonisconstruedafterthefashionofapoison,ahealingantidote,orabodily temperature.ThusinIndia,asacredpower(tapas),thepowerachievedbyasceticismand containedwithinthebody,originallydenotedtheheatengenderedinfowlsduringtheir matingseason,inthecreatoroftheworldatthecosmogony,andinthemagicianduring hissacredhysteriainducedbymortificationsandleadingtosupernaturalpowers.

Itisalongwayfromthenotionthatthepersonwhodoesgoodreceivesaspecial"soul" ofdivineproveniencetotheinward"possession"ofthedivinetobediscussedlater.[23] Sotoo,itisafarawayfromtheconceptionofsinasapoisoninthebodyoftheevildoer bythepowerofanevildemonwhichentersintopossessionofher/him,totheconception ofsinastheculminatingpowerof"radicalevil,"withwhichthesinnermuststrugglelest s/hefallsintoitsdevilishpower. Bynomeanseveryethictraversedtheentirelengthoftheroadoftheseconceptions. Thus,theethicsofConfucianismlacktheconceptofradicalevil,andingenerallackthe conceptofanyintegraldevilishpowerofsin.Norwasthisnotioncontainedintheethics ofGreeceorRome.Inboththosecases,therewaslackingnotonlyanindependently organizedpriesthood,butalsoprophecy,whichnormallycreatedacentralizationof ethicsundertheideaofreligioussalvation.InIndia,prophecywasnotabsent,butaswill bediscussedlater,[24]ithadaveryspecialcharacterandaveryhighlysublimatedethic ofsalvation. Prophetsandpriestsarethetwinbearersofthesystematizationandrationalizationof religiousethics.Butthereisathirdsignificantfactorofimportanceindeterminingthe developmentofreligiousethics:the"laity"whomprophetsandpriestsseektoinfluence ontheirethic.Wemustnowbrieflyexaminetheinteractionofthesethreefactors. (C)PROPHET (C.1)Definition Whatisaprophet,fromtheviewpointofsociology?[25]Weshallunderstand"prophet" apurelyindividualbearerofcharisma,whobyone'smiss ionproclaimsreligious teachingordivinecommandment.Noradicaldistinctionwillbedrawnbetweena "renewerofreligion"whorevealsanewmeaninginanolderrevelation,actualor fictitious,anda"founderofreligion"whobringscompletelynewrevelations.Thetwo typesareinterconnectedtooneanother.Inanycase,theformationofanewreligious communityneednotbetheresultoftheannouncementbyprophets,sinceitmaybe producedbytheactivitiesofnonpropheticreformers.Norshallwebeconcernedinthis contextwiththequestionwhetherthefollowersofaprophetaremoreattractedtohis person,asinthecasesofZoroaster,Jesus,andMuhammad,ortohisteaching,asinthe casesofBuddhaandtheprophetsofIsrael. (C.1.a)PriestAndProphet

Forourpurposeshere,the"personal"callisthedecisiveelementdistinguishingthe prophetfromthepriest.Firstofall,theprophetdeclaresnewrevelationsbycharisma, whereasthepriestservestoasacredtradition.Itisnoaccidentthatalmostnoprophethas comefromthepriesthood.Asarule,theIndianteachersofsalvationwerenotBrahmins, norweretheIsraeliteprophetspriests.Zoroaster' scaseisexceptionalinthatthereexistsa possibilitythathemighthavedescendedfromthepriestlynobility.Thepriest,inclear contrast,dispensessalvationalgoodsbyhisoffice.Evenincasesinwhichpersonal charismamaybeattachedtoapriest,heremainsasamemberofthepriestlyenterpriseof salvation,whichlegitimizeshisoffice. (C.1.b)MagicianAndProphet Ontheotherhandtheprophet,likethemagician,exertshispowerentirelybyhispersonal gifts.Unlikethemagician,however,theprophetdeclaresmeaningfulrevelations,andhis commissionisteachingorcommandment,notmagic.Outwardly,thedistinctionisfluid. Themagicianisfrequentlyanannouncerofdivination,andsometimesinthisalone.At thisstage,revelationfunctionscontinuouslyasoracleordreaminterpretation.Without priorconsultationwiththemagician,noinnovationsinsocialrelationshipscouldbe adoptedinprimitivetimes.Tothisday,incertainpartsofAustralia,itisthedream revelationsofmagiciansthataresetbeforethecouncilsofclanheadsforadoption,andit isamarkof"secularization"thatthispracticeisreceding. Ontheotherhand,itisonlyunderveryunusualcircumstancesthataprophetsucceedsin establishinghisauthoritywithoutcharismaticdemonstration,whichinpracticemeant magic.Atleastthebearersof"new"teachingpracticallyalwaysneededsuchvalidation. ItmustnotbeforgottenforaninstantthattheentirebasisofJesus'ownle gitimation, [26]aswellashisclaimthatheandonlyheknewtheFather[27]andthatthewaytoGod wasthroughfaithinhimalone,[28]wasthemagicalcharismahefeltwithinhimself.It wasdoubtlessthisconsciousnessofpower,morethananythingelse,thatledhimtothe roadoftheprophet.DuringtheapostolicperiodofearlyChristianityandthereafterthe wanderingprophetwasaconstantphenomenon.Therewasalwaysrequiredofsuch prophetsaproofoftheirpossessionofparticulargiftsofthespirit,ofspecialmagicalor ecstaticabilities. Prophetsveryoftenpracticed"vocational"divinationaswellasmagicalhealingand counseling.Thiswastrue,forexample,oftheseer,the"massorientedprophet"(nabi),so frequentlymentionedintheOldTestament,especiallyinthepropheticbooksand Chronicles.Butwhatdistinguishestheprophet,inthesociologicalsenseoftheterm, fromthemagicianiseconomic,thatis,prophecyisfreeofcharge.Thus,Amos indignantlyrejectedtobecalled"nabi."[29]Freeofchargealsodistinguishestheprophet

fromthepriest.Thetypicalprophetpropagates"ideas"fortheirownsakeandnotfor fees,atleastnotinanyobviousorregulatedform.Thefreeofchargecharacterof propheticpropagandahavetakenvariousforms.Thusdevelopedthecarefullycultivated postulatethattheapostle,prophet,orteacherofancientChristianitymustnotmakeliving byhisreligiousproclamations.Also,limitationsweresetuponthelengthofthetimehe couldenjoythehospitalityofthebelievers.TheChristianprophethadtomakelivingby thelaborofhisownhandsor,asamongtheBuddhists,onlyfromvoluntaryalmswhich hehadnotspecificallybegged.Thesemandateswererepeatedlyemphasizedinthe Paulineletters,andinanotherformintheBuddhistmonasticrules.Thedictum "whosoeverwillnotwork,shallnoteat"[30]isdirectedtomissionaries;however,the freeofchargeis,ofcourse,oneofthechiefreasonsforthesuccessofprophetic propagandaitself. (C.1.c)PropheticAge TheperiodoftheolderIsraeliteprophecyataboutthetimeofElijahwasanepochof strongpropheticpropagandathroughouttheNearEastandGreece.Perhapsprophecyin allitstypesarose,especiallyintheNearEast,inconnectionwiththeriseofthegreat worldempiresinAsia,andtheintensificationofinternationalcommerceafteralong interruption.AtthattimeGreecewasexposedtothespreadoftheThraciancultof Dionysos,aswellastothemostdiversetypesofprophecies.Inadditiontothesemi propheticsocialreformers,certainpurelyreligiousmovementsnowbrokeintothesimple magicalandculticloreoftheHomericpriests.Emotionalcults,emotionalprophecy basedon"speakingwithtongues,"andhighlyvaluedintoxicatingecstasybrokethe unfoldingoftheologicalrationalism(Hesiod),thebeginningsofcosmologicaland philosophicspeculation,ofmysticteachingsandsalvationreligions.Thegrowthofthese emotionalcultsparalleledbothoverseascolonizationand,aboveall,theformationof citystatesanditstransformationwhichresultedfromthedevelopmentofacitizenarmy. Itisnotnecessarytodetailherethesedevelopmentsoftheeighthandseventhcenturies someofwhichreachedintothesixthandeventhefifthcentury.[31]Theywere contemporarywithJewish,Persian,andHindupropheticmovements,andprobablyalso withtheachievementsofChineseethicsinthepreConfucianperiod,althoughwehave onlyscantknowledgeofthelatter.TheseGreek"prophets"differedwidelyamong themselvesinregardtotheeconomiccriterionoffreeofcharge,andinregardtothe possessionofa"teaching."TheGreeksalsomadeadistinctionbetweentakingcharge andfreeofchargeteachingofideas,asweseefromtheexampleofSocrates.InGreece, furthermore,thereexistedacleardifferentiationbetweentheactualcommunalreligion, namelyOrphismwithitsdoctrineofsalvation,andeveryothertypeofprophecyand techniqueofsalvation,especiallythoseofthemysteries.Ourprimarytaskisto differentiatethevarioustypesofprophetsfromthespecificbringersofsalvation, religiousorotherwise.

(C.1.d)LawgiverandProphet Eveninhistoricaltimesthetransitionfromthe"prophet"tothe"lawgiver"isfluid,ifone understandsthelattertomeanapersonwhoinaconcretecasehasbeenassignedthetask ofcodifyingalawsystematicallyorofreconstitutingit,aswasthecasenotablywiththe Greeklawgiver(aisymnetes),forexample,Solon,Charondas,etc.Innocasedidsucha lawgiverorhislaborfailtoreceivedivineapproval,ifonlysubsequently. AlawgiverisquitedifferentfromtheItalianarbitrator(podesta),whoissummonedfrom outsidethesociety,notforthepurposeofcreatinganewsocialorder,buttoprovidea detached,impartialarbitrator,especiallywhenfamiliesofthesamesocialrankfeudwith oneanother.Ontheotherhand,lawgiversweregenerally,thoughnotalways,calledto theirofficewhensocialtensionsbetweendifferentsocialclasseswereinevidence.This wasapttooccurwithspecialfrequencyintheonesituationwhichcommonlyprovided theearliestcausetoa"socialpolicy":theeconomicdifferentiationofthewarriorclassas aresultofgrowingmonetarywealthofonepartandthedebtenslavementofanother;an additionalfactorwasthedissatisfactionarisingfromtheunrealizedpoliticalaspirations ofrisingcommercialpeoplewhich,havingacquiredwealththrougheconomicactivity, wasnowchallengingtheoldwarriornobility.Itwasthetaskofthelawgivertoresolve theconflictsbetweenstatusgroupsandtocreateanewsacredlawofeternalauthenticity, gainingthebeliefinitsdivinities. (C.1.d.1)Moses ItisverylikelythatMoseswasahistoricalfigure.Ifitwasthecase,hewouldbe classifiedfunctionallyasalawgiver.Fortheprescriptionsoftheoldestsacredlegislation oftheHebrewspresupposeamoneyeconomyandhencesharpconflictsofinterests, whetherimpendingoralreadyexisting,withintheconfederacy.ItwasMoses't asktofind acompromisesolutionoftheseconflicts(forexample,thedebtreleaseintheSabbatical Year)[32]andtoorganizetheIsraeliteconfederacywithanintegralnationalgod.His workstandsmidwaybetweentheancientGreeklawgiverandMuhammad.Thereception oftheMosaiclawstimulatedaperiodofexpansionofthenewlyunifiedpeopleinmuch thesamewaythatthecompromiseamongstatusgroupsstimulatedexpansioninsomany othercases,particularlyinAthensandRome.Thescripturaldictumthat"afterMoses therearosenotaprophetsinceinIsraellikeuntohim"[33]meansthattheJewsneverhad anotherlawgiver. (C.1.e)ProphetandSocialPolicy

Notallprophetswerethelawgiverinthissense,butingeneralwhatnormallypassesfor prophecydoesnotbelongtothiscategory.Tobesure,eventhelaterprophetsofIsrael wereconcernedwith"socialpolicy."Theythrewtheir"woebeuntoyou"againstthose whooppressedandenslavedthepoor,thosewhojoinedfieldtofield,andthosewho deflectedjusticebybribes.Thesewerethetypicalactionsleadingtoclassstratification everywhereintheancientworld,andwereeverywhereintensifiedbythedevelopmentof thecitystate.Jerusalemtoohadbeenorganizedintoacitystatebythetimeoftheselater prophets.AdistinctiveconcernwithsocialproblemischaracteristicofIsraeliteprophets. ThisconcernisallthemorenotablebecausesuchatraitislackinginHinduprophecyof thesameperiod,althoughtheconditionsinIndiaatthetimeoftheBuddhahavebeen describedasrelativelysimilartothoseinGreeceduringthesixthcentury. ThedifferencetowardsocialpolicybetweentheIsraelandtheIndiaprophetsresulted fromtheirdifferentreligiousgrounds,whichwillbediscussedlater.Butitmustnotbe forgottenthatinthemotivationoftheIsraeliteprophetsthesesocialpolicywereonly meanstoanend.Theirprimaryconcernwaswithforeignpolitics,chieflybecauseit constitutedthetheateroftheirgod's activity.TheIsraeliteprophetssawsocialandother typesofinjustice,whichviolatedthespiritoftheMosaiclaw,onlyasamotiveofgod' s wrath,notasthecauseofaprogramofsocialreform.Itisnoteworthythatthesole theoreticianofsocialreform,Ezekiel,wasapriestlytheoristwhocanscarcelybe categorizedasaprophetatall.Finally,Jesuswasnotatallinterestedinsocialreformas such. Zoroastersharedwithhiscattleraisingpeopleahatredofthespoilingnomads,buthis messagewasprimaryreligious.Hiscentralconcernwasthestruggleagainsttheorgiastic cultforhisowndivinemission,[34]whichofcoursehadincidentaleconomic consequences.Asimilarprimaryfocusuponreligionappearedveryclearlyinthecaseof Muhammad,whoseprogramofsocialreform,whichUmarcarriedthroughconsistently, wasorientedalmostentirelytotheunificationofthefaithfulforthefightingagainstthe infidelsandofmaintainingthelargestpossiblenumberofwarriors. (C.1.f)TyrantandProphet Itischaracteristicoftheprophetsthattheydonotreceivetheirmissionfromanyhuman agency,butusurpeditbythemselves.Tobesure,usurpationalsocharacterizedbythe tyrantsintheGreekcitystates.TheseGreektyrantswerealawgiverintheirgeneral functioning,andtheyfrequentlypursuedtheirownreligiouspolicies,namely,supporting theemotionalcultofDionysos,whichwaspopularwiththemassesratherthanwiththe nobility.Buttheprophetsusurpedtheirpowerofdivinerevelationprimaryforreligious purpose.Fortheprophets,typicalreligiouspropagandadirectedtothestruggleagainst

orgiasticcult,theentirelyoppositedirectionofthetypicalreligiouspolicyoftheGreek tyrants.ThereligionofMuhammad,whichisfundamentallypoliticalinitsorientation, andhispositioninMedina,whichwasinbetweenthatofanItalianarbitratorandthatof CalvinatGeneva,grewprimarilyoutofhispurelypropheticmission.Amerchant,he wasfirstaleaderofpietisticcitizenryconventiclesinMecca,untilherealizedmoreand moreclearlythattheexternalbasisforhismissionizingwouldbeprovidedbythe organizationofthebootyinterestsofthewarriorclans. (C.1.g)EthicTeacherandProphet Ontheotherhand,therearevarioustransitionalphaseslinkingtheprophettotheethic teacher,especiallythesocialethicteacher.Suchateacher,fullofneworrenewed ancientwisdom,gathersdisciplesabouthim,counselsprivatepersons,andadvises princesinpublicaffairsandpossiblytriestomakethemestablishanewethicalorder. Thetiebetweenthereligiousorphilosophicalteacherandhisdiscipleisuncommonly strongandregulatedinanauthoritarianmanner,particularlyinthesacredlawsofAsia. Thistieiscategorizedasoneofthefirmestrelationshipsofhumanpiety.Generally,the pietyrelationshipisregulatedbymagicasheroism.Thenoviceisassignedtoa particularlyexperiencedmasterorispermittedtochooseamaster,whomonlyheis attachedtoinhispersonalpietyanddependedonforhistraining,astheyoung"fox"can choosetheseniormemberinGermanfraternities.AlltheGreekpoetryofhomosexuality derivesfromsucharelationshipofpiety,andsimilarphenomenaaretobefoundamong BuddhistsandConfucianists,indeedinallmonasticeducation. (C.1.g.1)Guru Themostcompleteexpressionofthisdisciplemasterrelationshipistobefoundinthe positionofthe"guru"inHindusacredlaw.Everyyoungperson,evenofthenoblefamily, hastodevotehimselfunconditionallyformanyyearstotheinstructionanddirectionof lifeprovidedbysuchaguru.Theguruhasabsolutepoweroverhisdisciples,andthe obedienceofthediscipletohisguruiscomparabletothatoftheOccidentalservanttohis master,andprecededoverthattoparents.ThepositionofthecourtBrahmin(purohita) wasofficiallyregulatedsoastoraisehispositionfarabovethatofthemostpowerful fatherconfessorintheOccident.Yettheguruis,afterall,onlyateacheroftransmitted knowledge,notrevealedone,andhisauthorityisbasedonthiscommissiontothe knowledge,notonhisowncharisma. (C.1.h)Philosopher

Thephilosophicalethicistandthesocialreformerarenotprophetsinoursenseofthe word,nomatterhowcloselytheymayseemtoresembleprophets.Actually,theoldest Greeksages,wholikeEmpedoclesandPythagorasarewreathedinlegend,standclosest totheprophets.Someofthemevenformedthecommunityofadistinctivedoctrineof salvationandconductoflife,andtheylaidsomeclaimtothestatusofsavior.Such teachersofintellectualsalvationhaveparallelsinIndia,buttheGreekteachersfellfar shortoftheHinduteachersinconsistentlyfocusingbothlifeandteachingonsalvation. Evenlesscanthefoundersandheadsoftheactual"schoolsofphilosophy"beregardedas prophetsinoursense,nomatterhowcloselytheymayapproachthiscategoryinsome respects.FromConfucius,inwhosetempleeventheemperormakeshisobeisance, gradedtransitionsleadtoPlato.Butbothofthemweresimplyateacherofaschoolof philosophy,whodifferedchieflyinthatConfuciuswascentrallyconcernedwith influencingprincesinthedirectionofparticularsocialreforms,andPlatoonly occasionally. Whatprimarilydifferentiatessuchfiguresfromtheprophetsistheirlackofthatvital emotionalpreachingwhichisdistinctiveofprophecy,regardlessofwhetherthisis disseminatedbythespokenword,thepamphlet,oranyotherliterarytypeofrevelation, forexample,thechapters(suras)oftheKoranbyMuhammad.Theactivityoftheprophet isclosertothatofthedemagogueorofthejournalistthanthe"enterprise"oftheteacher. Ontheotherhand,theactivityofSocrates,whoalsofelthimselfopposedtothe professionalteachingenterpriseoftheSophists,mustbedistinguishedconceptuallyfrom theactivitiesofaprophetbytheabsenceofadirectlyrevealedreligiousmission. Socrates'" genius"(daimonion)reactedonlytoconcretesituations,andthenonlyto discourageandadmonish.ForSocrates,thiswasthelimitofhisethicalandstrongly utilitarianrationalism,whichcorrespondedtothepositionofmagicaldivinationfor Confucius.Forthisreason,Socrates'ge niuscannotbecomparedatalltothe"conscience" ofagenuinereligiousethic;muchlesscanitberegardedastheinstrumentofprophecy. Suchadistancefromtheprophetholdstrueofallphilosophersandtheirschoolsasthey wereknowninChina,India,ancientGreece,andinthemedievalperiodamongJews, Arabs,andChristiansalike.Allsuchphilosophicalschoolswererathersimilarfroma sociologicalpointofview.Fortheirmodeoflife,theymaybenearertothemystical ritualprophecyofsalvation,asinthecaseofthePythagorean,ortotheexemplary prophecyofsalvation(inthesensesoontobeexplained),asinthecaseoftheCynics, whoprotestedagainstthesacramentalgraceofthemysteriesaswellasagainstworldly civilization,andwhointhisregardshowcertainaffinitiestoHinduandOrientalascetic sects.Buttheprophet,inourspecialsense,isnevertobefoundwheretheproclamation ofareligioustruthofsalvationthroughpersonalrevelationislacking.Inourview,this qualificationmustberegardedasthedecisivehallmarkofprophecy.

(C.1.i)Reformer Finally,theHindureformersofreligionsuchasShankaraandRamanujaandtheir OccidentalcounterpartslikeLuther,Zwingli,Calvin,andWesleyaretobedistinguished fromthecategoryofprophetsbythefactthattheydonotclaimtobeofferinga substantivelynewrevelationortobespeakinginthenameofaspecialdivine representative.Newrevelationbythenameofgodiswhatcharacterizedthefounderof theMormonchurch,whoresembled,eveninmattersofdetail,Muhammad;aboveall,it characterizedtheJewishprophets.ThepropheticpersonalityisalsomanifestinMontanus andNovatian,andinsuchfiguresasManiandMarcionwhosemessagehadamore rationalteachingthandidthatofGeorgeFox,anemotionalprophet. (C.1.j)MysteryCultist Whenwehaveseparatedoutfromthecategoryofprophetalltheaforementionedtypes, whichsometimesabutveryclosely,variousothersstillremain.Thefirstisthatofthe mysterycultistwhoperformssacraments,namely,magicalactionsthatbringthegoodsof salvation.Throughouttheentireworldtherehavebeensaviorsofthistype.Themystery cultistisdistinguishedfromtheusualmagician,thoughonlyamatterofdegree,bythe formationofaspecialcommunity.Veryfrequentlydynastiesofmysterycultists developedonthebasisofasacramentalcharismawhichwasvalidatedashereditary. Thesedynastiesmaintainedtheirprestigeforcenturies,investingtheirdiscipleswith greatauthorityandthusdevelopingakindofhierarchicalposition.Thiswasespecially trueinIndia,wherethetitleofguruwasalsousedforsuchdistributorsofsalvationand theirauthority.ItwaslikewisethecaseinChina,wherethehierarchoftheTaoistsand theheadsofcertainsecretsectsplayedjustsuchhereditaryroles.Finally,onetypeof exemplaryprophettobediscussedpresentlywasalsogenerallytransformedintoa mysterycultistinthesecondgeneration. ThemysterycultistswerealsoverywidelyspreadthroughouttheNearEast,andthey enteredGreeceinthepropheticagewhichwediscussedalready.[35]Yetthefarmore ancientnoblefamilieswhowerethehereditarychiefoftheEleusinianmysteriesalso representedatleastanothermarginalmanifestationofthesimplehereditarypriestly families.Themysterycultists,whodistributemagicalsalvation,lackethicalteachingor atleastteachingplayonlyaverysubordinateroleintheirenterprise.Instead,theypossess thedoctrineofhereditarilytransmittedmagicalart.Moreover,theynormallymakea livingfromtheirgreatlydemandedcult.Consequentlywemustexcludehimtoofromthe conceptionofprophet,eventhoughhesometimesrevealednewwaysofsalvation.

(C.2)NaturesOfProphecy (C.2.a)EthicalandExemplaryProphecy Thus,thereremainonlytwokindsofprophetsinoursense,onerepresentedmostclearly bytheBuddha,theotherwithespecialclaritybyZoroasterandMuhammad.Theprophet maybeprimarily,asinthelastcases,aninstrumentfortheproclamationofagodandhis will,bethisaconcretecommandoranabstractnorm.Asacommissionfromgod,he demandsobedienceasanethicalduty.Thistypeweshalltermthe"ethicalprophet."On theotherhand,theprophetmaybeanexemplarypersonwho,byhispersonalexample, demonstratestoothersthewaytoreligioussalvation,asinthecaseoftheBuddha.The preachingofanexemplaryprophetsaysnothingaboutadivinemissionoranethicalduty ofobedience,butratherdirectsitselftotheselfinterestofthosewhoneedsalvation, recommendingthemtofollowthesamepathashehimselfwalked.Wecallthissecond typethe"exemplaryprophet." TheexemplarytypeisparticularlycharacteristicofprophecyinIndia,althoughthere havebeenafewmanifestationsofitinChina(forexample,LaoTzu)andtheNearEast. Ontheotherhand,theethicaltypeisconfinedtotheNearEast,regardlessofracial differencesthere.ForneithertheVedasnortheclassicalbooksoftheChinesetheoldest portionsofwhichinbothcasesconsistofsongsofpraiseandthanksgivingbysacred singers,andofmagicalritesandceremoniesmakesitappearatallprobablethat prophecyoftheethicaltype,suchasdevelopedintheNearEastorIran,couldeverhave ariseninIndiaorChina. (C.2.b)GodandProphets Thedecisivereasonforthisistheabsenceofapersonal,transcendental,andethicalgod. InIndiathisconceptwasfoundonlyinasacramentalandmagicalform,andthenonlyin thelaterandpopularfaiths.Butinthereligionsofthosesocialstratawithinwhichthe decisiveprophetictypeofMahaviraandBuddhaweredeveloped,theethicalconceptof godappearedonlyintermittentlyandwasconstantlysubjectedtoreinterpretationsinthe directionofpantheism.InChinathenotionofethicalgodwasaltogetherlackingbecause theethicsofthestratumexercisedthegreatestinfluenceinthesociety.Towhatdegree thismaypresumablybeassociatedwiththeintellectualdistinctivenessofsuchstrata, whichwasofcoursedeterminedbyvarioussocialfactors,willbediscussedlater.

Asfarasinnerreligiousfactorsareconcerned,itwasdecisiveforbothIndiaandChina thattheconceptionofarationallyregulatedworldhaditspointoforigininthe ceremonialorderofsacrifices,ontheunalterablesequenceofwhicheverything depended:especiallytheindispensableregularityofmeteorologicalprocesses;in animisticthinking,whatwasinvolvedherewasthenormalactivityorinactivityofthe spiritsanddemons.AccordingtobothclassicalandheterodoxChineseviews,these processeswereheldtobeinsuredbytheregulationofethicallyproperconductthat followedthecorrectpathofvirtue,theTao;withoutthiseverythingwouldfail,even accordingtoVedicteaching.Thus,inIndiaandChina,RitaandTaorespectively representedsimilarsuperdivine,impersonalforces. Ontheotherhand,thepersonal,transcendentalandethicalgodisaNearEasternconcept. Itcorrespondssocloselytothatofanallpowerfulsecularkingwithhisrational bureaucraticregimethatacausalconnectioncanscarcelybedenied. (C.2.b.1)GodasRainmaker Throughouttheworldthemagicianisinthefirstinstancearainmaker,fortheharvest dependsontimelyandsufficientrain,thoughnotinexcessivequantity.Untilthepresent timethepontificalChineseemperorhasremainedarainmaker,forinnorthernChina,at least,theuncertaintyoftheweatherrendersdubioustheoperationofirrigation procedures,nomatterhowextensivetheyare.Ofgreatersignificancewasthe constructionofdefensewalls,andinternalcanals,whichbecametherealsourceofthe imperialbureaucracy.Theemperorsoughttoavertmeteorologicaldisturbancesthrough sacrifices,publicatonement,andvariousvirtuouspractices,forexample,thetermination ofabusesintheadministration,oraraidonunpunishedmalefactors.Foritwasalways assumedthatthereasonfortheexcitationofthespiritsandthedisturbancesofthecosmic orderhadtobesoughteitherinthepersonalderelictionsofthemonarchorinsome manifestationofsocialdisorder.Again,rainwasoneoftherewardspromisedbyYahweh tohisdevotees,whowereatthattimeprimarilypeasants,asisclearlyapparentinthe olderportionsofthetradition.Godpromisedneithertooscantyrainnoryetexcessive precipitationorflood. (C.2.b.2)GodsofNearEast ButthroughoutMesopotamiaandArabiaitwasnotrainthatwasthecreatorofthe harvest,butartificialirrigationalone.InMesopotamia,irrigationwasthesolesourceof theabsoluterulershipofthemonarch,whoderivedhisincomebycompellinghis conqueredsubjectstobuildcanalsandcitiesadjoiningthem,justastheregulationofthe

NilewasthesourceoftheEgyptianmonarch's strength.Inthedesertandsemiarid regionsoftheNearEastthiscontrolofirrigationwaterswasprobablyonesourceofthe conceptionofagodwhohad"created"theearthandpersonoutof"nothing"andnot conceivedthem,aswasbelievedelsewhere.Anirrigationeconomyofthiskindactually didproduceaharvestoutofnothing,fromthedesertsands.Themonarchevencreated orderbylawandrationalcodification,adevelopmenttheworldexperiencedthefirsttime inMesopotamia.Itseemsquitereasonable,therefore,thatasaresultofsuchexperiences theorderingoftheworldshouldbeconceivedasthelawofafreelyacting,transcendental andpersonalgod. ThefactoraccountingforthedevelopmentintheNearEastofaworldorderthatreflected theoperationofapersonalgodwastherelativeabsenceofthosedistinctivestratawho werethebearersoftheHinduandChineseethics,andwhocreatedthe"godless"religious ethicsfoundinthosecountries.Tobesure,inEgypt,Pharaohhimselfwasoriginallya god,andPharaohAkhenatonattemptedtoestablishanastralmonotheismagainstthe invinciblepowerofthepriesthood,whichhadbythensystematizedpopularanimism.In Mesopotamiathedevelopmentofmonotheismanddemagogicprophecywasopposedby theancientpantheon,whichwaspoliticallyorganizedandhadbeensystematizedbythe priests;suchadevelopmentwas,furthermore,limitedbythefirmorderofthestate.The kingdomofthePharaohsandofMesopotamiamadeanevenmorepowerfulimpression upontheIsraelitesthanthegreatPersianmonarchupontheGreekkingdom(basileus). [36]TheIsraeliteshadgainedtheirfreedomfromthe"houseofbondage"oftheearthly Pharaohonlybecauseadivinekinghadcometotheirassistance.Indeed,theirsubsequent establishmentofaworldlymonarchywasexpresslydeclaredtobeadefectionfrom Yahweh,therealrulerofthepeople.Hebrewprophecywascompletelyorientedtoa relationshipwiththegreatpoliticalpowersofthetime,theGreatKings,whoastherods ofGod' swrathfirstdestroyIsraelandthen,asaconsequenceofdivineintervention, permitIsraelitestoreturnfromtheExiletotheirownland.InthecaseofZoroastertooit seemsthattherangeofhisvisionwasorientedtotheviewsofthecivilizedlandsofthe West. Thus,thedistinctivecharacteroftheearliestprophecy,inbothitsdualisticand monotheistictypes,seemstohavebeendetermineddecisivelyasidefromtheoperation ofcertainotherconcretehistoricalinfluencesbythepressureofrelativelycontiguous greatcentersofhighlycontrolledsocialorganizationuponlessdevelopedneighboring peoples.Thelattertendedtoseeintheirowncontinuousperilfromthepitilessbellicosity ofterriblenationstheangerandgraceofaheavenlyking. (C.2.c)PropheticRevelation

Regardlessofwhetheraprophetispredominantlyethicalorexemplaryincharacter, propheticrevelationalwayssignifiesforboththeprophethimselfandforhisfollowers thisisalsoacommonelementtobothtypesaunifiedviewofthelifeattainedbya consciouslyintegratedmeaningfulattitudetowardlife.Totheprophet,bothhumanlife andtheworld,bothsocialandcosmicevents,haveacertainsystematicandunified "meaning,"towhichthehumanbehaviormustbeoriented,ifitistobringsalvation,and afterwhichtherelationofbehaviormustbeintegrated.Nowthecontentsofthis "meaning"mayhavevaried,anditmayweldtogethervarioussubjectsthatarelogically quiteheterogeneous.Thewholeconceptionisdominated,notbylogicalconsistency,but bypracticalvalues.Yetitalwayssignifies,regardlessofanyvariationsinscopeandin measureofsuccess,anefforttosystematizealltheaspectsoflife;thatis,tosystematize practicalbehaviorintoanconductoflife,regardlessoftheconditionsitmayassumein anyindividualcase.Moreover,thismeaningalwayscontainstheimportantreligious conceptionoftheworldasa"cosmos,"whichpostulatesthattheworldissomehowa "meaningful,"orderedtotality,theparticularmanifestationsofwhicharetobemeasured andevaluatedaccordingtothispostulate. Theconflictbetweenempiricalrealityandthisconceptionoftheworldasameaningful totality,whichisbasedonthereligiouspostulate,producesthestrongesttensionsinthe innerconductoflifeaswellasinhisexternalrelationshiptotheworld.Tobesure,this problemisbynomeansdealtwithbyprophecyalone.Bothpriestlywisdomandsecular philosophy,theintellectualistaswellasthepopularvarieties,aresomehowconcerned withit.Theultimatequestionofallmetaphysicshasalwaysbeensomethinglikethis:if theworldasawholeandlifeinparticularweretohavea"meaning,"whatmightitbe, andhowwouldtheworldhavetolookinordertocorrespondtoitThereligiousquestion ofprophetsandpriestsisthewombfromwhichnonreligiousphilosophyemanated, whereitdevelopedatall.Subsequently,suchsecularphilosophywasaveryimportant componentofreligiousdevelopment.Hence,wemustnowexaminemorecloselythe mutualrelationshipsofpriests,prophets,andnonpriests. (D)RELIGIOUSCOMMUNITY (D.1)OriginsOfReligiousCommunity (D.1.a)PropheticCommunity Ifhisprophecyissuccessful,theprophetsucceedsinwinningenduringhelpers.These maybeapostle(theGathasofZoroaster),[37]disciples(theOldTestamentandHindu), comrades(HinduandIslamic)orfollowers(IsaiahandtheNewTestament).Inallcases

theyarepersonaldevoteesoftheprophet,incontrasttopriestsandsoothsayerswhoare organizedintoguildsorofficehierarchies.Weshalldiscussfurtherthisrelationshipin ouranalysisofthetypesofrulership.[38]Moreover,inadditiontotheseenduring helpers,whoareactivecoworkerswiththeprophetinhismissionandwhogenerally alsopossesssomespecialcharismaticqualifications,thereisacircleofdevoteeswho supporttheprophetwithlodging,money,andservicesandwhoexpecttoattaintheir salvationthroughhismission.Thesemayengageinoccasionalsocialactionorbeobliged tocontinuoussocialrelationshipinacommunity. A"community"inthespecificallyreligioussense(forthistermisalsoemployedtothe neighborhoodthathasbeenengagedforeconomicorforfiscalorotherpolitical purposes)doesnotarisesolelyinconnectionwithprophecyintheparticularsenseused here.Nordoesitariseinconnectionwitheverytypeofprophecy.Primarily,however,a religiouscommunityarisesasaresultofroutinizationofapropheticmovement,namely, asaresultoftheprocesswherebyeithertheprophethimselforhisdisciplessecurethe permanenceofitspreachingandthedispensationofgrace.Hencetheyinsurealsothe economicexistenceoftheenterpriseanditsstaff,andtherebymonopolizeitsprivilegeof graceandchargeforitspreservation. (D.1.b)CulticCommunity Acommunityisalsoformedbymysterycultistsandpriestsofnonpropheticreligions. Forthemysterycultist,indeed,thepresenceofacommunityisanusualphenomenon. Themagician,incontrast,engagesitsvocationindependentlyorasamemberofaguild, andservesaparticularneighborhoodorpoliticalband,notaspecificreligious community.Theculticcommunity,forexampletheEleusinianmysteries,generally remainsanopenrelationshipwithchangingmembership.Whoeverisadirectneedof salvationwouldenterintoasocialrelationship,generallytemporary,withthemystery cultistanditsassistants.ItisalwaysaninterlocalcommunityastheEleusinianmysteries was. (D.1.c)ExemplaryCommunityandLayDevotee Thesituationisquitedifferentinthecaseofexemplaryprophetswhodemonstratethe wayofsalvationbytheirpersonalexample.Onlythosewhounconditionallyfollowthe example,forinstance,themendicantmonksofMahaviraandtheBuddha,belongtoa narrower"exemplarycommunity."Withinthisnarrowercommunitythedisciples,who maystillbepersonallytiedwiththeprophet,exertparticularauthority.Outsideofthe exemplarycommunity,however,therearepiousdevotees(forexample,theUpasakasof

India)whodonotgothewholewayofsalvationforthemselves,butseektogaina relativeoptimumofsalvationbyrelatingtheirdevotiontotheexemplarysavior.These devoteeseitherlackaltogetheranycontinuingcommunalrelationship,aswasoriginally thecasewiththeBuddhistUpasakas,ortheyareformedtosomesocialrelationshipwith fixedrulesandobligations.Thisregularlyhappenswhenpriests,religiouscounselors,or mysterycultistsliketheBuddhistpriest(bonze)whowasseparatedoutfromthe exemplarycommunityandentrustedwithculticobligations(whichdidnotexistinthe earlieststagesofBuddhism).ButthesocialrelationshipofBuddhistdevoteesremaineda voluntaryoccasionalsociety,whichisalsotheruleofdevoteesforthemajorityof mysterycultistsandexemplaryprophetsaswellasthetemplepriesthoodsofparticular deitiesinthepantheon. (D.1.d)OccasionalLaySociety Theeconomicexistenceofmysterycultists,exemplaryprophetsandtemplepriesthoods issustainedbyendowments,sacrificialofferingsandothergiftsprovidedbypersonsin religiousneeds.Atthisstagethereisstillnotraceofanenduringcommunityof laypersonsandourpresentconceptionsofmembershipinareligiouscongregationarenot applicable.AdevoteeofagodisanindividualinthesamesenseasanItaliandevoteeof aparticularsaint.[39]Apartfromthosewhocontinuouslyparticipateinthecultofagod andpossiblyanarrowcirclehavinganenduringinterestinit,allthatwehaveatthis stageareonlyoccasionallay"followers,"orifonewantstouseamodernpolitical expression,"unorganizedsupporters." (D.1.e)LayCommunity Naturally,thisconditiondoesnotsatisfytheinterestsofcult' sproviders,ifonlybecause ofpurelyeconomicconsiderations.Consequently,theyendeavortocreateregular devoteesandalsoanenduringsocialrelationshipoflaypersonswithfixedrightsand duties.Suchatransformationfromanoccasionalsocialrelationshiptoanenduring communityistheusualprocessbywhichtheteachingoftheprophetsentersinto everydaylife,asthefunctionofanenduringinstitution.Thedisciplesorfollowersofthe prophetsthereuponbecomemysterycultists,teachers,priestsorpastors(oracombination ofthemall),servingtoexclusivelyreligiouspurposes,namely,tothelaycommunity. Butthesameresultcanbereachedfromotherstartingpoints.Wehaveseenthatthe priestsemergedfromthefunctionaryofmagicianstopriesthoodproper.Thepriestswere originatedeitherfromritualistfamilies,ordomesticandcourtritualistoflandlordsand princes.Or,theywereemergedfromoccasionalperformersofsacrificialcultwithina

statusorganizationwhereindividualsorbandsappliedtothesepriestsforassistanceas theneedarose,butfortheresttheycouldengageinanyoccupationexceptdishonorable onetotheirstatus.Or,finally,thepriestsmayattachetoparticularbands,vocationalor otherwise,andespeciallytoapoliticalband.Butinallthesecasesthereisnogenuine "community"whichisseparatefromallotherbands. Suchacommunitymayarisewhenaclanofsacrificingpriestssucceedsinorganizingthe particularfollowersoftheirgodintoanexclusivecommunity.Or,moreusualway,a religiouscommunityarisesasaconsequenceofthedestructionofapoliticalband, whereverthereligiousadherentsoftheband's godanditspriestscontinueasocial relationship.ThefirsttypeisfoundinIndiaandtheNearEast,whereitisconnected,in numerousintermediategradations,withthetransitionofmysterycultistsandexemplary prophecyorofreligiousreformmovementsintoanenduringorganizationof communities.ManysmallHindudenominationsdevelopedasaresultofsuchprocesses. Bycontrast,thesecondtype,fromthepriestsservingapoliticalbandintoareligious communitywasassociatedprimarilywiththeriseofthegreatworldempiresoftheNear East,especiallyPersia.Politicalbandswereannihilatedandthepopulationdisarmed; theirpriesthoods,however,wereguaranteedtheirpositionsforcertainpoliticalpurposes. Thereligiouscommunitywasutilizedasavaluableinstrumentforthedomesticationthe conquered,justasthecompulsorycommunityoftheneighborhoodwasusedforthe securingoffinancialinterests.Thus,bydecreesofthePersiankingsfromCyrusto Artaxerxes,Judaismevolvedintoareligiouscommunityunderroyalprotection,witha theocraticcenterinJerusalem.APersianvictoryagainstGreekcitystateswouldhave broughtsimilarchancesandopportunitiestotheDelphicApolloandtothepriestly familiesservicingothergods,andpossiblyalsototheOrphicprophets.InEgypt,afterthe declineofpoliticalindependence,thenationalpriesthooddevelopedasortof"church" organization,apparentlythefirstofitskind,withsynods.Ontheotherhand,religious communitiesinIndiaaroseinthemorelimitedsenseasexemplarycommunities.There, becauseofthemultiplicityoftemporarypoliticalformation,firstthestatusunityofthe Brahminsandofasceticregulationpenetrated.Asaconsequence,salvationalethic emergedandspreadoverallpoliticalboundaries.InIran,theZoroastrianpriests succeededduringthecourseofthecenturiesinpropagandizingaclosedreligious organizationwhichundertheSassanidsbecameapolitical"confessionalcommunity," [40]derivedfromtherelationshipsbetweenpoliticalpowerandreligiouscommunity. [41]Atthispointitsufficestonotethatcommunalreligionisaphenomenonofdiverse manifestationsandgreatfluidity.Wewanttousethetermlaycommunityonlywhenthe laypersonshavebeenorientedtoenduringsocialrelationshipandactivelyparticipate. (D.1.f)ParishandSect

Amereadministrativeunitwhichlimitsthejurisdictionofpriestsisa"parish"butnotyet acommunity.Buteventheconceptofaparish,asagroupingdifferentfromthesecular, political,oreconomiccommunity,ismissinginthereligionsofChinaandancientIndia. Again,theGreekandotherancientphratriesandsimilarculticcommunitieswerenot parishes,butpoliticalorothertypesofcommunitywhoseactionsstoodunderthe guardianshipofsomegod.AsfortheparishofancientBuddhism,moreover,thiswas onlyadistrictinwhichtemporarilyresidentmendicantmonkswererequiredto participateinthesemimonthlygathering. InmedievalChristianityintheOccident,inpostReformationLutheranismand Anglicanism,andinbothChristianityandIslamintheNearEast,theparishwas essentiallyapassivechurchtaxunitandthejurisdictionaldistrictofapriest.Inthese religionsthelaypersonsgenerallylackedcompletelythecharacterofacommunity.Tobe sure,smalltracesofcommunalrightshavebeenretainedincertainOrientalchurchesand havealsobeenfoundinOccidentalCatholicismandLutheranism. Ontheotherhand,ancientBuddhistmonasticism,likethewarriorsofancientIslam,and likeJudaismandancientChristianity,hadreligiouscommunitieswithvaryingdegreesof socialrelationships.Furthermore,acertainactualinfluenceofthelaitymaybecombined withtheabsenceofaregularcommunalorganization.Anexampleofthiswouldbe Islam,wherethelaitywieldsconsiderablepower,particularlyintheShiite,eventhough thisisnotlegallysecure;theShah,thesecualrruleroftheIranmonachy,usuallywould notappointpriestswithoutbeingcertainoftheconsentofthelocallaity. Ontheotherhand,itisthedistinctivecharacteristicofevery"sect,"inthetechnicalsense oftheterm,asubjectweshallconsiderlater,[42]thatitisbasedonarestrictedsocial relationshipofindividuallocalassociations.Fromthisprinciple,whichisrepresentedin ProtestantismbytheBaptistsandIndependents,andlaterbytheCongregationalists,a gradualtransitionleadstothetypicalorganizationoftheReformedChurch.Evenwhere thelatterhasbecomeauniversalorganization,itneverthelessmakesmembership conditionaluponacontractualentryintosomeparticularassociation.Weshallreturn latertosomeoftheproblemswhicharisefromthesediversities. (D.2)DevelopmentOfReligiousCommunity Atthemoment,weareparticularlyinterestedinjustoneconsequenceofthegenerallyso veryimportantdevelopmentofgenuinecommunalreligiosity.Thatistherelationship betweenpriesthoodandlaitywithinthecommunitybecomesofcrucialsignificancefor thepracticaleffectofthereligiosity.Astheorganizationassumesthespecificcharacterof

acommunity,theverypowerfulpositionofthepriestisincreasinglyconfrontedwiththe needsofthelaity,intheinterestofmaintainingandenlargingthemembershipofthe community.Actually,everytypeofpriesthoodistosomeextentinasimilarposition.In ordertomaintainitsownpower,thepriesthoodmustfrequentlymeettheneedsofthe laityinaveryconsiderabledegree.Thethreeforcesofthelaitywithwhichthepriesthood mustconfrontare(a)prophecy,(b)thetraditionalismofthelaity,and(c)lay intellectualism.Incontrasttotheseforces,anotherdecisiveforceherederivesfromthe necessitiesandtendenciesofthepriestlyenterpriseassuch.Wefirstdiscusstheforceof priestinrelationtothatofprophecy. (D.2.a)Prophetvs.Priest Asarule,theethicalandexemplaryprophetisalayperson,anditspowerposition dependsonthelayfollowers.Everyprophecybyitsverynaturedevaluesthemagical elementsofthepriestlyenterprise,butinverydifferentdegrees.TheBuddhaandhis contemporaries,aswellastheprophetsofIsrael,notonlyrejectedtobelongtothe magicianandsoothsayers(whoarealsocalled"prophets"intheIsraelitesources),but alsoscornedallmagicasuseless.Onlyadistinctivelyreligiousandmeaningful relationshiptotheeternalcanbringsalvation.AmongtheBuddhistsitwasregardedasa mortalsintoboastvainlyofmagicalcapacities;yettheexistenceofthelatteramongthe unfaithfulwasneverdeniedbytheprophetsofeitherIndiaorIsrael,nordeniedbythe ChristianapostlesortheancientChristiantradition.Allprophets,asaresultoftheir rejectionofmagic,werenaturallyskepticalofthepriestlyenterprise,thoughinvarying degreesandattitudes.ThegodoftheIsraeliteprophetsrequiresnotburntofferings,but obediencetohiscommandments.TheBuddhistsalvationcannotbereachedbymerely Vedicknowledgeandritual.Theancientsomaofferingwasrepresentedintheoldest GathasasanabominationtoAhuramazda.[43] Thus,tensionsbetweentheprophets,theirlayfollowersandtherepresentativesofthe priestlytraditionexistedeverywhere.Towhatdegreetheprophetwouldsucceedin fulfillinghismission,orwouldbecomeamartyr,dependedonthepowersituation,which insomeinstances,forexample,inIsrael,wasdeterminedbytheinternationalsituation. Apartfromhisownfamily,Zoroasterdependedontheclansofthenoblesandprincesfor supportinhisstruggleagainstthenamelesscounterprophet;thiswasalsothecasein IndiaandwithMuhammad.Ontheotherhand,theIsraeliteprophetsdependedonthe supportoftheurbanandruralmiddlestatus.Allofthem,however,madeuseofthe prestigeoftheirpropheticcharisma,asopposedtothetechniciansoftheroutinecults, andhadgainedauthorityamongthelaity.Theauthorityofanewrevelationopposedthat oftradition;anddependingonthesuccessofthepropagandabyeachside,thepriesthood mightcompromisewiththenewprophecy,transformitsteaching,oreliminateit,unless itwereeliminated.

(D.2.b)Scripture Inanycase,thepriesthoodhadthetaskofcodifyingeitherthevictoriousnewteachingor theoldteachingwhichhadmaintaineditselfdespiteoftheattackoftheprophets.The priesthoodhadtomakethelimitofwhatmustandmustnotberegardedassacredand hadtoimpressitsviewsonthebeliefofthelaity,ifitwastosecureitsownrulership.Yet thepriesthoodwasnotalwaysintheimmediatedangerofthedirectattackofantipriestly prophets,asforexampleinIndia,wherethepriesthooddevelopedveryearly.Theinterest ofthepriesthoodinsecuringitsownpositionagainstpossibleattack,andthenecessityof insuringthetraditionalpracticeagainstthescepticismofthelaitymightproducesimilar results.Whereverthisdevelopmenttookplaceitproducedtwophenomena,namely, canonicalwritingsanddogmas,bothofwhichmightbeofverydifferentscope, particularlythelatter.Canonicalscripturescontaintherevelationsandtraditions themselves,whereasdogmasarepriestlyinterpretationsoftheirmeaning. (D.2.b.1)OralTradition Thecollectionofthepropheticreligiousrevelationsor,intheothercase,ofthe traditionallytransmittedsacredlore,maytakeplaceintheformoforaltradition. ThroughoutmanycenturiesthesacredknowledgeoftheBrahminswastransmitted orally,andsettingitdowninwritingwasactuallyprohibited.Thisofcourseleftan enduringmarkontheliteraryformofthisknowledgeandalsoaccountsforthe considerablediscrepanciesinthetextsofindividualschools(shakhas),thereasonbeing thatthisknowledgewasmeanttobepossessedonlybyqualifiedpersons,namelythe bornagain.Totransmitsuchknowledgetoanyonewhohadnotexperiencedtherebirth andwasexcludedfromhiscaste(shudra)wasaoutrageoussin.Thischaracterofsecret knowledgewasafterallthemagicaldoctrineofcult,originally,toprotectthe professionalinterestoftheguild. Buttherearealsoaspectsofthismagicalknowledgewhicheverywherebecomethe objectforthesystematicinstructionofthemembersofthesocietyatlarge.Therootof theoldestandmostuniversallydiffusedmagicalsystemofeducationistheanimistic notionthatjustasthemagicianhimselfrequiresrebirthandthepossessionofanewsoul forhisart,soheroismrestsonacharismawhichmustbearoused,tested,andprovedinto theherobymagicalmanipulations.Inthisway,therefore,thewarriorisreborninto heroism.Charismaticeducationinthissense,withitsnovitiates,trialsofcourage, tortures,gradationsofholinessandhonor,initiationofyouths,andpreparationforbattle, isanalmostuniversalinstitutionofallwarriorsocieties.

Whentheguildofmagiciansfinallydevelopsintothepriesthood,thisextremely importantfunctionofeducatingthelaitydoesnotcease,andthepriesthoodalways concernsitselfwithmaintainingthisfunction.Moreandmore,secretlorerecedesandthe priestlyteachingbecomesascripturallyestablishedtraditionwhichthepriesthood interpretsbymeansofdogmas.Suchascripturalreligionsubsequentlybecomesthebasis ofasystemofeducation,notonlyfortheprofessionalmembersofthepriesthood,but alsoforthelaity,indeedespeciallyforthelaity. (D.2.b.2)Canonization Most,thoughnotall,canonicalsacredcollectionsbecameofficiallyestablishedagainst secularorreligiouslyoffensiveaugmentationsasaconsequenceofastrugglebetween variouscompetinggroupsandpropheciesforthecontrolofthecommunity.Wherever suchastruggledidnotoccurorwhereveritdidnotthreatenthecontentofthetradition, theformalcanonizationofthescripturestookplaceveryslowly.ThecanonoftheJewish scriptureswasnotfixeduntiltheyear90AD,shortlyafterthedestructionofthe theocraticstate,whenitwasfixedbytheCouncilofJamniaperhapsasadamagainst apocalypticprophecies,andeventhenthecanonwasestablishedonlyinprinciple.The Vediccanonwasobviouslyestablishedinoppositiontointellectualheterodoxy.The Christiancanonwasformalizedbecauseofthethreattothepietyofthepettycitizen massesfromtheintellectualsalvationdoctrineoftheGnosticism.Incontrast,thedoctrine oftheintellectualsalvationofancientBuddhismwascanonizedinthePaliasaresultof thedangerposedbythemissionizingmasssalvationreligionoftheMahayana.The classicalwritingsofConfucianism,likethepriestlybookofEzra,wereimposedby politicalpower.Forthisreason,theformerneverbecamesacred,andonlyatalatestage didthelattertakeontheauthenticsacredness,whichisalwaystheresultofpriestly activity.OnlytheKoranunderwentimmediateediting,bycommandoftheCaliph,and becamesacredatonce,becausethesemiliterateMuhammadheldthattheexistenceofa holybookautomaticallycarrieswithitthemarkofprestigeforareligion.Thisviewof prestigewasrelatedtowidelydiffusednotionsconcerningthetabooqualityandthe magicalsignificanceofscripturaldocuments.Longbeforetheestablishmentofthe biblicalcanon,itwasheldthattotouchthePentateuchandtheauthenticprophetic writings"renderedthehandsunclean." Thedetailsofthisprocessandthescopeofthewritingsthatweretakenintothecanonical sacredscripturesdonotconcernushere.Itwasduetothemagicalstatusofsacredbards thattherewereadmittedintotheVedasnotonlytheheroicepicsbutalsosarcasticpoems abouttheintoxicatedIndra,aswellasotherpoetryofeveryconceivablecontent. Similarly,alovepoemandvariouspersonaldetailsinvolvedwiththeprophetic utteranceswerereceivedintotheOldTestamentcanon.Finally,theNewTestament

includedapurelypersonalletterofPaul;andtheKoranfoundroominanumberof chapters(suras)forrecordsofalltoohumanfamilyvexationsinthelifeofitsprophet. Theclosingofthecanonwasgenerallyaccountedforbythetheorythatonlyacertain epochinthepasthistoryofthereligionhadbeenblessedwithpropheticcharisma. AccordingtothetheoryoftherabbisthiswastheperiodfromMosestoAlexander,while fromtheRomanCatholicpointofviewtheperiodwastheApostolicAge.Onthewhole, thesetheoriescorrectlyexpressconsciousnessofthecontrasteddirectionbetween propheticandpriestlysystematization.Prophetssystematizedtherelationshipofhuman totheworldfromtheviewpointofultimateandintegratedvalueposition.Ontheother hand,priestssystematizedthecontentofprophecyorofthesacredtraditionsfromthe viewpointofrationalcasuistryandworldlyadaptationaccordingtothemodeofthinking andcustomoftheirownstratumandofthelaitywhomtheycontrolled. (D.2.b.3)PriestlyEducation Thedevelopmentofascripturalreligion,eitherascompletelysacredcanonorasan authoritativetextofasacrednormliketheEgyptianBookoftheDead,haspractical importanceforthedevelopmentofpriestlyeducationfromthemostancientcharismatic stagetotheperiodofliteraryschooling.Asliteracybecomesmoreimportantforthe conductofpurelysecularaffairs,whichthereforeassumethecharacterofbureaucratic administrationandproceedaccordingtoregulationsanddocuments,theeducationof evensecularofficialsandintellectualspassesintothehandsofliteratepriests,whomay alsodirectlyoccupyofficesthefunctionsofwhichinvolvetheuseofwriting,asinthe chancelleriesoftheMiddleAges.Towhatdegreeoneortheotheroftheseprocesses takesplacedependsalso,apartfromthedegreetowhichtheadministrationhasbecome bureaucratized,onthedegreetowhichotherstrata,principallythewarriornobles,have developedtheirownsystemofeducationandhavetakenitintotheirownhands.Lateron wemustdiscusstheseparationofeducationalsystemsfrompriestlyfunctionarywhich mayresultfromthisprocess.[44]Wemustalsoconsiderthetotalsuppressionornon developmentofapurelypriestlysystemofeducation,whichmayresultfromthe weaknessofthepriestsorfromtheabsenceofeitherprophecyorscripturalreligion. (D.2.c)DevelopmentofDogma (D.2.c.1)ReligiousCommunity

Theestablishmentofareligiouscommunityprovidesthestrongeststimulus,thoughnot theonlyone,forthedevelopmentofthepriestlydoctrine,anditcreatesthespecific importanceofdogmas.Onceareligiouscommunityhasbecomeestablisheditneedsa specificdoctrinedistinguishingitselffromothercompetingdoctrinesandtomaintainits superiorityinpropaganda,allofwhichtendstoplacetheemphasisupondifferential doctrine.Tobesure,thisprocessofdifferentiationmaybeconsiderablystrengthenedby nonreligiousmotivations.Forexample,Charlemagneinsisted,fortheFrankishchurch, onthedoctrineof"AndfromtheSon"(filioque),whichcausedtheschismbetweenthe EasternandWesternChristianchurches.This,andhisrejectionofthecanonfavorableto theicons,hadpoliticalgrounds,beingdirectedagainstthesupremacyoftheByzantine church.Adherencetocompletelyincomprehensibledogmas,liketheadoptionofthe MonophysitedoctrinebygreatmassesofpeopleintheOrientandinEgypt,wasthe expressionofanantiimperialandantiHellenicseparatistnationalism.Similarly,the monophysiticCopticchurchlaterpreferredtheArabstotheEastRomansasoverlords. Suchtrendsoccurredfrequently. (D.2.c.2)Priest' sInterests Butthegreatestreasoninpushingdistinctiveanddifferentialdoctrinestotheforeground wasthestrugglesofpriestsagainstindifferenceofthelaity,whichtheyseriouslyhate, andagainstthedangerthatthemembershipwouldstagnate.Anotherfactorwasemphasis ontheimportanceofmembershipinaparticulardenominationandthepriests'de sireto makedifficultthetransferenceofmembershiptoanotherdenomination.Thehistorical precedentwasprovidedbythetattoomarkingsoffellowmembersofatotemisticor warriorbands.Closesttototemictattoo,atleastexternally,wasthedifferentialbody paintingoftheHindusects.TheJewishretentionofcircumcisionandoftheSabbath taboowasalsointended,asisrepeatedlyindicatedintheOldTestament,[45]toeffect separationfromothernations,anditindeedproducedsuchaneffecttoanextraordinary degree. AsharpdifferentiationofChristianityfromJudaismwasproducedbytheChristian choiceofthedayofthesungodasadayofrest,althoughthischoicemightpossiblybe accountedforbytheChristianreceptionofthesalvationalmythosofmysticcultsofNear Easternsolarreligion.Muhammad'sc hoiceofFridayforweeklyreligiousserviceswas probablymotivatedprimarilybyhisdesiretosegregatehisfollowersfromtheJews,after hismissionaryeffortamongthemhadfailed.Buthisabsoluteprohibitionofwinehadtoo manyanalogieswithcomparableancientandcontemporaryphenomena,forexample, amongtheRechabitesandNazirites,tohavebeendeterminednecessarilybyhisdesireto erectadamagainstChristianpriests,whoareundertheobligationtotakewineatthe HolyCommunion(Eucharist).

(D.2.c.3)ConditionsinWorldReligions InIndiadifferentialdogmascorrespondingtoexemplaryprophecyhadgenerallyamore practicalethicalcharacter,whilethosehavinganaffinitytomysticcultweremore ritualistic.ThenotorioustenpointswhichproducedthegreatschismofBuddhismatthe CouncilofVesaliinvolvedmerequestionsofmonasticregulations,includingmany publicdetailswhichwereemphasizedonlyforthepurposeofestablishingtheseparation oftheMahayanacircles. Asiaticreligions,ontheotherhand,knewpracticallynothingofdogmaasameansof differentiation.Tobesure,theBuddhastatedhisfourfoldtruthconcerningthegreat illusionsasthebasisforthepracticalsalvationteachingofthenobleeightfoldpath.But thoseteachingwasthegoalofsalvationbywork,andnotthedogmaintheOccidental sense.ThiswasalsothecasewiththemajorityofancientHinduprophecies. IntheChristiancommunityoneoftheveryfirstbindingdogmas,characteristically,was God'sc reationoftheworldoutofnothing,andconsequentlytheestablishmentofa transcendentalgodagainstthegnosticspeculationoftheintellectuals.InIndia,onthe otherhand,cosmologicalandothermetaphysicalspeculationsremainedtheconcernof philosophicalschools,whichwerealwayspermittedaverywiderangeoflatitudein regardtoorthodoxy,thoughnotwithoutsomelimitations.InChinatheConfucianethic completelyrejectedallrelationstometaphysicaldogmaonlyforthereasonthatmagic andbeliefinspiritshadtoremainuntouchedintheinterestofmaintainingthecultof ancestors,whichwasthefoundationofpatrimonialbureaucraticobedience(asexpressly statedinthetradition). Evenwithinethicalprophetsandtheircommunalreligion,therewasawidediversityin thescopeofproliferationofgenuinedogmas.AncientIslamcontenteditselfwith confessionsofloyaltytogodandtotheprophet,togetherwithafewpracticalandritual commandments,asthebasisofmembership.Butdogmaticdistinctions,bothpractical andtheoretical,becamemorecomprehensiveaspriests,teachers,andeventhe communityitselfbecamebearersofthereligion.ThisholdsforthelaterZoroastrians, Jews,andChristians.ButgenuinelydogmaticcontroversycouldariseinancientIsraelor Islamonlyinexceptionalcases,sinceboththesereligionswerecharacterizedbya simplicityofdoctrine.Inbothreligionsthemainareaofdisputeisonlythedoctrineof grace,thoughthereweresubsidiarydisputesaboutethicalpracticeandaboutritualand legalquestions.ThisiseventruerofZoroastrianism. (D.2.c.4)ChristianDogma

OnlyamongtheChristiansdidtheredevelopacomprehensive,bindingand systematicallyrationalizeddogmaticsofatheoreticaltypeconcerningcosmological matters,thesalvationalmythos(Christology),andpriestlyauthorityofthesacraments. ThisChristiandogmaticsdevelopedfirstintheHellenisticportionoftheRomanempire, butintheMiddleAgesthemajorelaborationsoccurredintheOccident.Ingeneral, theologicaldevelopmentwasfarstrongerintheWesternthanintheEasternchurches,but inbothregionsthemaximumdevelopmentoftheologyoccurredwhereverapowerful organizationofpriestspossessedthegreatestmeasureofindependencefrompolitical authorities. ThisChristianpreoccupationwiththeformulationofdogmaswasinAntiquity particularlyinfluencedbythedistinctivelyintellectualcharacterofGreekeducation;by thespecialmetaphysicalpostulatesandtensionsproducedbythecultofChrist;bythe necessityoftakingissuewiththeeducatedstratumwhichatfirstremainedoutsidethe Christiancommunity;andbytheancientChristianchurch's hostilitytopure intellectualism(whichstandsinsuchcontrasttothepositiontakenbytheAsiatic religions).Socially,Christianitywasacommunalreligioncomprisingprimarily laypersonsfromthepettycitizen,wholookedwithconsiderablesuspicionuponpure intellectualism,atendencywhichthebishopshadtotakeintoconsideration.Inthe EasternChurch,nonHellenicpettycitizenrycirclesincreasinglysuppliedChristian monks;theyrejectedHelleniccultureintheEastandbroughttoanendtherational constructionofdogmathere. Inaddition,theformoforganizationofthereligiouscommunitieswasanimportant determinant.InancientBuddhism,thecompleteandpurposefulabsenceofall hierarchicalorganizationwouldhavedeterredanyacceptanceofrationaldogmaticssuch asdevelopedinChristianity,evenofthedoctrineofsalvation,whichwouldhaveneeded suchdogma.Christianityfounditnecessarytopostulatesomepowerabletomake decisionsconcerningtheorthodoxyofdoctrine,inordertoprotecttheunityofthe communityagainsttheintellectualactivityofpriestsandagainstthecompetinglay rationalismwhichhadbeenarousedbypriestlyeducation.Theresultofalongprocessof development,thedetailsofwhichcannotbediscussedhere,wasthattheRomanchurch producedtheinfallibledoctrinalofficeofitsbishop,inthehopethatGodwouldnot permitthechurchoftheworldcapitaltofallintoerror.Onlyinthiscasedowefinda consistentdoctrinalsolution,whichassumestheauthorityofthedoctrinaloffice wheneveradecisionhastoberenderedconcerningteaching. (D.2.c.5)DogmainOtherReligions

Ontheotherhand,IslamandtheEasternchurch,forvariousreasonstobeexplained below,retainedastheirbasisfordeterminingthevalidityofdogmatictruthsonthe "consensus"oftheofficebearersofthechurchlydoctoralorganization,whowere primarilytheologiansorpriests.Islamarrivedatthispositionbyholdingfasttothe assuranceofitsprophetthatGodwouldneverpermitthecommunityofthefaithfultofall intoerror.TheEasternchurchfollowedinthisregardthemodeloftheearliestpracticeof theChristianchurch.Theneteffectofthiswastorestrictthedevelopmentofdogmain thesereligioustraditions.Bycontrast,theDalaiLamahaspoliticalpowersandcontrol overthechurch,buthehasnodoctrinalauthoritybecauseofthemagicalritualist characterofLamaism.AmongtheHindusthepowerofexcommunicationentrustedtothe guruswaslargelyemployedforpoliticalreasonsandonlyrarelyforthepunishmentof dogmaticdeviations. (D.2.d)PreachingandPastoralCare Theworkofthepriestsinsystematizingthesacreddoctrinewasconstantlydevelopedby thenewcomponentsoftheirprofessionalpractice,sodifferentfromthepracticeof magicians.Intheethicaltypeofcommunalreligionsomethingaltogethernewcomponent emerged,namelypreaching,andsomethingverydifferentinkindfrommagicalhelpin need,namelyrationalcareofsoul. Preaching,whichinthetruesenseofthewordiscollectiveinstructionconcerning religiousandethicalmatters,isnormallyspecifictoprophecyandpropheticreligion. Indeed,whereveritarisesapartfromthese,itisanimitationofthem.Butasarule, preachingdeclinesinimportancewheneverarevelationreligionhasbeentransformed intoapriestlyenterprisebyroutinization,andtheimportanceofpreachingstandsin inverseproportiontothemagicalcomponentsofareligion.Buddhismoriginally consistedentirelyofpreaching,sofarasthelaitywasconcerned.InChristianitythe importanceofpreachinghasbeenproportionaltotheeliminationofthemagicaland sacramentalcomponentsofthereligion.Consequently,preachingachievesthegreatest significanceinProtestantism,inwhichtheconceptofthepriesthasbeenreplaced altogetherbythatofthepreacher. Pastoralcareistherationalizedandsystematizedformofthecareofsoul,thereligious consultationoftheindividual.Itisaproductofpropheticallyrevealedreligion;andithas itsoriginintheoracleandconsultationofmagician,whocaredthesouloftheindividual. Themagicianisconsultedforthequestionofanindividual:bywhichmeansthe aggressivespirit,demon,orgodmaybepacifiedwhensicknessorotherdistressofthe individual' slifeisbelievedastheresultofmagicaltransgression?Thisisalsothesource ofthe"confessional,"whichoriginallyhadnoconnectionwith"ethical"developmentof

theconductoflife.Theconnectionbetweenconfessionandethicalconductoflifewas firstbroughtbyethicalreligion,particularlybyprophecy.Pastoralcaremaylaterassume diverseforms.Aslongasitisacharismaticdispensationofgrace,itstandsinaclose innerrelationshiptomagicalmanipulations.Butcareofsoulmayalsoinvolvepersonal instructionregardingconcretereligiousobligationswhenevercertaindoubtshavearisen. Finally,pastoralcaremayinsomesensestandmidwaybetweencharismaticdispensation ofgraceandinstruction,entailingthedispensationofpersonalreligiousconsolationin timesofinnerorexternalneed. Preachingandpastoralcaredifferwidelyintheextentoftheirpracticalinfluenceonthe conductoflife.Preachingunfoldsitspowermoststronglyinperiodsofprophetic excitation.Intheroutinizationofdailyenterpriseitdeclinessharplytoanalmost completelackofinfluenceupontheconductoflife,fortheveryreasonthatthecharisma ofspeechisanindividualgift. Careofsoulinallitsformsisthepriests'rea linstrumentofpower,particularlyoverthe everydaylife,anditinfluencestheconductoflifemostpowerfullywhenreligionhas achievedanethicalcharacter.Infact,thepowerofethicalreligionoverthemasses parallelsthedevelopmentofthecareofsoul.Whereveranethicalreligionisnot developed,theprofessionaldivinersandmagicianwillbeconsultedforthecareofsoulin allthesituationsoflifebybothprivateindividualsandtheofficialpoliticalbands,for example,thereligionofChina.Caregiverofsoulwhohaveinfluencedontheeveryday lifeofthelaityandthepolicyofthepowerholdersinanenduringandoftendecisive manneraretherabbisofJudaism,thefatherconfessorsofCatholicism,thepastorsin Protestantism,thedirectorsofsoulsinCounterReformationCatholicism,theBrahminic purohitaatthecourt,thegurusinHinduism,andthemuftiandDervishsheikinIslam. (D.2.e)PriestlyRationalizationofEthic Asfortheconductoftheindividual' sprivatelife,thegreatestinfluenceofthecareofsoul wasexertedwhenthepriesthoodcombinedethicalcasuistrywitharationalizedsystemof churchlypenances.Thiswasaccomplishedinaremarkablyskillfulwaybythe Occidentalchurch,whichwasschooledinthecasuistryofRomanlaw.Itisprimarily thesepracticalnecessityofpreachingandthecareofsoulwhichmotivatedthepriesthood insystematizingthecasuistryofethicalcommandmentsandreligioustruths,andindeed firstcompelledthemtotakecareofthenumerousproblemswhichhadnotbeensettledin thepropheticrevelationitself.Consequently,preachingandthecareofsoulbroughtforth thesubstantiveroutinizationofpropheticdemandsintospecificprescriptionsofa casuistic,andhencemorerationalcharacter,incontrasttothepropheticethics.Butatthe sametimethisdevelopmentresultedinthelossoftheunifiedrelationshipwhichthe

prophethadcreatedintotheethictheorientationtothespecifically"meaningful" relationshiptoone's god.Theprophetconcentratesthequestionof,nottheexternal appearanceofasingleact,butthemeaningfulsignificanceoftheacttothetotalattitude towardthegod.Ontheotherhand,priestlypracticeisconcernedwithbothpositive prescriptionandacasuistryforthelaity.Forthisreasontheinnerethicofpriestlyreligion unavoidablyundergoesarecession. Itisevidentthatthepositive,substantiveinjunctionsofthepropheticethicandthe casuistictransformationthereofbythepriestsultimatelyderivedtheirmaterialfrom problemsofthecustoms,conventionsandeverydayneedswhichthelaitybroughttotheir pastoralofficeforanswer.Hence,themoreapriesthoodaimedtoregulatetheconductof lifeofthelaityinaccordancewiththewillofthegod,andespeciallytosecureitsstatus andincomebysodoing,themoreithadtocompromisewiththetraditionalviewsofthe laityinformulationofdoctrineandbehavior.Thiswasparticularlythecasewhenno greatpropheticpreachinghaddevelopedandoverthrownthemasses'attac hmentin magicallymotivatedtraditionalism. (D.2.f)MagicalizationofPriestlyReligion Asthemassesincreasinglybecametheobjectofthepriests' influenceandmaintenanceof theirpower,thepriestlysystematizationinvolvedmoreandmorewiththetraditional,and hencemagical,formsofreligiousnotionsandpractices.Thus,astheEgyptianpriesthood pressedtowardsgreaterpower,theanimisticcultofanimalswasincreasinglypushedinto thecenterofreligiousinteresteventhoughthesystematicrationaltrainingofthepriests hadgrowninearliertimes.AndsotooinIndia,therewasanincreasedsystematizationof thecultafterthedisplacementbytheBrahmins(hotar)ofthesacredcharismaticsinger fromfirstplaceinthesacrificialceremonial.TheAtharvaVedaismuchyoungerthanthe RigVedaasaliteraryproduct,andtheBrahmanasaremuchyoungerstill.Yetthe systematizedreligiousmaterialintheAtharvaVedaisofmucholderproveniencethan theritualsofthenobleVediccultsandtheothercomponentsoftheolderVedas;indeed, theAtharvaVedaisapurelymagicalritualtoafargreaterdegreethantheolderVedas. Theprocessofpopularizationandmagicalizationofpriestlysystematizedreligionwent evenfurtherintheBrahmanas.TheolderVediccultsareindeedcultsofthepropertied strata,[46]whereasthemagicalritualhadbeenthepossessionofthemassessinceancient times. (D.2.g)PopularizationofPropheticReligion

Asimilarprocessappearstohavetakenplaceinpropheticreligion.Incomparisonwith theprivilegedintellectualcontemplationofancientBuddhism,whichhadachievedthe highestconsistency,theMahayanaBuddhismwasessentiallyapopularizationthat increasinglytendedtoapproachpuremagicorsacramentalritualism.Asimilarfate overtooktheteachingsofZoroaster,LaoTzu,andtheHindureligiousreformers,andto someextenttheteachingsofMuhammadaswell,whentherespectivefaithsofthese foundersbecamereligionsoflaypersons.Thus,theAvestasanctionedthecultoftoxic orgy(haoma)perhapsmerelyomittingafewofthebacchanticelements,althoughithad beenexpresslyandstronglydenouncedbyZoroasterwithspecialpathos.Hinduism constantlywithagrowingtendencyslidoverintomagic,orinanycaseintoasemi magicalsacramentaldoctrineofsalvation.ThepropagandaofIslaminAfricarested primarilyonamassivefoundationofmagic,bymeansofwhichithascontinuedtooutbid othercompetingfaithsdespitetherejectionofmagicbyearliestIslam. Thisprocess,whichisusuallyinterpretedasa"decline"or"fossilization"ofprophecy,is practicallyunavoidable.Theprophethimselfisnormallyaselftaughtlaypreacherwhose aimistoreplaceofthetraditionalritualisticdispensationofthepriestlygracebythe systematizationofinnerethic.Thelayperson'sbe liefintheprophet,however,isgenerally basedonthedemonstrationthathepossessesacertaincharisma.Thisusuallymeansthat heisamagician,infactmuchgreaterandmorepowerfulthanothermagicians,and indeedthathepossessesunsurpassedpoweroverdemonsandevenoverdeathitself.It usuallymeansthathehasthepowertoraisethedead,andpossiblythathehimselfmay risefromthegrave.Inshort,heisabletodothingswhichothermagiciansareunableto accomplish.Itdoesnotmatterthattheprophetattemptstodenysuchimputedpowers,for afterhisdeaththisdevelopmentproceedswithoutandbeyondhim.Ifheistocontinueto liveoninsomemanneramonglargenumbersofthelaity,hemusthimselfbecomethe objectofacult,whichmeanshemustbecometheincarnationofagod.Ifthisdoesnot happen,theneedsofthelaityhastoatleasttransformtheprophet' steachingintothe accommodatedformfortheireverydaylifebyaprocessofselection. Thus,thesetwotypesofinfluences,namely,thepowerofpropheticcharismaandthe lastinghabitsofthemasses,affecttheworkofthepriestsintheirsystematization,though theirdirectionstendtoopposeoneanotheratmanypoints.Butevenapartfromthefact thatprophetspracticallyalwayscomeoutoflaycirclesorfindtheirsupportinthem,the laityisnotcomposedofexclusivelytraditionalisticpowers.Layrationalismisanother socialforceofwhichthepriesthoodmusttakeaccount.Differentsocialstratamaybethe bearersofthislayrationalism. (E)RELIGIOSITYOFSOCIALSTRATA

(E.1)Peasant Thelotofpeasantsissostronglytiedtonature,sodependentonorganicprocessesand naturalevents,andeconomicallysolittleorientedtorationalsystematizationthatin generalthepeasantrywillbecomeacarrierofreligiononlywhenitisthreatenedby enslavementorpropertyless,eitherbydomesticforces(financialormanorial)orby externalpoliticalforces. (E.1.a)AncientIsrael AncientIsraelitereligioushistoryalreadymanifestedbothmajorthreatstothepeasant class:first,threatofenslavementbyforeignpowers,andsecond,conflictsbetween peasantsandlandedmanors(whoinAntiquityresidedinthecities).Theoldest documents,particularlytheSongofDeborah,[47]revealthetypicalelementsofthe struggleofapeasantconfederacy,comparabletothatoftheAetolians,Samnites,and Swiss.[48]AnotherpointofsimilaritywiththeSwisssituationisthatPalestine possessedthegeographicalcharacterofalandbridge,beingsituatedonagreat"trade route"whichspannedtheprovincesfromEgypttotheMesopotamia.Thisfacilitated earlyamoneyeconomyandculturecontacts.TheIsraeliteconfederacydirecteditsefforts againstboththePhilistinesandtheCanaanitelandmanorswhodweltinthecities.These latterwereknightswhofoughtwithironchariots,"warriorstrainedfromtheirvery youth,"asGoliathwasdescribed,whosoughttoenslaveandrendertributarythe peasantryofthemountainslopeswheremilkandhoneyflowed. Itwasamostsignificantconstellationofhistoricalfactorsthatthisstruggle,aswellasthe unificationofsocialstrataandtheexpansionoftheMosaicperiod,wasconstantly renewedundertheleadershipoftheYahwehreligion's saviors("messiahs,"from mashiah,"theanointedone,"asGideonandothers,thesocalled"Judges,"weretermed). Becauseofthisdistinctiveleadership,religiouspragmatismthatfartransformedtheusual agrariancultsenteredveryearlyintothereligiouspietyofthePalestinianpeasantry.But notuntilthecityofJerusalemhadbeenconquereddidthecultofYahweh,withits Mosaicsociallaw,becomeagenuinelyethicalreligion.Indeed,asthesocialdenunciation oftheprophetsdemonstrate,evenherethistookplacepartlyundertheinfluenceof agrariansocialreformmovementsdirectedagainsttheurbanlandedmanorsandwealthy notables,andbyreferencetothesocialmoralismoftheMosaiclawregardingthe equalizationofsocialstatus. (E.1.b)PassivityofPeasant

Butpropheticreligionhasbynomeansbeentheproductofspecificallyagrarian influences.Atypicalplebeianfatewasoneofthedynamicfactorsinthemoralismofthe firstandonlytheologianofofficialGreekliterature,Hesiod.Buthewascertainlynota typical"peasant."Themoreagrariancharacteraculturaldevelopmentiscondition,for example,Rome,India,orEgypt,themorelikelytheagrarianelementofthepopulation willfallintoapatternoftraditionalism,andthelessthereligionofthemasseswillreach ethicalrationalization.Thus,inthelaterdevelopmentofJudaismandChristianity,the peasantsdidnotappearedasthecarriersofrationalethicalmovements.Whilethis statementiscompletelytrueofJudaism,inChristianitytheparticipationofthepeasantry inrationalethicalmovementstookplaceonlyinexceptionalcasesandthenina communist,revolutionaryform.ThepuritanicalsectoftheDonatistsinRomanAfrica, theRomanprovinceofgreatestlandaccumulation,appearstohavebeenverypopular amongthepeasantry,butthiswasthesoleexampleofpeasantconcernforarational ethicalmovementinAntiquity.TheTaborites,insofarastheywerederivedfrompeasant groups,thepeasantcarriersof"divineright"intheGermanPeasants' War(15245),the Englishradicalcommunistsmallholders,andabovealltheRussianpeasantsectarians allthesehaveoriginsinagrariancommunismbythepreexisting,moreorlessdeveloped communalownershipofland.Allthesegroupsfeltthemselvesthreatenedofpropertyless, andtheyturnedagainsttheofficialchurchinthefirstinstancebecauseitwastherecipient oftaxandservedasthespiritualdefenderofthefinancialandlandedmanors.Peasantas thecarrierofreligiousethicispossibleonlyonthebasisofanalreadyexistingethical religionwhichcontainedspecificpromisesthatmightsuggestandjustifyarevolutionary naturallaw.Morewillbesaidaboutthisinanothercontext.[49]Hence,inAsia,the combinationofreligiousprophecywithrevolutionarycurrentstookadifferentdirection altogether,forexample,asinChina,anddidnotassumetheformofagenuinepeasant movement.Onlyrarelydoesthepeasantryserveasthecarrierofanyothersortofreligion thanmagic. (E.1.c)Zoroastrianism YettheprophecyofZoroasterapparentlyappealedtothe(relative)rationalismofordered peasantryworkandrasingdomesticanimals.Hestruggledagainsttheorgiasticreligion ofthefalseprophets,whichentailedthetortureofanimals.This,likethecultof intoxicationwhichMosescombated,waspresumablyassociatedwiththebacchantic tearingofliveanimals.InthereligionoftheParsees,onlythecultivatedsoilwas regardedaspurefromthemagicalpointofview,andthereforeonlyagriculturewas absolutelypleasingtogod.Thus,evenaftertheoriginalprophecyofZoroasterhad undergoneconsiderabletransformationasaresultofitsaccommodationtotheneedsof everydaylife,Zoroastrianismretainedadistinctiveagrariancharacter,andconsequentlya antiurbantendencyinitsdoctrineofsocialethics.ButtothedegreethatZoroaster himselfsetcertaineconomicinterestsinitsmovement,thesewereprobablyinthe

beginningtheinterestsofprincesandlordsinthepeasants'a bilitytopaytaxes,rather thantheinterestsofpeasants. Asageneralrule,thepeasantryremainedprimarilyinvolvedwithweathermagicand animisticmagicorritualism;insofarasitdevelopedanyethicalreligion,thefocuswason apurelyformalisticethicinrelationtobothgodandpriestsasformulated,"Igive,that yougiveme"(doutdes).Thatthepeasanthasbecomethedistinctiveprototypeofthe piouspersonwhoispleasingtogodisathoroughlymodernphenomenon,withthe exceptionofZoroastrianismandafewscatteredexamplesofoppositiontourbanculture anditsconsequencesonthepartofpatriarchalandfeudalisticstrata,orconversely,of intellectualsgrievedwiththeworld. NoneofofficialreligionsofEasternAsiahadanynotionofthereligioussignificanceof thepeasant.Indeed,inthereligionsofIndia,andmostconsistentlyinthesalvation religionofBuddhism,thepeasantisreligiouslysuspectoractuallycondemnedbecauseof theabsoluteprohibitionagainsttakingthelifeofanylivingbeings(ahimsa). (E.1.d)Judaism TheIsraelitereligionofpreprophetictimeswasstillverymuchareligionofpeasants. Ontheotherhand,inexilicandpostexilictimestheglorificationofagricultureas pleasingtoGodwaslargelytheproductofliteraryandpatriarchalcirclesinoppositionto urbandevelopment.Theactualreligiosityhadratheradifferentkind,evenatthattime; andlateronintheperiodofthePhariseesitwascompletelydifferentinthisregard.To thecommunalpietyoftheKabalaismthe"ruralpeople"wasvirtuallyidenticalwiththe "godless,"beingpoliticallyandreligiouslyaJewofthesecondclass.Foritwasvirtually impossibleforapeasanttoliveapiouslifeaccordingtotheJewishrituallaw,justasin BuddhismandHinduism.Thepracticalconsequencesofpostexilic,andfinallyofthe Talmudicrabbinictheology,madeitextremelydifficultforaJewtopracticeagriculture. Evennow,theZionistcolonizationofPalestinehasmetwithanabsoluteimpedimentin theformofthesabbaticalyear,aproductofthetheologiansoflaterJudaism.To overcomethisdifficulty,theeasternEuropeanrabbis,incontrasttothemoredoctrinaire leadersofGermanJewishorthodoxy,havehadtoconstrueaspecialdispensationbased onthenotionthatsuchcolonizingisespeciallypleasingtoGod. (E.1.e)Christianity

InearlyChristianity,itwillberecalled,theruralpeopleweresimplyregardedasthe heathen(paganus).Eventheofficialteachingofthemedievalchurches,asformulatedby ThomasAquinas,treatedthepeasantessentiallyasaChristianoflowerrank,atanyrate accordedhimverylittleesteem.Thereligiousglorificationofthepeasantsandthebelief inthespecialworthoftheirpietyistheresultofaverymoderndevelopment.Itwas characteristicofLutheranisminparticularinstronglymarkedcontrasttoCalvinism, andalsotomostoftheProtestantsectsaswellasofmodernRussianreligiosity manifestingSlavophileinfluences.Thesewerechurchlycommunitieswhich,bytheir typeoforganization,wereverycloselytiedtotheauthoritarianinterestsofprincesand noblesuponwhomtheyweredependent.InmodernLutheranism(forthiswasnotthe positionofLutherhimself)thedominantinterestisthestruggleagainstintellectualist rationalismandagainstpoliticalliberalism.IntheSlavophilereligiousideology,the primaryconcernwasthestruggleagainstmoderncapitalismandsocialism.Finally,the glorificationofagriculturebythePopulists(narodniki),theRussiansectarian,triedto linktheantirationalistprotestofintellectualswiththerevoltofapropertylessclassof farmersagainstabureaucraticchurchservingtheinterestsoftherulingclasses,thereby surroundingbothintellectualandagrarianprotestwithareligiousmood.Thuswhatwas involvedinallcaseswasverylargelyareactionagainstthedevelopmentofmodern rationalism,ofwhichthecitieswereregardedasthecarriers. Instrikingcontrasttoallthisisthefactthatinthepastitwasthecitywhichwasregarded asthesiteofpiety.Aslateastheseventeenthcentury,Baxtersawintherelationshipsof theweaversofthecityofKidderminstertothemetropolisofLondon(madepossibleby thedevelopmentofdomesticindustry)adefiniteenhancementoftheweavers'piety. Actually,earlyChristianitywasanurbanreligion,anditsimportanceinanyparticular citywasindirectproportiontothesizeoftheurbancommunity.[50]IntheMiddleAges toopietytothechurch,aswellassectarianreligiousmovement,characteristically developedinthecities.Itishighlyunlikelythatanorganizedcommunalreligion,suchas earlyChristianitybecame,couldhavedevelopedasitdidapartfromthecommunityofa "city"(notablyinthesensefoundintheOccident).ForearlyChristianitypresupposedas alreadyextantcertainconceptions,namely,thedestructionofalltaboobarriersbetween kingroups,theconceptofoffice,andtheconceptofthecommunityasan"institution" servingspecificpurposes.Tobesure,Christianity,onitspart,strengthenedthese conceptionsandgreatlyfacilitatedtherenewedreceptionofthembythegrowing EuropeancitiesduringtheMiddleAges.Butactuallythesenotionsfullydeveloped nowhereelseintheworldbutwithintheMediterraneanculture,particularlyinHellenistic anddefinitelyinRomanurbanlaw.Whatismore,thespecificqualitiesofChristianityas anethicalreligionofsalvationandaspersonalpietyfoundtheirrealnurtureintheurban environment;anditistherethattheycreatednewmovementstimeandagain,incontrast totheritualistic,magicalorformalisticreinterpretationfavoredbythedominantfeudal powers.

(E.2)WarriorAristocrats (E.2.a)Warrior' sConductofLife Asarule,thewarriornobles,andindeedfeudalpowers,havenotbecomethecarriersofa rationalreligiousethic.Warrior's conductoflifehasverylittleaffinitywiththenotionof providence,orwiththesystematicethicaldemandsofatranscendentalgod.Conceptslike "sin,""salvation,"andreligious"humility"havenotonlyseemedremotefromallruling strata,particularlythewarriornobles,buthaveindeedappearedreprehensibletotheir senseofdignity.Toacceptareligionthatcarriesoutsuchconceptionsandtoreverethe prophetorpriestwouldappearhumiliatedanddishonorabletoanymartialheroornoble person,forexample,theRomannobilityoftheageofTacitus(AD56120),orthe ConfucianMandarins.Itisaneverydayeventforthewarriortofacedeathandthe irrationalitiesofhumandestiny.Indeed,thechancesandadventuresofthisworldfillhis lifetosuchanextentthathedoesnotseekareligion(andacceptsonlyreluctantly) anythingbeyondprotectionagainstevilmagicorceremonialritesacceptabletohissense ofstatusdignity,suchaspriestlyprayersforvictoryorforablissfuldeathleading directlyintothehero' sheaven. Ashasalreadybeenmentionedinanotherconnection,[51]theeducatedGreekalways remainedawarrior,atleastinideal.Thesimpleanimisticbeliefinthesoulwhichleft vaguetheexistenceafterdeathandtheentirequestionofthehereafter(thoughremaining certainthatthemostmiserablestatushereonearthwasbetterthantheworldofhellor Hades),remainedthenormalfaithoftheGreeksuntilthetime(1stcenturyBC)ofthe completedestructionoftheirpoliticalautonomy.Theonlydevelopmentsbeyondthis werethemysteryreligions,whichprovidedmeansforritualisticimprovementofthe humanconditioninthisworldandinthenext;theonlyradicaldeparturewastheOrphic communalreligion,withitsteachingofthetransmigrationofsouls. (E.2.b)ProphecyandWarrior Periodsofstrongpropheticorreformistreligiousenthusiasmhavefrequentlypulledthe nobilityinparticularintothepathofpropheticethicalreligion,becausethistypeof religionbreaksthroughallclassesandstatus,andbecausethenobilityhasgenerallybeen thefirstcarrieroflayeducation.Buttheroutinizationofpropheticreligionhadtheeffect ofseparatingthenobilityfromthecircleofreligiousenthusiasm.Thisisalreadyevident atthetimeofthereligiouswarsinFranceintheconflictsoftheHuguenotsynodswitha leaderlikeCondeoverethicalquestions.Ultimately,theScottishnobility,liketheBritish

andtheFrench,completelydroppedoutfromtheCalvinistreligioninwhichit,oratleast someofitsgroups,hadoriginallyplayedaconsiderablerole. Asarule,propheticreligioniscompatiblewiththestatussenseofthechivalryofthe nobilitywhenitdirectsitspromisestothebattleforfaith.Thisconceptionpresupposes theexclusivenessofauniversalgodandthemoralcorruptionofunbelieverswhoarehis adversariesandwhoseungodlyexistencearouseshisrighteousindignation.Hence,sucha notionisabsentintheOccidentofancienttimes,aswellasinallAsiaticreligionuntil Zoroaster.Yet,eveninZoroastrianismadirectconnectionbetweenreligiouspromises andwaragainstreligiousinfidelityisstilllacking.ItwasIslamthatfirstcreatedthis conjunctionofideas. TheprecursorandprobablemodelforthiswasthepromiseoftheHebrewgodtohis people,asunderstoodandreinterpretedbyMuhammadafterhehadchangedfroma pietisticleaderofaconventicleinMeccatothepoliticalleader(podesta)ofMedina (Yathrib),andafterhehadfinallybeenrejectedasaprophetbytheJews.Theancient warsoftheIsraeliteconfederacy,wagedundertheleadershipofvarioussaviors conductingunderthenameofYahweh,wereregardedbythetraditionas"holy"wars. Thisconceptofaholywar,namely,awarinthenameofagod,forthespecialpurposeof avengingasacrilege,whichentailedputtingtheenemyunderthebananddestroyinghim andallhisbelongingscompletely,isknowninAntiquity,particularlyamongtheGreeks. ButwhatwasdistinctiveoftheHebraicconceptisthatthepeopleofYahweh,ashis specialcommunity,exemplifiedtheirgod's prestigeagainsttheirfoes.Consequently, whenYahwehbecameauniversalgod,HebrewprophetsandthePsalmistscreatedanew religiousinterpretation.ThepossessionofthePromisedLand,previouslyforetold,was transformedbythefartherreachingpromiseoftheelevationofIsrael,asthepeopleof Yahweh,aboveothernations.[52]Inthefutureallnationswouldbecompelledtoserve YahwehandtolieatthefeetofIsrael. (E.2.c)HolyWar OnthismodelMuhammadconstructedthecommandmentoftheholywarinvolvingthe subjugationoftheunbelieverstopoliticalauthorityandeconomicrulershipofthe faithful.Iftheinfidelsweremembersof"religionswithasacredbook,"their exterminationwasnotconducted;indeed,theirsurvivalwasconsidereddesirablebecause ofthefinancialcontributiontheycouldmake.ThefirstCrusaderwaroffaithwaswaged undertheAugustinianformula"toforceunbelieverstojoin"(cogeintrare),[53]bythe termsofwhichunbelieversorhereticshadonlythechoicebetweenconversionand extermination.ItwillberecalledthatPopeUrban(108899)didnothesitatetoemphasize totheCrusadersthenecessityforterritorialexpansioninordertoacquirenewbenefices

fortheirdescendants.ToanevengreaterdegreethantheCrusades,religiouswarforthe Muslimswasessentiallyanenterprisedirectedtowardstheacquisitionoflargeholdings ofrealestate,becauseitwasprimarilyorientedtosecuringfeudalrevenue.Aslateasthe periodofTurkishfeudallawparticipationinthereligiouswarremainedanimportant qualificationforthedistributionofwarrior' s(sipahi)benefits.Apartfromtheanticipated rulingstatusthatresultsfromvictoryinareligiouswar,inIslamthereligiouspromises particularlythepromiseofanIslamicparadiseforthosekilledinsuchawarassociated withthepropagandaforwarjustasValhalla,ortheparadisepromisedtotheHindu warrior(kshatriya),ortothewarriorherowhohasbecomesatedwithlifeoncehehas seenhisgrandson,orindeedanyotherheroheavenarenotequivalenttosalvation(it shouldnotbeconfusedwiththepromisesofgenuinesalvationreligion).Thoseelements ofanethicalreligionofsalvationwhichoriginalIslamhavehadlargelyrecededintothe backgroundaslongasIslamremainedessentiallyamartialreligion. So,too,thereligionofthemedievalChristianordersofcelibateknights,particularlythe Templars,whichwerefirstcalledintobeingduringtheCrusadesagainstIslamandwhich correspondedtotheIslamicwarriororders,hadingeneralonlyaformalrelationto salvationreligion.ThiswasalsotrueofthefaithoftheHinduSikhs,whichwasatfirst stronglypacifist.ButacombinationofIslamicideasandpersecutiondrovetheSikhsto theidealofuncompromisingwarrioroffaith.Anotherinstanceoftheformalistic relationshipofthewarrioroffaithtosalvationreligionisthatoftheJapanesewarrior monksofBuddhism,whoforatemporaryperiodmaintainedapositionofpolitical importance.Indeed,eventheformalorthodoxyofallthesewarriorsoffaithwasoftenof dubiouscharacter. (E.2.d)Mithraism Althoughaknighthoodpracticallyalwayshadathoroughlynegativeattitudetoward salvationandcommunalreligion,therelationshipissomewhatdifferentin"standing" professionalarmies,namely,thosehavinganessentiallybureaucraticorganizationand "officers."TheChinesearmyplainlyhadaspecializedgodasdidanyotheroccupation,a herowhohadundergonecanonizationbythestate.Then,too,thepassionateparticipation oftheByzantinearmyinbehalfoftheiconoclastswasnotaresultofconscious puritanicalprinciples,butthatoftheattitudeadoptedbytherecruitingdistricts,which werealreadyunderIslamicinfluence.ButintheRomanarmyoftheperiodofthe Principate,fromthetimeofthesecondcentury,thecommunalreligionofMithra,which wasacompetitorofChristianityandheldforthcertainpromisesconcerningtheworldto come,playedaconsiderablerole,togetherwithcertainotherpreferredcults,whichdonot interestusatthispoint.

Mithraismwasespeciallyimportant(thoughnotexclusivelyso)amongthecenturions, thatisthelowerofficers,whohadaclaimupongovernmentalpensions.Thegenuinely ethicalrequirementsoftheMithramysterieswere,however,verymodestandofageneral character.Mithraismwasessentiallyaritualisticreligionofpurity;insharpcontrastto Christianity,itwasentirelymasculine,excludingwomencompletely.Ingeneral,itwasa religionofsalvation,and,asalreadynoted,oneofthemostmasculine,withahierarchical gradationofsacredceremoniesandreligiousranks.AgainincontrasttoChristianity,it didnotprohibitparticipationinothercultsandmysteries,whichwasfrequent occurrences.Mithraism,therefore,cameundertheprotectionoftheemperorsfromthe timeofCommodus(AD17792),whofirstwentthroughtheinitiationceremonies(just asthekingsofPrussiaweremembersoffraternalorders),untilitslastenthusiastic protagonist,Julian(AD361363).Apartfromthisworldlypromiseswhich,tobesure, wereinthiscaseasinallotherreligionslinkedwithpromisesoftheworldbeyond,the chiefattractionofthiscultforarmyofficerswasundoubtedlytheessentiallymagicaland sacramentalcharacterofitsdispensationofgraceandthepossibilityofhierarchical advancementinthemysteryceremonies. (E.3)Bureaucrats ItislikelythatsimilarelementsmadeMithraismverypopularamongcivilianofficials. Certainly,amongstateofficialstherehavebeenfoundotherbasictendenciestowards salvationreligion.OneexampleofthismaybeseeninthepietisticGermanofficials,a reflectionofthefactthatinGermany"citizenry"asceticpiety,exemplifying characteristicallyitsconductoflife,founditsrepresentationonlyamongtheofficials,in theabsenceofastratumofentrepreneurs.Anotherinstanceofthetendencyofsome officialstofavorthesalvationreligionappearedoccasionallyamongcertainpious Prussiangeneralsoftheeighteenthandnineteenthcenturies.Butasarule,thisisnota dominantattitudeofbureaucracytowardreligion,whichisalwaysthecarrierofa comprehensivesoberrationalismand,atthesametime,oftheidealofadisciplined "order"andsecurityasabsolutestandardsofvalue.Abureaucracyisusually characterizedbythethroughcontemptofallirrationalreligion,combined,however,with therecognitionofitsusefulnessasameansofthedomesticationofthegoverned.In AntiquitythisattitudewasheldbytheRomanofficials,whiletodayitissharedbyboth thecivilianandmilitarybureaucracy.[54] (E.3.a)Confucianism Thedistinctiveattitudeofbureaucracytoreligionhasbeenclassicallyformulatedin Confucianism.Itshallmarkisanabsolutelackofany"needforsalvation"orforany ethicalanchoragetootherworld.Confucianethicissubstantivelyanopportunisticand

utilitarian(thoughaestheticallyrefined)doctrineofstatusconventionssuitedfor bureaucrats.Bureaucraticconventionalismeliminatesallthoseemotionalandirrational charactersofpersonalreligionwhichgobeyondthetraditionalbeliefinspirits,the ancestralcult,andfilialpietybecausethesemagicalbeliefswerethebasisforbureaucrat' s rulershipoverthemasses.Stillanothercomponentofbureaucraticethicisacertain distancefromthespirits,themagicalmanipulationofwhichisscornedbytheenlightened official.[55]Yetbothtypesofbureaucraticofficialswill,withcontemptuous indifference,permitsuchsuperstitiousactivitytoflourishasthereligionofthemasses. Insofarasthispopularreligioncomestoexpressioninrecognizedstaterites,theofficial continuestorespectthem,outwardlyatleast,asaconventionalobligationappropriateto hisstatus.Theunbrokenretentionofmagic,especiallyoftheancestralcult,asthe guaranteeofsocialobedience,enabledtheChinesebureaucracytocompletelysuppress allindependentchurchlydevelopmentandallcommunalreligion.AsfortheEuropean bureaucracy,althoughitgenerallysharessuchsubjectivecontemptforanyserious concernwithreligion,itfindsitselfcompelledtopaymoreofficialrespecttothe religiosityofthechurchesintheinterestofmassdomestication. (E.4)Citizen Whencertainfairlyuniformtendenciesarenormallyapparent,inspiteofalldifferences, inthereligiousattitudeofthenobilityandbureaucracy,thestrataofsocialprivilege,the genuine"citizen"stratademonstratestrikingcontrasts.Moreover,thisissomethingquite apartfromtherathersharpdifferencesofstatuswhichcitizenstratamanifestwithin themselves.Thus,insomeinstances,"merchants"maybemembersofthemosthighly privilegedstratum,asinthecaseoftheancienturbanpatriciate,whileinotherstheymay bepariahs,likepoorwanderingcraftspersons.Again,theymaybepossessedof considerablesocialprivilege,thoughoccupyingalowersocialstatusthanthenobilityor officialdom;ortheymaybewithoutprivilege,orindeeddisprivileged,yetactually exertinggreatsocialpower.ExamplesofthelatterwouldbetheRomansoldiers(ordo equester),theHellenicaliensandslaves(metoikoi),themedievalclothmerchantsand othermerchantgroups,thefinanciersandgreatmerchantprincesofBabylonia,the ChineseandHindutraders,andfinallythecapitalistsoftheearlymodernperiod. (E.4.a)WealthyCitizen Apartfromthesedifferencesofsocialposition,theattitudeofthecommercialpatriciate towardreligionshowscharacteristiccontrastsinallperiodsofhistory.Inthenatureofthe case,thestronglythisworldlyorientationoftheirlifewouldmakeitappearunlikelythat theyhavemuchinterestforpropheticorethicalreligion.Theactivityofthegreat merchantsofancientandmedievaltimesrepresentedadistinctivekindofspecifically

"occasionalandadventurousacquisitionofmoney,"forexample,byprovidingcapitalfor travelingtraderswhorequiredit.Originallybeinglandlords,thesemerchantsbecame,in historicaltimes,anurbannobilitywhichhadgrownrichfromsuchoccasionaltrade. Othersstartedastradesmenwhohavingacquiredlandedpropertywereseekingtoclimb intothefamiliesofthenobility.Tothecategoryofthecommercialpatriciatetherewere added,asthefinancingofpublicadministrationdeveloped,thepoliticalcapitalistswhose primarybusinesswastomeetthefinancialneedsofthestateasprovidersandby supplyinggovernmentalcredit,togetherwiththefinanciersofcolonialcapitalism,an enterprisethathasexistedinallperiodsofhistory.Noneofthesestratahaseverbeenthe primarycarrierofanethicalorsalvationreligion.Atanyrate,themoreprivilegedthe positionofthecommercialstatus,thelessithasevincedanyinclinationtodevelopan otherworldlyreligion. ThereligionofthenobleplutocratinthePhoeniciantradingcitieswasentirelythis worldlyinorientationand,sofarasisknown,entirelynonprophetic.Yettheintensityof theirreligiousinterestsandtheirfearofthegods,whoweredescribedaspossessingvery disastroustraits,wereveryimpressive.Ontheotherhand,thewarriormaritimenobility ofancientGreece,whichwaspartlypiraticalandpartlycommercial,hasleftbehindinthe Odysseyareligiousdocumentcorrespondedwithitsowninterests,anddisplayeda strikinglackofrespectforthegods.ThegodofwealthinChineseTaoism,whois universallyrespectedbymerchantsshowsnoethicaltraits;heisofapurelymagical character.So,too,thecultoftheGreekgodofwealth,Plutoindeedprimarilyof agrariancharacterformedapartoftheEleusinianmysteries,whichsetupnoethical demandsapartfromritualpurityandfreedomfrombloodguilt.Augustus,ina characteristicpoliticalmove,soughttoturnthestratumoffreemenwiththeirstrong capitalresources,intospecialcarriers(seviriAugustales)ofthecultofCaesar.[56]But thisstratumshowednodistinctivereligioustendenciesotherwise. InIndia,thatsectionofthecommercialstratumwhichfollowedtheHindureligion, particularlyallthebankingpeoplewhichderivedfromtheancientstatecapitalist financiersandlargescaletraders,belongedforthemostparttothesectofthe Vallabhacarya.ThesewereadherentsoftheVishnupriesthoodofGovardhana,as reformedbyVallabha.TheyfollowedaformoferoticallycoloredworshipofKrishnaand Rudrainwhichtheculticmealinhonoroftheirsaviorwastransformedintoakindof elegantfeast.InmedievalEurope,thegreatcommercialguildsoftheGuelphcities,like theArtediCalimalainFlorence,wereofcoursepapistintheirpolitics,butveryoften theyvirtuallyignoredthechurchlyprohibitionagainstusurybymechanicaldevices whichfrequentlycreatedaneffectofmockery.InProtestantHolland,thegreatand distinguishedlordsoftrade,beingArminiansinreligion,werecharacteristicallyoriented topowerpoliticsandbecamethechieffoesofCalvinistethicalrigor.Everywhere, skepticismorindifferencetoreligionareandhavebeenthewidelydiffusedattitudesof largescaletradersandfinanciers.

Butasagainsttheseeasilyunderstandablephenomena,theacquisitionofnewcapitalor, morecorrectly,capitalcontinuouslyandrationallyemployedinaproductiveenterprise fortheacquisitionofprofit,especiallyinindustry(whichisthecharacteristicallymodern employmentofcapital),hasinthepastbeencombinedfrequentlyandinastriking mannerwitharational,ethicalsocialreligionamongthecitizenstrata.Inthebusinesslife ofIndiatherewasevena(geographical)differentiationbetweentheParseesandtheJain sect.Theformer,adherentsofthereligionofZoroaster,retainedtheirethicalrigorism, particularlyitsunconditionalinjunctionregardingtruthfulness,evenaftermodernization hadcausedareinterpretationoftheritualisticcommandmentsofpurityashygienic prescriptions.TheeconomicmoralityoftheParseesoriginallyrecognizedonly agricultureasacceptabletoGod,andabominatedallurbanacquisitivepursuits.Onthe otherhand,thesectoftheJains,themostasceticofthereligionsofIndia,alongwiththe aforementionedVallabhacharisrepresentedasalvationdoctrinethatwasconstitutedas communalreligion,despitetheantirationalcharacterofthecults.Itisdifficulttoprove thatveryfrequentlytheIslamicmerchantsadheredtotheDervishreligion,butitislikely. AsforJudaism,theethicalrationalreligionoftheJewishcommunitywasalreadyin Antiquitylargelyareligionoftradersorfinanciers. (E.4.b)MiddleClass Toalesserbutstillnotabledegree,themedievalChristianity,particularlyofthesectarian typeorofthehereticalcircleswas,ifnotareligionappropriatetotraders,nonethelessa religionofthe"citizen,"andthatindirectproportiontoitsethicalrationalism.The closestconnectionbetweenethicalreligionandrationaleconomicdevelopment, particularlycapitalism,waseffectedbyalltheformsofasceticProtestantismand sectarianisminbothWesternandEasternEurope,namely,Zwinglians,Calvinists, Baptists,Mennonites,Quakers,Methodists,andPietists(bothoftheReformedand,toa lesserdegree,Lutheranvarieties);aswellasbyRussianschismatic,heretical,andrational pietisticsects,especiallytheShtundistsandSkoptsy,thoughinverydifferentforms. Indeed,generallyspeaking,themoreareligionbecomesethical,rational,orcommunal, themorethecarriersgetawayfromthestrataofpoliticaloradventurouspremodern capitalism.SincethetimeofHammurabipoliticalcapitalismhasexistedwhereverthere hasbeentaxfarming,theprofitableprovisionsofthestate's politicalneeds,war,piracy, largescaleusury,andcolonization.Theaffinitytowardanethical,rational,social religionismoreapttobefoundinthosestrataofmodernrationalenterprise,namely, middleclassinthesensetobediscussedlater. Obviously,themereexistenceof"capitalism"ofsomesortisnotsufficient,byany means,toproduceaunifiedethic,nottospeakofanethicalcommunalreligion.Indeed,it doesnotautomaticallyproduceanyuniformconsequences.Forthetimebeing,no analysiswillbemadeofthekindofcausalrelationshipbetweenarationalreligiousethic

andaparticulartypeofcommercialrationalism,wheresuchaconnectionexistsatall.At thispoint,wedesireonlytoestablishtheexistenceofanaffinitybetweeneconomic rationalismandcertaintypesofrigoristicethicalreligion,tobediscussedlater.This affinitycomestolightonlyoccasionallyoutsidetheOccident,whichisthedistinctive seatofeconomicrationalism.IntheWest,thisphenomenonisveryclearandits manifestationsarethemoreimpressiveasweapproachtheclassicalbearersofeconomic rationalism. (E.4.c)PettyCitizen Whenwemoveawayfromthestratacharacterizedbyahighstatusofsocialand economicprivilege,weencounteranapparentincreaseinthediversityofreligious attitudes. Withinthepettycitizen,andparticularlyamongthecraftspersons,thegreatestcontrasts haveexistedsidebyside.Thesehaveincludedcastetaboosandmagicalormysterycultic religionsofboththesacramentalandorgiastictypesinIndia,animisminChina,Dervish religioninIslam,andthepneumaticenthusiasticcommunalreligionofearlyChristianity, practicedparticularlyintheeasternhalfoftheRomanEmpire.Stillothermodesof religiousexpressionamongthesegroupsaredemonworship(deisidaimoia)aswellas DionysosorgyinancientGreece,PharisaicrigorismofthelawinancienturbanJudaism, anessentiallyidolatrousChristianityaswellasallsortsofsectarianfaithsintheMiddle Ages,andvarioustypesofProtestantisminearlymoderntimes.Thesediverse phenomenaobviouslypresentthegreatestpossiblecontraststooneanother. (E.4.d)Christianity Fromthebeginning,Christianitywascharacteristicallyareligionofcraftspersons.Its saviorwasasmalltowncraftsperson,andhismissionariesweretravelingcraftsperson, thegreatestofthematravelingtentmaker.[57]Paulwassoalientopeasantworkthatin hislettersheactuallyemploysinareversesenseaparablerelatingtotheprocessof grafting.[58]TheearliestcommunitiesoforiginalChristianitywere,aswehavealready seen,[59]stronglyurbanthroughoutancienttimes,andtheiradherentswererecruited primarilyfromcraftspersons,bothslaveandfree.Moreover,intheMiddleAgesthe pettycitizenremainedthemostpious,ifnotalwaysthemostorthodox,stratumof society.ButinChristianity,widelydifferentcurrentsfoundsimultaneouslywithinthe pettycitizen.Thus,thereweretheancientpneumaticprophecieswhichcastoutdemons, theunconditionallyorthodox(institutionalchurch)religiosityoftheMiddleAges,and mendicantmonasticism.Inaddition,therewerecertaintypesofmedievalsectarian

religiositysuchasthatoftheHumiliati,whowerelongsuspectedofheterodoxy,there wereBaptistmovementsofallkinds,andtherewasthepietyofthevariousReformed churches,includingtheLutheran. Thisisindeedahighlyuniquediversification,whichatleastprovesthatauniform determinismofreligionbyeconomicconditionsneverexistedamongthepettycitizen. Yetthereisapparent,incontrasttothepeasantry,adefinitetendencytowardscommunal religion,towardsreligionofsalvation,andfinallytowardsrationalethicalreligion.But thiscontrastisfarfromimplyinganyuniformdeterminism.Theabsenceofuniform determinismappearsveryclearlyinthefactthattheruralflatlandsofNetherlands providedthefirstlocalitiesforthepopulardisseminationoftheBaptistcommunal religioninitsfullestform,whileitwasthecityofMuensterwhichbecameaprimarysite fortheexpressionofitssocialrevolutionaryform. (E.4.e)OccidentandOrientalCity IntheOccidentparticularly,communalreligionhasbeenintimatelyconnectedwiththe middleclasscitizenofboththeupperandlowerlevels.Thiswasanaturalconsequence oftherelativerecessionintheimportanceofkinshipgroupings,particularlyoftheclan, withintheOccidentalcity.Thecitydwellerfindsasubstituteforkinshipgroupingsin bothoccupationalbands,whichintheOccidentaseverywherehadaculticsignificance althoughnolongerassociatedwithtaboos,andinfreelycreatedreligiouscommunities. Butthesereligiousrelationshipswerenotdeterminedexclusivelybythedistinctive economicconditionsofcitylife. Onthecontrary,thecausalrelationshipbetweenreligionandcitymightgotheotherway, asisreadilyapparent.Thus,inChinathegreatimportanceoftheancestralcultandclan tabooresultedinkeepingtheindividualcitydwellerinacloserelationshipwithhisclan andnativevillage.InIndiathereligiouscastetaboorendereddifficulttherise,orlimited theimportanceofanycommunalreligionofsalvationinurbansettlements,aswellasin thecountry.WehaveseenthatinbothIndiaandChinathesefactorshinderedthe formationofa"community"ofthecitymuchmorethanthatofthevillage (E.4.f)RationalityofCitizen' sLife Yetitisstilltruethatthepettycitizen,byitsdistinctiveconductofeconomiclife, inclinesinthedirectionofarationalethicalreligion,whereverconditionsarepresentfor theemergenceofasuchreligion.Whenonecomparesthelifeofapettycitizen,

particularlythecraftspersonorthesmalltrader,withthelifeofthepeasant,itisclear thattheformerhasfarlessconditionedbythenature.Consequently,dependenceon magicforinfluencingtheirrationalforcesofnaturecannotplaythesameroleforthecity dwellerasforthepeasant.Atthesametime,itisclearthattheeconomicfoundationof thecitizen's lifehasafarmorerationalcharacter,namely,calculabilityandendrational operationoftheprocesses.Furthermore,thecraftspersonandincertaincircumstances eventhemerchantleadeconomicexistenceswhichinfluencethemtoentertaintheview thathonestyisthebestpolicy,thatfaithfulworkandtheperformanceofdutywillfind their"reward"andare"deserving"oftheirjustcompensation.Forthesereasons,small tradersandcraftspersonsaredisposedtoacceptarationalworldviewincorporatingan ethicofcompensation.Weshallseepresentlythatthisisthenormalmodeofthinking amongallnonprivilegedstrata.Thepeasants,ontheotherhand,aremuchmoreremote fromthis"ethical"notionofcompensationanddonotacquireituntilthemagicinwhich theyareengagedhasbeeneliminatedbyotherforces.Bycontrast,thecraftspersonis veryfrequentlyactiveineffectingtheeliminationofthisveryprocessofmagic.It followsthatthebeliefinethicalcompensationisevenmorealientowarriorsandto politicalcapitalistswhohaveeconomicinterestsinwarandinpowerpolitics.These groupsaretheleastcompatibletotheethicalandrationalelementsinanyreligion. (E.4.g)DevelopmentofCitizenryRationalism Tobesure,thecraftspersonwasdeeplyinvolvedinmagicalmanipulationintheearly stagesofoccupationaldifferentiation.Everyspecialized"art"thatisuncommonandnot widelydisseminatedisregardedasamagicalcharisma,eitherpersonalor,more generally,hereditary,theacquisitionandmaintenanceofwhichisguaranteedbymagical means.Otherelementsofthisearlybeliefarethatthebearersofthischarismaaresetoff bytaboos,occasionallyofatotemicnature,fromthecommunityofordinarypeople (peasants),andfrequentlythattheyaretobeexcludedfromtheownershipofland.One finalelementofthisearlybeliefinthemagicalcharismaofeveryspecializedartmustbe mentionedhere.Wherevercraftshadremainedinthehandsofancientgroupspossessing rawmaterials,whohadfirstofferedtheirartsas"intruders"inthecommunityandlater offeredtheircraftsmanshipasindividualstrangerssettledwithinthecommunity,the beliefinthemagicalnatureofspecialartscondemnedsuchgroupstopariahstatusand stereotypedwithmagictheirmanipulationsandtheirtechnology. Butwhereverthismagicalconditionhasoncebeenbrokenthrough(thishappensmost readilyinnewlysettledcities),theeffectofthetransformationmaybethatthecrafts personwilllearntothinkabouthislaborandthesmalltraderwilllearntothinkabouthis enterprisemuchmorerationallythananypeasantthinks.Thecraftsmaninparticularwill havetimeandopportunityforreflectionduringhisworkinmanyinstances,especiallyin occupationswhichareprimarilyoftheindoorvarietyinourclimate,forexample,inthe

textiletrades,whichthereforearestronglyinfusedwithsectarianreligiosity.Thisistrue tosomeextentevenfortheworkersinmodernfactorieswithmechanizedweaving,but verymuchmoretruefortheweaverofthepast. Wherevertheattachmenttopurelymagicalorritualisticnotionshasbeenbrokenby prophetsorreformers,therehashencebeenatendencyforcraftspersonsandpetty citizentowarda(oftenprimitively)rationalisticethicalandreligiousviewoflife. Furthermore,theirveryoccupationalspecializationmakesthemthebearersofan integrated"conductoflife"ofadistinctivekind.Yetthereiscertainlynouniform determinationofreligionbythesegeneralconditionsinthelifeofcraftspersonsand pettycitizens.ThusthesmallbusinessmenofChina,thoughthoroughly"calculating,"are notthecarriersofarationalreligion,nor,sofarasweknow,aretheChinesecrafts persons.Atbest,theyfollowtheBuddhistteachingofkarma,inadditiontomagical notions.Whatisprimaryintheircaseistheabsenceofanethicallyrationalizedreligion, andindeedthisappearstohaveinfluencedthelimitedrationalismoftheirtechnology. Thisstrikesusagainandagain.Themereexistenceofcraftspersonsandpettycitizens hasneversufficedtogenerateanethicalreligiosity,evenofthemostgeneraltype.We haveseenanexampleofthisinIndia,[60]wherethecastetabooandthebeliefin transmigrationofsoulinfluencedandstereotypedtheethicsofthecraftspersonstrata. Onlycommunalreligion,especiallyoneoftherationalandethicaltype,could conceivablywinfollowerseasily,particularlyamongthepettycitizens,andthen,given certaincircumstances,exertalastinginfluenceontheconductoflifeofthesegroups. Thisiswhatactuallyhappened. (E.5)SlaveAndPropertyless Finally,thestrataoftheeconomicallymostdisprivileged,suchasslavesandfreeday laborers,havehithertoneverbeenthebearersofadistinctivetypeofreligion.Inthe ancientChristiancommunitiestheslavesbelongedtothepettycitizen.TheHellenistic slavesandtheservantsofNarcissusmentionedintheLettertotheRomans[61]were eitherrelativelywellplacedandindependentdomesticofficialsorservicepersonnel belongingtoverywealthypersons.Butinthemajorityofinstancestheywere independentcraftspersonswhopaidtributetotheirmasterandhopedtosaveenough fromtheirearningstoeffecttheirliberation,whichwasthecasethroughoutAntiquityand inRussiainthenineteenthcentury.Inothercasestheywerewelltreatedslavesofthe state. ThereligionofMithraalsoincludednumerousadherentsfromslaves,accordingtothe inscriptions.TheDelphicApollo(andpresumablymanyanothergod)apparently functionedasasavingsbankforslaves,attractivebecauseofitssacredinviolability,and

theslavesbought"freedom"fromtheirmastersbytheuseofthesesavings.Thismightbe Paul's imageoftheredemptionofChristiansthroughthebloodoftheirsaviorthatthey mightbefreedfromenslavementofthelawandsin.[62]Ifthisistrue,[63]itshowshow muchthemissionaryofearlyChristianityaspiredfortheunfreepettycitizenwho followedaneconomicallyrationalconductoflife.Ontheotherhand,theloweststratum oftheslaveintheancientplantationwasnotthebearerofanycommunalreligion,orfor thatmatterafertilesiteforanysortofreligiousmission. Handicraftjourneypersonshaveatalltimestendedtosharethecharacteristicreligiosity ofthepettycitizen,sincetheyarenormallydistinguishedfromthemonlybythefactthat theymustwaitacertaintimebeforetheycansetuptheirownshop.However,they showedevenmoreofanaffinitytowardvariousformsofunofficialsectarianreligiosity, whichfoundparticularlyfertilesoilamongtheloweroccupationalstrataofthecity,in viewoftheirdifficultconditionsofeverydaylife,thefluctuationsinthepriceoftheir dailybread,theirjobinsecurity,andtheirdependenceonbrotherlyhelp.Furthermore,the smallcraftspersonsandcraftrecruitsweregenerallyrepresentedinthenumeroussecret orhalftoleratedcommunitiesof"poorpeople"whichtooktheformsofcommunal religionofrevolutionary,pacifisticcommunisticandethicalrationalcharacter,chiefly forthetechnicalreasonthatwanderinghandicraftrecruitsaretheavailablemissionaries ofeverymasscommunalreligion.Thisprocessisillustratedintherapidexpansionof ChristianityacrossthehugeareafromtheOrienttoRomeinjustafewdecades. Insofarasthemodernemployedworkerhaveadistinctivereligiosityitischaracterized byindifferencetoorrejectionofreligion,asarethemodernwellpropertiedpeople.For themodememployedworker,thesenseofdependenceonone's ownlifeischaracterized byaconsciousnessofdependenceonpurelysocialrelationships,marketconditions,and powerrelationshipsguaranteedbylaw.Anythoughtofdependenceuponthecourseof naturalormeteorologicalprocesses,oruponanythingthatmightberegardedassubjectto theinfluenceofmagicorprovidence,hasbeencompletelyeliminated.[64]Therefore,the rationalismoftheemployedworker,likethatofthewellpropertiedpeoplewiththefull possessionofeconomicpower,ofwhichindeedtheemployedworker's rationalismisa complementaryphenomenon,cannotinthenatureofthecaseeasilypossessareligious characterandcertainlycannoteasilyformareligion.Hence,inthesphereofemployed worker'sra tionalism,religionisgenerallyreplacedbyotherideologicalsubstitutes. Thelowestandthemosteconomicallyunstablestrataoftheemployedworker,forwhom rationalconceptionsaretheleastconceivable,andalsothepropertylesspeopleor impoverishedpettycitizenwhoareinconstantdangerofsinkingintothepropertyless, areneverthelessreadilysusceptibletobeinginfluencedbyreligiousmissionary enterprise.Butthisreligiouspropagandahasinsuchcasesadistinctivelymagicalform or,whererealmagichasbeeneliminated,ithascertaincharacteristicswhichare

substitutesforthemagicalorgiasticdispensationofgrace.Examplesofthesearethe salvationalecstasyoftheMethodisttypesuchastheSalvationArmy.Undoubtedly,itis fareasierforemotionalratherthanrationalelementsofareligiousethictoflourishin suchcircumstances.Inanycase,ethicalreligionscarcelyeverarisesprimarilyinthis group. Onlyinalimitedsenseisthereadistinctive"class"religiosityofdisprivilegedsocial strata.Inthecasethatthecommandmentsofareligiondemand"socialandpolitical" reformasgod's will,weshallhavetodealtwiththisproblemwhenwediscussethicsand "naturallaw."[65]Butinsofarasourconcerniswiththecharacterofthereligionassuch, itisimmediatelyevidentthataneedfor"salvation"inthewidestsenseofthetermhasas oneofitscentersofthedisprivilegedstrata,butnottheexclusiveorprimaryone,aswe shallseelater.[66]Turningtothe"satisfied"andprivilegedstrata,theneedforsalvation isremoteandalientowarriors,bureaucrats,andtheplutocracy. (E.6)MassReligiosity:MagicAndSavior Areligionofsalvationmayverywellhaveitsoriginwithinsociallyprivilegedgroups. Thecharismaoftheprophetisnormallyassociatedwithacertainminimumofintellectual cultivation,althoughitisnotconfinedtoanyparticularstatusgroup.Specifically, intellectualprophetsreadilydemonstratebothoftheseregularities.Butasarule, salvationreligionchangesitscharacterassoonasithasreachedlaycircleswhoarenot particularlyorprofessionallyconcernedwithintellectualism,andmorechangesits characterafterithasreachedintothelowestsocialstratatowhomintellectualismisboth economicallyandsociallyinaccessible.Onecharacteristicelementofthistransformation, aproductoftheinevitableaccommodationtotheneedsofthemasses,maybeformulated generallyastheemergenceofapersonal,divineorhumandivinesaviorasthebearerof salvation,withtheadditionalconsequencethatthereligiousrelationshiptothis personalitybecomesthepreconditionofsalvation. Wehavealreadyseenthatoneformoftheaccommodationofreligiontotheneedsofthe massesisthetransformationofculticreligionintopuremagic.Asecondtypicalformof accommodationistheshiftintosaviorreligion,whichisnaturallyrelatedtothepurely magicaltransformationwiththemostnumeroustransitionalstages.Thelowerthesocial strata,themoreradicalaretheformsassumedbytheneedforasavior,oncethisneedhas emerged.HinduismprovidesanexampleofthisintheKartahajas,aVishnuitesectthat tookseriouslythebreakupofthecastetaboowhichintheoryitshareswithmany salvationsects.Membersofthissectarrangedforalimitedtablecommunityoftheir membersonprivateaswellasonculticoccasions,butforthatreasontheywere essentiallyasectofcommonpeople.Theycarriedtheidolatrousvenerationoftheir

hereditarygurutosuchapointthatthecultbecameextremelyexclusive.Similar phenomenacanbefoundelsewhereamongreligionswhichrecruitedfollowersfromthe lowersocialstrataoratleastwereinfluencedbythem.Thetransferofsalvationteachings tothemassespracticallyalwaysresultsintheemergenceofapersonalsavior,oratleast inanincreaseofemphasisupontheconceptofasavior.Oneinstanceofthisisthe substitutionfortheBuddhaideal,namely,theexemplaryintellectualistsalvationinto enlightenment(Nirvana),bytheidealofaBodhisattva,namely,asaviorwhohas descendeduponearthandhassacrificedhisownentranceintoNirvanaforthesakeof savinghisfellowhumans.AnotherexampleistheriseinHindufolkreligion,particularly inVishnuism,ofsalvationgracemediatedbyanincarnategod,andthevictoryofthis doctrineofsalvationanditsmagicalsacramentalgraceoverboththeprivileged,atheistic salvationoftheBuddhistsandtheritualismassociatedwithVediceducation.Thereare othermanifestationsofthisprocess,somewhatdifferentinform,invariousreligions. Thereligiousneedofthemiddleandpettycitizenexpressesitselflessintheformof heroicmythsthanintheemotionallegend,whichhasatendencytowardinwardnessand edification.Thiscorrespondstothegreateremphasisuponpacifieddomesticandfamily lifeofthemiddleclasses,incontrasttotherulingstrata.Thismiddleclasstransformation ofreligioninthedirectionofdomesticityisillustratedbytheemergenceofthepiety (Bhakti)toagodlikesaviorinallHinducults,bothinthecreationoftheBodhisattva figureaswellasinthecultsofKrishna;andbythepopularityoftheedifyingmythsof thechildDionysos,Osiris,theChristchild,andtheirnumerousparallels.Theemergence ofthecitizenstrataasapowerholderwhichhelpedshapereligionundertheinfluenceof mendicantmonksresultedinthereplacingtheimperialisticartlikeNicolaPisano' s (122578)"Annunciation"byhissonGovenni' s(12501314)"Holyfamily,"justasthe KrishnachildisthedarlingofpopularartinIndia. Thesalvationalmythofgodwhohasassumedhumanformoritssaviorwhohasbeen deifiedis,aswellasmagic,acharacteristicconceptofpopularreligion,andhenceone thathasarisenquitespontaneouslyinverydifferentplaces.Ontheotherhand,thenotion ofanimpersonalandethicalcosmicorderthattranscendsthedeityandtheidealofan exemplarysalvationareintellectualisticconceptionswhicharedefinitelyalientothe massesandpossibleonlyforalaitythathasbeeneducatedalongethicallyrationallines. Thesameholdstrueforthedevelopmentofaconceptofanabsolutelytranscendental god.WiththeexceptionofJudaismandProtestantism,allreligionsandreligiousethics havehadtoreintroducecultsofsaints,heroesorfunctionalgodsinordertoaccommodate themselvestotheneedsofthemasses.ThusConfucianismpermittedsuchcults,inthe formoftheTaoistpantheon,tocontinuetheirexistencebyitsside.Similarly,as popularizedBuddhismspreadtomanylands,itallowedthevariousgodsoftheselandsto liveonasrecipientsoftheBuddhistcult,subordinatedtotheBuddha.Finally,Islamand Catholicismwerecompelledtoacceptlocal,functional,andoccupationalgodsassaints, thevenerationofwhichconstitutedtherealreligiosityofthemassesineverydaylife.

(E.7)WomenAndReligion Thereligionofthedisprivilegedstrata,incontrasttothearistocraticcultsofthemartial nobles,ischaracterizedbyatendencytoallotequalitytowomen.Thereisagreat diversityinthescopeofthereligiousparticipationpermittedtowomen,butthegreateror lesser,activeorpassiveparticipation(orexclusion)ofwomenfromthereligiouscultsis everywhereanindicationofthegroup' srelativepacification(ormilitarization)presentor past.Thepresenceofpriestesses,theprestigeoffemalesoothsayersorwitches,andthe mostextremedevotiontoindividualwomentowhomsupernaturalpowersandcharisma maybeattributed,however,doesnotbyanymeansimplythatwomenhaveequal privilegesinthecult.Conversely,equalizationofthesexesinprinciple,namely,in relationshiptogod,asitisfoundinChristianityandJudaismand,lessconsistently,in IslamandofficialBuddhism,maycoexistwithmen' scompletemonopolizationofthe priesthoodandoftherighttoactiveparticipationincommunityaffairs;onlymenare admittedtospecialprofessionaltrainingorassumedtopossessthenecessary qualifications.Thisistheactualsituationineverydayreligion. Thegreatreceptivityofwomentoallreligiousprophecyexceptthatwhichisexclusively militaryorpoliticalinorientationcomestoveryclearexpressioninthecompletely unbiasedrelationshipswithwomenmaintainedbypracticallyallprophets,theBuddhaas wellasChristandPythagoras.Butonlyinveryrarecasesdoesthispracticecontinue beyondthefirststageofareligiouscommunity,whenthepneumaticmanifestationsof charismaarevaluedashallmarksofspecificallyreligiousexaltation.Thereafter,as routinizationandregimentationofcommunityrelationshipssetin,areactiontakesplace againstpneumaticmanifestationsamongwomen,whichcometoberegardedasirregular andsick.InChristianitythisappearsalreadywithPaul. ItiscertainlytruethateverypoliticalandmilitaryprophecysuchasIslamisdirected exclusivelytomen.Indeed,thecultofawarlikespiritisfrequentlyputintotheserviceof controllingandlawfullyplunderingthehouseholdsofwomenbythemaleinhabitantsof thewarriorhouse,whoareorganizedintoasortofclub.ThishappensamongtheDuk dukinthePolynesianandelsewhereinmanysimilarperiodicfeastwithaheroicmask (numen).Whereveranascetictrainingofwarriorsinvolvingthe"rebirth"oftheheroisor hasbeendominant,womanisregardedaslackingahigherheroicsoulandis consequentlydesignatedasecondaryreligiousstatus.Thisobtainsinmostaristocraticor distinctivelymilitaristicculticcommunities. WomenarecompletelyexcludedfromtheofficialChinesecultsaswellasfromthoseof theRomansandBrahmins;noristhereligionoftheBuddhistintellectualsfeministic. Indeed,evenChristiansynodsaslateastheperiodoftheMerovingiansexpresseddoubts

regardingtheequalityofthesoulsofwomen.Ontheotherhand,intheOrientthe characteristiccultsofHinduismandonesegmentoftheBuddhistandTaoistsectsin China,andintheOccidentnotablyPaulineChristianitybutalsolaterthepneumaticand pacifistsectsofEasternandWesternEurope,derivedagreatdealoftheirmissionizing powerbyattractingandequalingwomen.InGreece,too,thecultofDionysosatitsfirst appearancegavetothewomenwhoparticipatedinitsorgiesanunusualdegreeof emancipationfromconventions.Thisfreedomsubsequentlybecamemoreandmore stylizedandregulated,bothartisticallyandceremonially;itsscopewastherebylimited, particularlytotheprocessionsandotherfestiveactivitiesofthevariouscults.Ultimately, therefore,thisfreedomlostallpracticalimportance. WhatgaveChristianityitsextraordinaryadvantage,asitconducteditsmissionary enterprisesamongthepettycitizenstrata,overitsmostimportantcompetitor,thereligion ofMithra,wasthatthisextremelymasculinecultexcludedwomen.Theresultduringa periodofuniversalpeacewasthattheadherentsofMithrahadtoseekoutfortheir womenasubstituteinothermysteries,forexample,thoseofCybele.Thishadtheeffect ofdestroying,evenwithinsinglefamilies,theunityanduniversalityofthereligious community,therebyprovidingastrikingcontrasttoChristianity.Asimilarresultwasto benotedinallthegenuinelyintellectualistcultsoftheGnostic,Manichean,and comparabletypes,thoughthisneednotnecessarilyhavebeenthecaseindoctrine. Itisbynomeanstruethatallreligionsof"brotherlylove"and"loveforone's enemy" achieveditsteachingthroughtheinfluenceofwomenorthroughthefeministcharacterof thereligion;thishascertainlynotbeentruefortheIndiannonkilling(ahimsa) religiosity.Theinfluenceofwomenonlytendedtointensifyemotionalorhysterical religiosity.SuchwasthecaseinIndia.Butitiscertainlyimportantthatsalvation religionstendedtoedifythenonmilitaryandevenantimilitaryvirtues,whichmusthave beenquiteclosetotheinterestsofdisprivilegedclassesandofwomen. (E.8)SocialStrataAndSenseOfDignity Thespecificimportanceofsalvationreligionforpoliticallyandeconomically disprivilegedsocialstrata,incontrasttoprivilegedstrata,maybeviewedfromaneven moregeneralperspective.Inourdiscussionofstatusandclassesweshallhaveagood dealtosayaboutthesenseofhonorordignityofthemosthighlyprivileged(non priestly)strata,particularlythenobility.[67]Theirsenseofdignityrestsonthe consciousnessoftheir"beings"thattheirqualitativelydistinctiveconductoflifeisan expressionoftheir"perfection."Indeed,itisintheverynatureofthecasethatthisshould bethebasisoftheirsenseofstatus.Ontheotherhand,thesenseofdignityofthe disprivilegedstratarestsonproclaimed"promise"forthefuturewhichisconnectedwith

theirassigned"function,""mission,"or"vocation."Insteadofwhattheycannotpretend totheir"beings,"thedisprivilegedplacetheirsenseofdignityeitherinwhattheyare "called"tothefuturelifeofthisworldortheworldbeyond,orinwhattheyprovidentially haveseentheir"meaning"andfulfilledtheir"achievement."Theirhungerforworthiness thathasnotfallentotheirlotcreatesthissenseofdignityfromtherationalisticideaof "providence,"thesignificanceofdivineorderandvaluesdifferentfromthatofthisworld. (E.8.a)LegitimacyofFortunate Thispsychologicalcondition,whenturnedoutwardtowardtheothersocialstrata, producescertaincharacteristiccontrastsinwhatreligionmust"provide"forthevarious socialstrata.Sinceeveryneedforsalvationisanexpressionofsome"distress,"socialor economicoppressionisannaturalsourceoftheneedofsalvation,thoughbynomeans theexclusivesource.Ontheotherhand,sociallyandeconomicallyprivilegedstratawill scarcelyfeeltheneedofsalvationfromsuchadistress.Rathertheyassigntoareligio, firstofall,thefunctionof"legitimizing"theirownstatusandconductoflifeintheworld. Thisuniversalphenomenonisrootedincertaingeneralpsychologicalsituations.The personoffortunateisnotcontentwiththefactofone's fortunatecomparedtothepersons ofunfortunate,butdesirestohavetherightofthefortune,the"consciousness"thatthe onehas"deserved"thegoodfortune,incontrasttotheunfortunateonewhomustequally have"deserved"themisfortune.Oureverydayexperienceshowsthatthereexistsjust suchaneedforpsychicsatisfactionaboutthelegitimacyofone's fortune,whetherthis involvespoliticalsuccess,superioreconomicsituation,bodilyhealth,winninginthe competitionoflove,oranythingelse.Whattheprivilegedrequireofreligion,ifanything atall,isthis"legitimation." Tobesure,noteveryprivilegedstratahasdesiredthislegitimationinthesamedegree. Forexample,martialheroesregardthegodsasbeingsofenvy.Solonsharedwithancient Jewishwisdomthesamebeliefinthedangerofthehighstatusofheroes.Thehero maintainedhissuperpowerstatusnotasagodbutoftenagainstthegods.Suchan attitudeisevincedintheHomericandsomeoftheHinduepics,incontrasttothe bureaucraticchroniclesofChinaandthepriestlychroniclesofIsrael,whichexpressafar strongerconcernforthelegitimacyoffortunateasthegod' srewardforsomevirtuous actionpleasingtothegod. Ontheotherhand,onefindsalmostuniversalbeliefthatmisfortuneisbroughtbythe wrathorenvyofeitherdemonsorgods.Practicallyeveryfolkreligion,includingthe ancientHebrew,andparticularlythemodernChinese,regardsphysicalinfirmityasasign ofmagical,ritualorethicaltransgressiononthepartoftheunfortunate,or(asinJudaism) ofhisancestors.Accordingly,inthesetraditionsapersonofinfirmityisprohibitedfrom

participatingatthecommunalsacrificesofthepoliticalcommunitybecausethepersonis loadedwiththewrathofthegodandmustnotenterinthecircleoffortunateandgod's pleasingones.Inpracticallyeveryethicalreligionofprivilegedstrataandtheirpriests, theprivilegedordisprivilegedsocialpositionoftheindividualisregardedassomehow religiouslyacquired.Whatvariesisonlytheformbywhichgoodfortuneislegitimized. (E.8.b)CompensationofDisprivileged Incontrast,thereverseruleisthesituationofthedisprivileged.Theirparticularneedis forsalvationfromsuffering.Theydonotalwaysexperiencethisneedforsalvationina religiousform,asshownbytheexampleofthemodernemployedpeople.Furthermore, theirneedforreligioussalvation,whereitexists,maytakediverseforms.Inparticular,it always,thoughinvariousdegreeofimprint,involvesaneedofjust"compensation,"that is,"reward"forone' sgooddeedsand"punishment"forother's injustice.Thus,besides magicanditsconnection,thisfairly"calculable"expectationofjustcompensationisthe mostwidelydiffusedformofmassreligionallovertheworld.Evenpropheticreligions, whichrejectedthemechanicalformsofthisbelief,tendedastheyunderwent popularizationandroutinizationtoslipbackintotheseexpectationsofcompensation.The typeandscopeofthesehopesforcompensationandsalvationvariedgreatlydepending onthereligiouspromises,especiallywhenthesehopeswereprojectedfromtheearthly existenceoftheindividualintoafuturelife. (E.9)PariahStatus (E.9.a)JewsandHinduCastes Judaism,inbothitsexilicandpostexilictimes,illustratesaparticularlyimportantofthe contentofreligiouspromises.SincetheExile,asamatteroffact,andformallysincethe destructionoftheTemple(AD50),theJewsbecamea"pariahpeople"intheparticular sensepresentlytobedefined.Inourterm,"pariahpeople"meanshereditaryclosedsocial groupwithoutpoliticalautonomy.Jewishpariahpeopleischaracterizedbyfollowing interrelatedexternaltraits:ontheonehand,atableandmarriagecommunitywith (originallymagical)tabooandritualsanctionsexcludingoutsidersand,ontheother,far distinctivelyparticularizedeconomicactivitythroughpoliticalandsocialdisprivilege. TheJewish"pariahpeople,"however,isnotidenticalwiththe"pariahcaste"inIndiain thesensethat,forexample,theterm"Kadijustice"isnotidenticalwithKadi'sactual legaldecision.

Tobesure,thepariahcasteofIndia,thedisprivilegedandoccupationallyspecialized Hindustrata,ismostresembletotheJewishpariahpeople,sinceHindupariahstatusis alsoexcludedtooutsidersthroughtabooisticsanctions,connectedtohereditaryreligious obligationsoftheirconductoflife,andboundtosalvationhopes.TheseHinducastesand Jewsshowthesamecharacteristiceffectsofapariahreligion:themoredepressedthe positioninwhichthemembersofthepariahstatusfoundthemselves,themoreclosely didthereligioncausethemtoclingtooneanotherandtotheirpariahpositionandthe morepowerfulbecamethesalvationhopeswhichwereconnectedwiththefulfillmentof thedivinelycommandedreligiousduties.Aswehavealreadymentioned,[68]thelowest Hinducastesinparticularclungtotheircastedutiesastheconditionfortheirrebirthinto abetterlife. ThetiebetweenYahwehandhispeoplebecamethemoreindissolubleaspainful humiliationandpersecutionpresseddownupontheJews.Inobviouscontrasttothe orientalChristians,whoundertheUmayyadsstreamedintotheprivilegedreligionof Islaminsuchnumbersthatthepoliticalauthoritieshadtomakeconversiondifficultfor themintheinterestsoftheprivilegedstratum,allthefrequentmassconversionsofthe Jewsbyforce,whichmighthaveobtainedforthemtheprivilegesoftherulingstratum, remainedineffectual.ForboththeJewsandtheHinducastes,theonlymeansforthe attainmentofsalvationwastofulfillthespecialreligiouscommandmentsimposedupon thepariahstatus,fromwhichnonemightwithdrawoneselfwithoutbringingthecurseof evilmagicorendangeringthechancesofrebirthforoneselforone'sde scendants. ThedifferencebetweenJudaismandHinducastereligionisdistinguishedonlybythe typeofsalvationhopesunderlined.Fromthefulfillmentofthereligiousobligations,the Hinduexpectedanimprovementinone's personalchancesofrebirth,namely,the reincarnationofone's soulintoahighercaste.Ontheotherhand,theJewexpectedthe participationofhisdescendantsinamessianickingdomwhichwouldredeemtheentire pariahcommunityfromitsdisprivilegedpositionandinfactraiseittoapositionofruler intheworld.SurelyYahwehpromisedthatallthenationsoftheworldwouldborrow fromtheJewsbutthatJewswouldborrowfromthem.[69]Thishadmeantmorethanthat theJewswouldbecomealltimemoneylendersintheworld.Yahwehinsteadintendedto placetheminthetypicalsituationofcitizensofapowerfulcitystateinAntiquity,who heldasdebtorsanddebtslavestheinhabitantsofnearbysubjectvillagesandtowns.The Jewwroughtinbehalfofhisactualdescendants,who,ontheanimisticinterpretation, wouldconstitutehisearthlyimmortality.TheHindualsopursuedforahumanlifeofthe future,towhomonewasboundbyarelationshiponlyiftheanimisticdoctrinesof transmigrationwerepresupposed,namely,thefutureincarnationofone' ssoul.The Hindu' sconceptionleftunchangedforalltimethecastestratificationinthisworldand thepositionofeachcastewithinit;indeed,theHindusoughttofitthefuturestateofone' s ownindividualsoulintothisveryorderofranks.Instrikingcontrast,theJewsanticipated theirsalvationthrougharevolutionoftheexistingsocialstratificationforthesakeof

god' spariahpeople,whohadbeenchosenandcallednottoapariahpositionbuttooneof prestige. (E.9.b)JewishResentment ThustheelementofresentmentgainedimportanceintheJewishethicalsalvation religion,[70]whichhadbeencompletelylackinginallmagicalandcastereligions. Resentmentisaconcomitantofparticularreligiousethicofthedisprivileged.Itis connectedfirstofallwiththe"compensationreligiosity,"sinceonceareligious conceptionofcompensationhasarisen,"suffering"maybetakenaccountofthereligious merit,inviewofthegreathopesoffuturecompensation. Suchnotionofresentmentmaybeworkedbyasceticdoctrinesontheonehand,orby characteristicneuroticpredispositionsontheother.However,thereligionofsuffering acquiresthespecificcharacterofresentmentonlyunderspecialcircumstances. ResentmentisnotfoundamongtheHindusandBuddhists,forwhompersonalsuffering isindividuallymerited.ButthesituationisquitedifferentamongtheJews.Thereligion ofthePsalmsisfulloftherequestofvengeance,[71]andthesamemotifoccursinthe priestlyrewritingsofancientIsraelitetraditions.ThemajorityofthePsalmsarequite obviouslyrepletewiththemoralisticlegitimationandsatisfactionofanopenandhardly concealedquestforvengeanceonthepartofapariahpeople.[72]InthePsalmsthequest forvengeancemaytaketheformofremonstratingGodbecausemisfortunehasovertaken therighteousindividual,notwithstandinghisobediencetoGod' scommandments, whereasthegodlessconductoftheheathen,despitetheirmockeryofGod's power, commandmentsandauthority,hasbroughtthemfortuneandleftthemproud.Thesame questforvengeancemayexpressitselfasaformofhumbleconfessionofone' sown sinfulness,accompaniedbyaprayertoGodtodesistfromhisangeratlonglastandto turnhisgraceonceagaintowardthepeoplewhoultimatelyareuniquelyhisown.Inboth forms,resentmentisboundtothehopethatthewrathofGodwillfinallyhavebeen appeasedandwillturnitselftopunishingthegodlessfoesaswellasmakingofthemat somefuturedaythefootstoolofIsrael,justasthepriestlyhistoriographyhadassignedto theCanaaniteenemiesasimilarfate.Resentmentwasalsoconnectedwiththehopethat thisexaltedconditionwouldenduresolongasIsraeldidnotarouseGod' sangerby disobedience,therebymeritingsubjugationatthehandsoftheheathen.Itmaybetrue,as moderncommentatorswouldhaveit,thatsomeofthesePsalmsexpressthepersonal indignationofpiousPhariseesovertheirpersecutionatthehandsofAlexanderJannaeus (10376BC).Nevertheless,adistinctiveselectionandpreservationisevident;andinany case,otherPsalmsarequiteobviouslyreactionstothedistinctivepariahstatusofthe Jewsasapeople.

Innootherreligionintheworlddowefindauniversaldeitypossessingtheunparalleled desireforvengeancemanifestedbyYahweh.Indeed,analmostunfailingindexofthe historicalvalueofthedataprovidedbythepriestlyrewritingofhistoryisthattheeventin question,asforexamplethebattleofMegiddo,doesnotfulfillthistheodicyof compensationandvengeance.[73]Thus,theJewishreligionbecamenotablyareligionof retribution.God's commandmentswereobservedforthesakeofthehopeof compensation.Moreover,thiswasoriginallyacollectivehopethatthepeopleasawhole wouldlivetoseethatdayofrestoration,andthatonlyinthiswaywouldtheindividualbe abletoregainone'sow nhonor. Theredevelopedconcomitantly,intermingledwiththeaforementionedcollective theodicy,anindividualtheodicyofpersonaldestinywhichhadpreviouslybeentakenfor granted.TheproblemsofindividualdestinyareexploredintheBookofJob,whichwas producedbyquitedifferentcircles,namely,theupperstrata,andwhichculminatesina renunciationofanysolutionoftheproblemandasubmissiontotheabsolutesovereignty ofGodoverhiscreatures.Thissubmissionwastheprecursoroftheteachingof predestinationinPuritanism.Thenotionofpredestinationwasboundtoarisewhenthe pathosofdivinelydestinedeternalpunishmentinhellwasaddedtothecomplexofideas justdiscussed,involvingcompensationandtheabsolutesovereigntyofGod.Butthe beliefinpredestinationdidnotariseamongtheHebrewsofthattime.Amongthem,the conclusionoftheBookofJobremainedalmostcompletelymisunderstoodinthesense intendedbyitsauthor,mainly,asiswellknown,becauseoftheunshakablestrengthof theteachingofcollectivecompensationintheJewishreligion. InthemindofthepiousJewthemoralismofthelawwasinevitablycombinedwiththe aforementionedhopeforrevenge,whichsuffusedpracticallyalltheexilicandpostexilic sacredscriptures.Moreover,throughtwoandahalfthousandyearsthishopeforrevenge appearedinvirtuallyeverydivineserviceoftheJewishpeopleapeopleindissolubly chainedtoreligiouslysanctifiedsegregationfromtheotherpeoplesoftheworldandthis worldlypromisesofGod.FromsuchacompensatoryhopetheJewswereboundtoderive newstrength,consciouslyorunconsciously.YetastheMessiahdelayedhisarrival,this hoperecededinthereligiousthinkingoftheintellectualsinfavorofthevalueofaninner awarenessofGodoramildlyemotionaltrustinGod' sgoodnessassuch,combinedwitha readinessforpeacewithalltheworld.Thishappenedespeciallyinperiodsduringwhich thesocialconditionofacommunitylostcompletepoliticalpower.Ontheotherhand,in epochscharacterizedbypersecutions,liketheperiodoftheCrusades,thehopefor retributionflamedupanew,eitherwithapenetratingbutvaincrytoGodforrevenge,or withaprayerthatthesouloftheJewmight"becomeasdust"beforetheenemywhohad cursedhim.Inthelattercasetherewasnorecoursetoevilwordsordeeds,butonlya silentwaitingforthefulfillmentofGod's commandmentsandthecultivationoftheheart sothatitwouldremainopentoGod.

TointerpretresentmentasthedecisiveelementinJudaismwouldbeunacceptable deviation,inviewofthemanysignificanthistoricalchangeswhichJudaismhas undergone.Nevertheless,wemustnotunderestimatetheinfluenceofresentmentupon eventhebasiccharacteristicsoftheJewishreligion.WhenonecomparesJudaismwith othersalvationreligions,onefindsthatinJudaismaloneresentmenthasaspecifictrait andplayedauniquerolenotfoundamongthedisprivilegedstatusofanyotherreligion. (E.9.c)TheodicyofDisprivilege Atheodicyofdisprivilege,insomeform,isacomponentofeverysalvationreligion whichdrawsitsadherentsprimarilyfromthedisprivilegedstrata,andthedeveloping priestlyethicaccommodatedtothistheodicywhereveritwasacomponentofcommunal religionbasedonsuchgroups.Theabsenceofresentment,andalsoofvirtuallyanykind ofsocialrevolutionaryethicsamongthepiousHinduandtheAsiaticBuddhistcanbe explainedbyreferencetotheirtheodicyofrebirth,accordingtowhichthecasteorder itselfiseternalandabsolutelyjust.Thevirtuesorsinsofaformerlifedeterminebirth intoaparticularcaste,andone's behaviorinthepresentlifedeterminesone's chancesof improvementinthenextrebirth.Thoselivingunderthistheodicyexperiencednotraceof theconflictexperiencedbytheJewsbetweenthesocialclaimsbasedonGod' spromises andtheactualconditionsofdishonorunderwhichtheylived. (E.9.c.1)JewishTheodicy ThisconflictprecludedanypossibilityoffindingeaseinthislifefortheJews,wholived incontinuoustensionwiththeiractualsocialpositionandinperpetuallyfruitless expectationandhope.TheJews't heodicyofdisprivilegewasdespisedbythepitiless mockeryofthegodlessheathen,butfortheJewsthetheodicyhadtheconsequenceof transformingreligiouscriticismofthegodlessheathenintoeverwatchfulconcernover theirownfidelitytothelaw.Thispreoccupationwasfrequentlytingedwithbitterness andthreatenedbysecretselfcriticism. TheJewwasnaturallyprone,asaresultofhislifelongschooling,tocasuisticwatchupon thereligiousobligationsofthefellowJews,onwhosepunctiliousobservanceofreligious lawthewholepeopleultimatelydependedforYahweh'sfa vor.Thereappearedthat peculiarmixtureofelementscharacteristicofpostexilictimeswhichcombineddespairat findinganymeaninginthisworldofvanitywithsubmissiontothechastisementofGod, anxietylestonesinagainstGodthroughpride,andfinallyafearriddenpunctiliousness inritualandmorals.AllthesetensionsforcedupontheJewadesperatestruggle,no longerfortherespectfromothers,butforselfrespectandasenseofdignity.Thestruggle

forasenseofpersonalworthmusthavebecomeprecariousagainandagain,threatening towreckthewholemeaningoftheindividual'sc onductoflife,sinceultimatelythe fulfillmentofGod's promisewastheonlycriterionofone'sva luebeforeGodatanygiven time. SuccessinhisoccupationactuallybecameonetangibleproofofGod' spersonalfavorfor theJewlivingintheghetto.Buttheconceptionof"proof"inagod's pleasing"calling,"in thesenseofinnerworldlyasceticism,isnotapplicabletotheJew.FortheJews,God's blessingwasfarlessanchoredinasystematic,ascetic,andrationalmethodologyoflife thanforthePuritans,whomthiswastheonlypossiblesourceofthecertaintyof salvation.InJudaism,justasthesexualethicremainednaturalisticandantiascetic,so alsodidtheeconomicethicremainstronglytraditionalisticinitsprinciple.Itwas characterizedbyanaiveenjoymentofwealth,whichisofcoursealientoanysystematic asceticism.Inaddition,Jewishjustificationbyworkisfundamentallyritualisticcharacter infusedwiththedistinctivereligiosityofmood.Wemustnotethatthetraditionalistic normoftheJewisheconomicethicsselfevidentlyappliedonlytoone'sfe llowpeople, nottooutsiders,whichwasthecaseineveryancientethics.Allinall,then,thebeliefin Yahweh'spromi sesactuallyproducedwithintherealmofJudaismitselfastrong componentofresentment. (E.9.c.2)Jesus'sTea ching Itwouldbecompletelyfalsetoportraytheneedforsalvation,theodicy,orcommunal religionassomethingthatdevelopedonlyamongdisprivilegedsocialstrataorevenonly asaproductofresentment,hencemerelyastheoutcomeofa"slaverevoltinmorality." ThiswouldnotevenbetrueofancientChristianity,althoughitdirecteditspromisesmost sympatheticallytothe"poor"inspiritandinmaterials.Onthecontrary,whatimmediate consequencehastofollowfromJesus' sprophecycanbeeasilyobservedinthe devaluationandbreakingoftherituallaws(whichhadbeenpurposefullycomposedto segregatetheJewsfromtheouterworld)andtheconsequentdissolutionofthereligious bondageofthefaithfultothecastelikepositionofapariahpeople.Tobesure,theearly Christianprophecycontainedverydefiniteelementsof"retribution"doctrine,inthesense ofthefutureequalizationofhumanfates(mostclearlyexpressedinthelegendof Lazarus)[74]andofvengeanceasGod' sbusiness.[75]Moreover,heretootheNationof Godisinterpretedasanearthlykingdom,inthefirstinstanceapparentlyarealmsetapart particularlyorprimarilyfortheJews,fortheyfromancienttimeshadbelievedinthetrue God.Yet,inChristianity,preciselythecharacteristicandpenetratingresentmentof Jewishpariahreligiositywasrootedoutbytheconsequenceofthenewreligious promises.

Tobesure,Jesus'ownwa rnings,accordingtothetradition,ofthedangersofwealthfor theattainmentofsalvationwerenotmotivatedbyasceticismorresentment.Forthe traditionhaspreservedmanyevidencesofJesus'i ntercourse,notonlywithpublicans (whointhePalestineofthatperiodweremostlysmallusurers),butalsowithother wealthynobles.[76]Hiswaringofwealthwasratherbasedonhisteachingofthe indifferencetoworldlymattersduetotheimmediacyofadventexpectations.Certainly, therichyoungpersonwasunabletoleavehiswealthandthe"world"unconditionallyto becomeperfect,namely,adisciple.ButforGodallthingsarepossible,eventhesalvation ofthewealthy,despitethedifficultiesintheway.[77]Therewereno"propertyless' s instincts"intheteachingofJesus,theprophetofuniversallovewhobroughttothepoor inspiritandinmaterialthegoodnewsoftheimmediatecomingoftheKingdomofGod andoffreedomfromthepowerofdemons. (E.9.c.3)BuddhistDoctrine Similarly,anyproletariandenunciationofwealthwouldhavebeenequallyalientothe Buddha,forwhomtheunconditionalwithdrawalfromtheworldwasabsolute presuppositionforsalvation.Buddhismconstitutesthemostradicalantithesistoevery typeofresentmentreligiosity.[78]Buddhismclearlyaroseasthesalvationteachingofan intellectualstratum,originallyrecruitedalmostentirelyfromtheprivilegedcastes, especiallythewarriorcaste,whichproudlyandaristocraticallyrejectedtheillusionsof life,bothhereandhereafter.Buddhismmaybecomparedinsocialproveniencetothe salvationteachingsoftheGreeks,particularlytheNeoPlatonic,Manichean,andGnostic doctrineofsalvation,eventhoughtheyareradicallydifferentincontent.TheBuddhist monk(bhikshu)doesnotdesiretheworldatall,notevenarebirthintoparadisenorto teachthepersonwhodoesnotdesiresalvation(Nirvana). PreciselythisexampleofBuddhismdemonstratesthattheneedforsalvationandethical religionhasyetanothersourcebesidesthesocialconditionofthedisprivilegedandthe rationalismofthecitizen,whowereconditionedbytheirpracticalsituationoflife.This additionalfactorisintellectualismassuch,moreparticularlythephilosophicalneedsof thehumanmindasitisdriventoreflectonethicalandreligiousquestions,drivennotby materialneedbutbyaninnerneedtounderstandtheworldasameaningfulcosmosand totakeupapositiontowardit. (F)INTELLECTUALISMANDRELIGION (F.1)PrivilegedIntellectualism

(F.1.a)Priest Thecourseofreligionshasbeeninfluencedinamostdiversewaybyintellectualismand itsvariousrelationshipstothepriesthoodandpoliticalpowers.Theserelationshipswere inturninfluencedbytheprovenienceofthestratumwhichwasthecarrierofspecific intellectualism.Atfirstthepriesthooditselfwasacarrierofspecificintellectualism, particularlywhereversacredscripturesexisted,whichwouldmakeitnecessaryforthe priesthoodtobecomealiteraryguildengagedininterpretingthescripturesandteaching theircontent,meaning,andproperapplication.Butnosuchdevelopmenttookplacein theancientcitystates,andnotablynotamongthePhoenicians,Greeks,orRomans;nor wasthisphenomenonpresentintheethicsofChina.Intheseinstancesthedevelopment ofallmetaphysicalandethicalthoughtfellintothehandsofnonpriests,asdidthe developmentoftheology,whichdevelopedtoonlyaverylimitedextent,forexample,in Hesiod. Bycontrast,thedevelopmentofintellectualismbythepriesthood,wastruetothehighest degreeinIndia,inEgypt,inBabylonia,inZoroastrianism,inIslam,andinancientand medievalChristianity.Sofarastheologyisconcerned,thedevelopmentofintellectualism bythepriesthoodhasalsotakenplaceinmodernChristianity.InthereligionsofEgypt, inZoroastrianism,insomephasesofancientChristianity,andinBrahmanismduringthe ageoftheVedas(15001000BC,namely,beforetheriseoflayasceticismandthe philosophyoftheUpanishads)thepriesthoodsucceededinlargelymonopolizingthe developmentofreligiousmetaphysicsandethics.Suchapriestlymonopolywasalso presentinJudaismandIslam.ButinJudaismitwasstronglyreducedbythestrong impactoflayprophecy,andinIslamtheveryimpressivepowerofthepriesthoodwas limitedbythechallengeofSufispeculation. InallthebranchesofBuddhismandIslam,aswellasinancientandmedieval Christianity,itwasthemonksorgroupsorientedtomonasticismwho,besidesthepriests orintheirstead,concernedthemselveswithandwroteinalltheareasoftheologicaland ethicalthought,aswellasinmetaphysicsandconsiderablesegmentsofscience.In addition,theyalsooccupiedthemselveswiththeproductionofartsandliterature.The culticimportanceofthesingerplayedaroleinbringingepic,lyricalandironicpoetry intotheVedasinIndiaandtheeroticpoetryofIsraelintotheBible;thepsychological affinityofmysticandpneumaticemotiontopoeticinspirationshapedtheroleofthe mysticinthepoetryofboththeOrientandOccident. Buthereweareconcernednotwithliteraryproductionbutwiththeformationof religiosityitselfbytheparticularcharacteroftheintellectualstratawhoexerteda decisiveinfluenceuponit.Theintellectualinfluenceuponreligionofthepriesthood,

evenwhereitwasthechiefcarrierofliterature,wasofquitevariedscope,dependingon whichnonpriestlystrataopposedthepriesthoodandonthepowerpositionofthe priesthooditself.Thespecificallypriestlyinfluencereacheditsstrongestdegreeinlate ZoroastrianismandinthereligionsofEgyptandBabylonia.AlthoughJudaismofthe Deuteronomicandexilicperiods(600400BC)waspropheticinessence,thepriesthood exertedamarkedformativeinfluenceuponthedevelopingreligion.InlaterJudaism, however,itwasnotthepriestbuttherabbiwhoexercisedthedecisiveinfluence. Christianitywasdecisivelyinfluencedbythepriesthoodandbymonasticismattheendof Antiquity(400500AD)andintheHighMiddleAges(10001200AD),andthenagainin theperiodoftheCounterReformation(16001700AD).Pastoralinfluenceswere dominantinLutheranismandearlyCalvinism.Hinduismwasformedandinfluencedto anextraordinarydegreebytheBrahmins,atleastinitsinstitutionalandsocial components.ThisappliesparticularlytothecasteorderthatarosewherevertheBrahmins arrived,thesocialhierarchyofwhichwasultimatelydeterminedbytherankthe Brahminsassignedtoeachparticularcaste.Buddhisminallitsvarieties,butparticularly Lamaism,hasbeenthoroughlyinfluencedbymonasticism,whichhastoalesserdegree influencedlargegroupsinorientalChristianity. (F.1.b)PrivilegedLayIntellectuals Hereweareparticularlyconcernedwiththerelationshiptothepriesthoodofthenon priestlylayintellectualsotherthanthemonks,andinaddition,withtherelationofthe intellectualstratatothereligiosityandtheirpositionwithinthereligiouscommunity.We pointouthereafactoffundamentalimportancethatallthegreatreligiousteachingsof Asiaarecreationsofintellectuals.ThesalvationteachingsofBuddhismandJainism,as wellasallrelateddoctrines,werecarriedbyalayintellectualwhoreceivedthetrainingin theVedas.Thistraining,thoughnotalwaysofastrictlyscholarlynature,wasappropriate totheeducationofHinduaristocrats,particularlymembersoftheKshatriyanobility,who stoodinoppositiontotheBrahmins.InChinathecarriersofConfucianism,beginning withthefounderhimselfandincludingLaoTzu,whoisofficiallyregardedastheinitiator ofTaoism,wereeitherofficialswhohadreceivedaclassicalliteraryeducationor philosopherswithcorrespondingtraining. ThereligionsofChinaandIndiadisplaycounterpartsofpracticallyallthetheoretical variantsofGreekphilosophy,thoughfrequentlyinmodifiedform.Confucianism,asthe officialethicofChina,wasentirelycarriedbytheofficialsandtheircandidatesbya groupofaspirantstoofficialpositionswhohadreceivedaclassicalliteraryeducation, whileTaoismbecameapopularenterpriseofpracticalmagic.Thegreatreformsof HinduismwereaccomplishedbyaristocraticintellectualswhohadreceivedaBrahminic education,althoughsubsequentlytheorganizationofcommunitiesfrequentlyfellintothe handsofmembersoflowercastes.Thus,theprocessofreforminIndiatookanother

directionfromthatoftheReformationinNorthernEurope,whichwasalsoledby educatedhumanswhohadreceivedprofessionalclericaltraining,aswellasfromthatof theCatholicCounterReformation,whichatfirstfounditschiefsupportfromJesuits trainedinlogicalargument,likeSalmeronandLainez.Thecourseofthereform movementinIndiadifferedalsofromthereconstructionofIslamicdoctrinebyAl Ghazali(AD10581111),whichcombinedmysticismandorthodoxy,withleadership remainingpartlyinthehandsoftheofficialhierarchyandpartlyinthehandsofanewly developedofficenobilitywiththeologicaltraining.Sotoo,ManichaeismandGnosticism, thesalvationreligionsoftheNearEast,arebothspecificallyreligionsofintellectuals. Thisistrueoftheirfounders,theirchiefcarriers,andthecharacteroftheirsalvation teachingsaswell. Inallthesecases,inspiteofvariousdifferencesamongthereligionsinquestion,the intellectualstratawererelativelyhighinthesocialstatusandpossessedphilosophical trainingthatcorrespondedtothatoftheGreekschoolsofphilosophyortothemost learnedtypesofmonasticorsecularhumanistictrainingofthelatemedievalperiod. Thesegroupswerethebearersoftheethicorthesalvationdoctrineineachcase.Thus intellectualstratamight,withinagivenreligioussituation,constituteanacademic enterprisecomparabletothatofthePlatonicacademyandtherelatedschoolsof philosophyinGreece.Inthatcasetheintellectualstrata,likethoseinGreece,wouldtake noofficialpositionregardingexistingreligiouspractice.Theyoftenignoredor philosophicallyreinterpretedtheexistingreligiouspracticeratherthandirectly withdrawingthemselvesfromit.Ontheirpart,theofficialrepresentativesofthecult,like thestateofficialschargedwithculticobligationinChinaortheBrahminsinIndia,tended totreatthedoctrineoftheintellectualsaseitherorthodoxorheterodox,thelatterinthe casesofthematerialisticdoctrineofChinaandthedualistSankhyaphilosophyofIndia. Wecannotenterintoanyadditionaldetailshereregardingthesemovements,whichhave aprimarilyacademicorientationandareonlyindirectlyrelatedtopracticalreligiosity. Ourchiefinterestisratherinthoseothermovements,previouslymentioned,whichare particularlyconcernedwiththecreationofareligiousethic.Ourbestexamplesin classicalAntiquityarethePythagoreansandNeoPlatonists.Thesemovementsof intellectualshaveuniformlyarisenamongsociallyprivilegedstrataorhavebeenledor decisivelyinfluencedbypeoplefromthesestrata. (F.2)IntellectualSalvation (F.2.a)SocialConditions Theriseofasalvationreligionbysociallyprivilegedstratanormallyhasthebestchance whendemilitarizationhassetinforthesestrataandwhentheyhavelosteitherthe

possibilityofpoliticalactivityortheinterestinit.Consequently,asalvationreligion usuallyemergeswhentheprivilegedmanorialorcitizenrystratahavelosttheirpolitical powertoabureaucraticmilitaristicunitarystate,orwhentheyhavewithdrawnfrom politics,forwhateverreason.Asalvationreligionalsoemergeswhentheprivileged strata,asaconsequenceofintellectualeducation,regardtheultimatemeaningoftheir philosophicalandpsychologicalexistencefarmoreimportantthantheirpracticalactivity intheexternalaffairsofthisworld.Thisdoesnotmeanthatthesalvationreligionsarise onlyatsuchtimes.Onthecontrary,theinnerconceptionsofsalvationmaysometimes arisewithoutthestimulusofsuchcircumstantialconditions,asaresultoffreereflection inperiodsofdynamicpoliticalorsocialchange.Butinthatcasesuchmodesofthinking tendtobeakindofundergroundexistence,normallybecomingdominantonlywhenthe intellectualshaveundergonedepoliticization. (F.2.b)Asia Confucianism,theethicofapowerfulofficialdom,rejectedallteachingsofsalvation.On theotherhand,JainismandBuddhism,whichprovideradicalantithesestoConfucianist accommodationtotheworld,wereobjectiveexpressionsoftheutterlyantipolitical, pacifistic,andworldrejectingattitudeoftheintellectuals.Wedonotknow,however, whetherthesometimesconsiderablefollowingofthesetworeligionsinIndiawas increasedwherethedepoliticizationoftheintellectualhadundergone.Thelackofany sortofpoliticalpathosforunificationamongtinystatesheadedbyminorHinduprinces beforethetimeofAlexander,wascontrastedwiththeimpressiveunityofBrahmanism (whichwasgraduallyforgingtothefronteverywhereinIndia).Thisconditionwasin itselfenoughtoinducetheintellectualeducatedcirclesofthenobilitytoseekfulfillment oftheirinterestsoutsideofpolitics.Thereforethescripturallypraisedworldrenunciation oftheBrahminforestdwellers(vanaprastha),whosurrenderhisportioninoldage,and thepopularvenerationofthemresultedinthedevelopmentofnonBrahminicascetics (shramanas).[79]Inanycase,theshramanas,asthepossessorsofasceticcharisma,soon outstrippedtheofficialpriesthoodinpopularveneration.Thismonasticformofpolitical indifferencehadbeenprevalentamongthenoblesofIndiasinceveryearlytimes,long beforeapoliticalphilosophicaldoctrinesofsalvationaroseinthe6thcenturyBC. (F.2.c)NearEastandWest TheNearEasternsalvationreligions,whetherofamysticcultorprophetictype,aswell astheOrientalandHellenisticsalvationdoctrines,whetherofamorereligioustypeora morephilosophicaltypeofwhichlayintellectualswerethecarriers,were,insofarasthey includedthesociallyprivilegedstrataatall,virtuallywithoutexceptiontheconsequence oftheeducatedstrata' senforcedorvoluntarywithdrawalfrompoliticalinfluenceand

activity.InBabyloniatheturntosalvationreligion,intersectedbycomponentswhose proveniencewasoutsideBabylonia,appearedfirstinMandaeanisminthe3rdcentury AD.ThereligionofintellectualsintheNearEasttookthisturnfirstthroughparticipation inthecultofMithraandthecultsofothersaviors,andthenthroughparticipationinthe cultsofGnosticismandManichaeism,afterallpoliticalinteresthadbeenbrokeninthe educatedstrata.InGreecetherehadalwaysbeensalvationreligionamongtheintellectual strata,evenbeforethePythagoreansectarose,butitdidnotdominateamongpolitically decisivestrata.Thespreadofphilosophicalsalvationdoctrineandthepropagandaof salvationcultsamongtheprivilegedlaystrataduringlateHellenicandRomantimes parallelsthesestrata's finalturningasidefrompoliticalactivity.Indeed,thesomewhat esteemed"religious"interestsofourGermanintellectualsofthepresenttime(1915)are intimatelyconnectedwithpoliticalfrustrationsthatresultedintheirpoliticaldisinterest. (F.2.d)IntellectualCharacters Questsforsalvationamongprivilegedstrataaregenerallycharacterizedbyadisposition towardan"illumination"mysticism,tobediscussedlater,[80]whichisassociatedwitha distinctivelyintellectualqualificationforsalvation.Thisbringsaboutastrong devaluationofthenatural,sensual,andphysicalelements,asconstituting,accordingto theirpsychologicalexperience,temptationstodeviatefromthisdistinctiveroadto salvation.Thearticulatedandprecariousrefinementofsexuality,alongwiththe simultaneoussuppressionofnormalsexualityinfavorofsubstituterelease,were determinedbytheconductoflifeofthosewhomightbetermed"nothingbut intellectuals";andtheserefinementsandsuppressionsofsexualityoccasionallyplayeda roleforpsychologicalprocesses.[81]Thesephenomenaarestronglyreminiscentof certainphenomena,especiallyintheGnosticmysteries,whichclearlyappeartohave beensublimatedmasturbatorysubstitutionsfortheorgiesofthepeasantry.Thesepurely psychologicalpreconditionsofthereligiosityareintersectedbytherationalisticquestof intellectualismtoconceivetheworldasameaningfulcosmos.Sometypicaloutcomesare theHindudoctrineofkarma(ofwhichmorewillbesaidpresently)anditsBuddhist variant;theBookofJobamongtheHebrews,whichpresumablyoriginatedinaristocratic intellectualcircles;andthecomparableelementsinEgyptianliterature,inGnostic speculation,andinManicheandualism. Onceasalvationdoctrineandanethicofintellectualistoriginhastransformedtoan officialreligionofthemasses,esotericismoraristocraticstatusethicarisestoadjustthe needsoftheintellectuallytrainedcircles.Meanwhile,however,thesalvationreligionhas becomeadoctrineofapopularmagicalsaviortomeettheneedsofthenonintellectual masses.ThusinChina,alongsidetheConfucianiststatusethicofthebureaucrats,who werecompletelyuninterestedinsalvation,TaoistmagicandBuddhistsacramentaland ritualgracesurvivedinafossilizedformforthefolkreligiosity,whichweredespisedby

thosewhohadreceivedaclassicaleducation.Similarly,theBuddhistsalvationethicof themonasticaristocracylivedonalongsidethemagicandidolatryofthelaity,the continuedexistenceoftabooisticmagic,andthenewdevelopmentofasaviorreligion withinHinduism.InGnosticismanditsrelatedcultstheintellectualistreligiontookthe formofmysticcult,withahierarchyofsanctificationsfromwhichtheunilluminated "pious"(pistis)wereexcluded. Thesalvationsoughtbytheintellectualisalwaysfrominnerdistress,andhenceitismore remotefromlife,moreprincipleandmoresystematicthansalvationfromexternal distress,whichischaracteristicofnonprivilegedstrata.Theintellectualseeksinvarious ways,thecasuistryofwhichextendsintoinfinity,toendowone's conductoflifewitha "meaning,"andthustofind"unity"withone' sself,withhumanbeings,andwiththe cosmos.Itistheintellectualwhoconceivesofthe"world"asaproblemof"meaning."As intellectualismsuppressesbeliefsinmagic,theprocessesoftheworldincreasingly becomesfreefrommagic,andlosestheirmagical"meaningcontents,"andhenceforth magicmay"exist"or"happen,"butnolong"signify"anything.Asaconsequence,there isagrowingdemandthattheworldandthe"conductoflife,"asawhole,shouldbe orderedsignificantlyand"meaningfully." Thetensionbetweenthispostulateofmeaningfulnessandtheempiricalrealitiesofthe worldanditsorders,andone's conductoflifeintheempiricalworld,determinedforthe intellectual's characteristicwithdrawalfromtheworld.Thismaybeanescapeinto absoluteloneliness,orinitsmoremodernform,forexample,inthecaseofRousseau,to anatureunspoiledbyhumanorders.Again,itmaybeaworldfleeingromanticismlike theflighttothe"people,"untouchedbysocialconventions,characteristicoftheRussian Populism(narodnichestvo).Itmaybemorecontemplative,ormoreactiveascetic;itmay primarilyseekindividualsalvationorcollectiverevolutionarytransformationofthe worldinthedirectionofamoreethicalorder.Allthesetendenciesofapolitical intellectualismmayappearasreligiousdoctrineofsalvation,andonoccasiontheyhave actuallyappeared.Thedistinctiveworldfleeingcharacterofintellectualistreligionalso hasoneofitsrootshere. (F.3)NonprivilegedIntellectualism (F.3.a)PariahAndPettycitizenIntellectualism Yetthephilosophicalintellectualismofthosestratathatareusuallywellprovidedfor sociallyandeconomically(particularlyapoliticalnoblesorreinters,officials,and incumbentsofbeneficeswhetherofchurches,monasteries,seminaries,orthelike)isby

nomeanstheonlykindofintellectualism,andfrequentlyitisnotthemostimportantkind ofintellectualismforthedevelopmentofreligion.Forthereisalsononprivileged intellectualismthatiseverywhereconnectedwitharistocraticintellectualismby transitionalformsanddiffersfromitonlyinthecharacterofitsmeaningcontents. Membersofthenonprivilegedincludepeopleattheedgeoftheminimumstandardof living;smallofficialsandincumbentsofprebends,whogenerallyareequippedwithwhat isregardedasaninferioreducation;scribes,whowerenotmembersofprivilegedstrata inperiodswhenwritingwasaspecialoccupation;elementaryschoolteachersofallsorts; wanderingpoets;narrators;reciters;andpractitionersofsimilarfreevocations.Aboveall, wemustincludeinthiscategorytheselfeducatedintellectualsofthedisprivileged ("negativelyprivileged")strata,ofwhomtheclassicexamplesaretheRussianpeasant intellectualsinEasternEurope,andthesocialistanarchistintellectualsintheWest.To thisgeneralcategorytheremightalsobeaddedgroupsofafardifferentbackground,such astheDutchpeasantryaslateasthefirsthalfofthenineteenthcentury,whohadan impressiveknowledgeoftheBible,thepettycitizenPuritansof17thcenturyEngland, andthereligiousjourneypersonsofalltimesandpeoples.Aboveall,theremustbe includedtheclassicalexampleoftheJewishpiety,includingthePharisees,theHassidim, andthemassofthepiousJewswhodailystudiedthelaw. Itmaybenotedthatpariahintellectualism,appearingamongalldisprivilegedstrataof smallincome,theRussianpeasantry,andthemoreorless"itinerant"people,derivesits intensityfromthefactthatthegroupswhichareatthelowerendof,oraltogetheroutside of,thesocialhierarchystandtoacertainextentonthepointofArchimedesinrelationto socialconventions,bothinrespecttotheexternalorderandinrespecttocommonsense. Sincethesestrataarenotboundbythesocialconventions,theyarecapableofacreative attitudetowardthe"meaning"ofthecosmos;andsincetheyarenothinderedbyany materialconsiderations,theyarecapableofintenseethicalandreligiouspathos.Insofar astheybelongedtothemiddleclasses,likethereligiouslyselfeducatedpettycitizen, theirreligiousqueststendedtotakeeitherethicalrigorismormysterycult.The intellectualismoftheitinerantsstandsmidwaybetweenpariahandpettycitizen intellectualism,andissignificantbecausetheitinerantisparticularlyqualifiedfor missionary. InEasternAsiaandIndia,sofarasisknown,pariahandpettycitizenintellectualism wereabsent.Sincetheemancipationfrommagic,thepresuppositionofboth intellectualismswaslacked,andthecommunalsentimentofacitizensociety,the presuppositionofthelatter,wasalsoabsent.Indeed,eventhoseformsofreligionthat emergedoutofthelowercastestaketheirreligiousmeaningfromtheBrahmins.InChina aswell,thereisnoindependent,unofficialintellectualismapartfromtheConfucian education.Confucianismistheethicofthe"nobility"namely,the"gentleman."[82] Confucianismisquiteexplicitlyastatusethic,ormorecorrectly,asystemofrulesof etiquetteappropriatetoaliteraryeducatedprivilegedstratum.Thesituationwasnot

differentintheancientGreece,RomeandEgypt,sofarasisknown.Therethe intellectualismofthescribes,insofarasitleadtoethicalandreligiousreflection, belongedentirelytothetypeofintellectualismwhichissometimesapoliticalbutalways aristocraticandantiplebeian. (F.3.b)AncientJudaism InancientIsrael,theauthoroftheBookofJobpresupposedthatnobleclansareamong thecarriersofreligiousintellectualism.[83]TheBookofProverbsandrelatedworks showtracesintheirveryformofhavingbeencharacterizedbytheinternationalizationof theeducatedandapoliticalhigherstrataresultingfromtheirmutualcontactwitheach otherafterAlexander'sa rrivalintheEast.[84]SomeofthedictainProverbsaredirectly attributedtoanonJewishking,[85]andingeneralthenameof"Solomon"stampedthe scripturalbooksdoesnotreflecttheirmarksofaninternationalculture.BenSira's stress uponthewisdomofthefathersinoppositiontoHellenizationalreadydemonstratesthat therewasatrendinthisdirection.[86]Moreover,the"scribe"or"scripturalscholar"of thattimewhowaslearnedinthelawwas,accordingtotheBookofBenSira,[87]a widelytraveledandcultivatedgentleman.[88]Thereisthroughoutthisbookaclearly expressedantiplebeianline,[89]quitecomparabletothatfoundamongtheGreeks:How canthepeasant,thesmith,orthepotterhavewisdom,whichonlyleisureforreflection anddedicationtostudycanproduce?[90] Ezrawasnamedthe"scribe,"yethewastheinfluentialpriest[91]who,however,was overshadowedbytheprophets,andwithoutwhomtheimpositionoftheBookof Deuteronomywouldneverhavetakenplace.Ontheotherhand,thedominantpositionof thescribes,thatmeans,thosewhoknowHebrewandcaninterpretthedivinecommands, andwhosepositionisalmostequivalenttotheIslamiccaregiver(mufti),arisesmuchlater thanthatofEzra,theofficialcreatorofthetheocracy,whohadreceivedhispowersfrom thePersianemperor.Thesocialpositionofthescribesneverthelessunderwentchanges. AtthetimeoftheMaccabeandynasty,Jewishpietyinessencearathersoberwisdomof life,asillustratedbytheteachingofthecharityofstrangerswasregardedasidentical with"education"(musar);theeducationwasthewayofvirtue,whichwasregardedas teachableinthesamesenseasamongtheGreeks.Yetthepiousintellectualsofeventhat period,likethemajorityofthePsalmists,feltthemselvestobeinsharpoppositiontothe wealthyandproud,amongwhomfidelitytothelawwasuncommon,eventhoughthese intellectualswereofthesamesocialclassasthewealthyandproud. Ontheotherhand,theschoolsofscripturalscholarsoftheHerodianperiod(55BCAD 93),whosefrustrationandinnertensiongrewinthefaceoftheobviousreligious compromisetoaforeignpower,createdthefirstemergenceofnonprivilegedintellectual

stratawhostudiedthelaw.Theyservedaspastoralcounselors,preachersandteachersin thesynagogues,andtheirrepresentativesalsosatintheSanhedrin.Theyinfluenced decisivelythepopularpietyofthosewhowererigidlyfaithfultothelaw,thePharisees (perushim),intheJewishcommunity.IntheTalmudicperiod,thiskindofenterprise developedintotherabbinate,asynagogueleader.Throughthisstratumtherenowensued, incontrasttowhathadgonebefore,atremendousexpansionofpettycitizenandpariah intellectualism,suchaswedonotfindamonganyotherpeople.Philoalreadyregarded "generalpublicschools"forthediffusionofliteracyandofsystematiceducationin casuisticthinkingasthehallmarkoftheJews.Itwastheinfluenceofthisstratumthat firstdisplaced,amongcitizenJews,theactivityoftheprophetsbythedevotiontothecult ofthelawandtothestudyofthesacredscripturesofthelaw. ThisJewishstratumofpopularintellectuals,entirelyremotefromanyconnectionwith mysticism,unquestionablyoccupiedalowersocialstatusthanthestrataofphilosophers andmysterycultistsinHellenisticsocietiesoftheNearEast.Butintellectualismwas undoubtedlyalreadydiffusedthroughoutthevarioussocialstrataoftheHellenisticOrient inpreChristiantimes,andinfactproducedinthevariousmysteriesandcultsof salvation,byallegoryandspeculation,dogmassimilartothosegeneratedbytheOrphics, whogenerallyseemtohavebelongedtothemiddleclasses.Thesemysteriesand salvationalspeculationswerecertainlywellknowntoascripturalscholaroftheDiaspora likePaul,whorejectedthemvigorously;itwillberecalledthatthecultofMithrawas widelydiffusedinCiliciaduringthetimeofPompey(60BC)asareligionofpirates, althoughtheepigraphicevidenceforitsexistencespecificallyatTarsusstemsfromthe Christianera.Itisquitelikelythatsalvationhopesofdifferentkindsandoriginsexisted sidebysideinJudaismforalongperiod,especiallyintheprovinces.Otherwise,itwould havebeenimpossibleforJudaismtoproduceevenintheperiodoftheprophets,in additiontotheideaofafuturemonarchoftheJewishpeoplerestoredtopower,theidea thatanotherkingofthepoorfolkwouldenterJerusalemuponadonkey;[92]andindeed itwouldhavebeendifficultfortheJewstoevolvetheirideaofthe"sonofman,"an obviouslinguisticproductofSemiticgrammar.[93] Allinall,layintellectualism,whetherofthenobleorthepariahkind,isinvolvedinevery complexdoctrineofsalvationwhichdevelopsabstractionsandopensupcosmic perspectives,goingfarbeyondmythologiesorientedtothemereprocessesofnatureorto thesimplepredictionoftheappearanceatsomefuturetimeofagoodkingwhoisalready waitingsomewhereinconcealment. (F.4)IntellectualismAndChristianity (F.4.a)Paul' sPettycitizenIntellectualism

ThisscripturalscholarshipofJudaism,whichisaninstanceofpettycitizen intellectualism,enteredintoearlyChristianity.Paul,apparentlyancraftspersonlike manyofthelateJewishscripturalscholars(insharpcontrasttotheintellectualsofthe periodofBenSira,whoproducedantiplebeianwisdomteachings),isanoutstanding representativeofthispettycitizenintellectualisminearlyChristianity,thoughofcourse othertraitsarealsotobefoundinPaul.His"mysticknowledge"(gnosis),thoughvery remotefromthatofthecontemplativeintellectualsoftheHellenisticOrient,couldlater providemanypointsofsupportfortheMarcionitemovement.Anelementof intellectualisminasenseofselfconfidencethatonlythosechosenbygodunderstand Jesus' sparables[94]wasalsostronglymarkedinPaul,whoboastedthathistrue knowledgewas"totheJewsastumblingblockandtotheGreeksfoolishness."[95]Paul' s teachingofthedualismof"flesh"and"spirit"hassomerelationshiptotheattitudes towardsensualitytypicalofintellectualistsalvationdoctrines,butitisrootedinother conceptionsaswell.AsomewhatsuperficialacquaintancewithHellenisticphilosophy canbepresumedinhisthought.Aboveall,Paul' sconversionwasnotmerelyavision,in thesenseofhallucinatoryperception.Rather,hisconversionwasalsopractical recognitionoftheinnerrelationshipbetweenthepersonalfateoftheresurrectedJesus andthegeneralconceptionanditsculticpracticesoftheOrientalsaviordoctrine(with whichPaulwaswellacquainted),inwhichthepromisesofJewishprophecynowwas fulfilledforhim. Paul's lettersrepresentthehighesttypeoflogicalargumentfoundamongpettycitizen intellectuals.Paulpresupposedanexceptionaldegreeofdirect"logicalimagination"on thepartofthereadersheisaddressinginsuchcompositionsastheLetterstotheRomans. ItismostlikelythatwhatwastakenoveratthetimewasnotPaul' steachingof justification,butratherhisconceptionoftherelationshipbetweenspiritandthe communityandhismannerinwhichheaccommodatedtotheproblemsofeverydaylife. ThefierceangerdirectedagainsthimbytheJewsoftheDiaspora,forwhomhismethod oflogicalargumentmusthaveappearedasamisuseofeducation,justlyshowshow thoroughlysuchamethodcorrespondedtothetypicalattitudeofthepettycitizen intellectual.Thisintellectualismwascontinuedbythecharismatic"teachers"(didaskaloi) inPaulineChristiancommunitiesaslateasthetimeoftheDidache.[96] (F.4.b)DogmaticIntellectualism Butthisintellectualismdisappearedwiththeslowgrowthofthebishops'a ndpresbyters' monopolyofthespiritualleadershipofthecommunity.Inreplacementofsuch charismaticteacherscamefirsttheintellectualistapologists,thenthechurchfathersand dogmatists,whohadreceivedaHellenisticeducationandwerealmostallpriest,andthen theemperors,whohadalayinterestintheology.Thisreplacementwasfinallycompleted bythemonksoftheEastwhowererecruitedfromthelowestnonGreeksocialstrataafter

thevictoryintheiconoclasticstruggle.Thenceforthitbecameimpossibletoeliminatethe typeofformalisticargumentcommontoallthesecirclesandassociatedwithasemi intellectualistic,semiprimitive,andmagicalidealofselfdeificationoftheEastern church. (F.4.c)AntiintellectualismofChristianity However,thedecisivestanceforthehistoryofearlyChristianitywasitsanti intellectualism.FromtheverybeginningofChristianity,antiintellectualismwasdecisive foritsgenuinesalvationteaching,itstypicalcarrier,anditsreligiousconductoflife.In spiteofthemanysimilaritiesofitssalvationalmythtothegeneralNearEasterntypeof suchmyths,fromwhichitborrowedelementswithobviousmodification,Christianity tookapositionagainstintellectualismwiththegreatestpossibleawarenessand consistency.AlthoughPaulutilizedthescholarlymethodofthescribesforhisarguments, earlyChristianitystoodagainsttheritualisticandlegalisticintellectualismofJudaism, againsttheintellectualisticdoctrineofsalvationoftheGnosticaristocrats,andmost stronglyagainstancientphilosophy.Antiintellectualismwasdecisivefortherejectionof theGnosticexclusionofthepious(pistis)fromsalvation,andalsoforitspositionthatthe exemplaryChristianswerethoseendowedwithspirit(pneuma)and"humbleness,"rather thanwith"intellect."Christianityalsouniquelyrejectedthewaytosalvationthrough academiceducationintheLaw,throughthecosmicorpsychologicalwisdomoflifeand suffering,throughknowledgeoftheconditionsoflifewithintheworld,through knowledgeofthemysterioussignificanceofsacramentalrites,orthroughknowledgeof thefuturedestinyofthesoulintheotherworld.Aconsiderableportionoftheinner historyoftheearlychurch,includingtheformulationofdogma,representedthestruggle ofChristianityagainstintellectualisminallitsforms.Thus,antiintellectualismisa distinctivelyuniquecharacterofChristianity. (F.4.c.1)CarriersofReligion Ifonewishestocharacterizebriefly,inaformulasotospeak,thetypesrepresentativeof thestratathatweretheprimarycarriersorpropagatorsofthesocalledworldreligions, theywouldbethefollowing:inConfucianism,theworldorganizingbureaucrat;in Hinduism,theworldorderingmagician;inBuddhism,theworldwanderingmonk;in Islam,theworldconqueringwarrior;inJudaism,thewanderingtrader;andin Christianity,theitinerantcraftsperson.Tobesure,allthesetypesmustnotbetakenas advocatesoftheirownoccupationalormaterial"classinterests,"butratherasthe ideologicalcarriersofthekindofethicalorsalvationteachingwhichreadilyconformed totheirsocialposition.

AsforIslam,itsdistinctivereligiositycouldhaveexperiencedaninfusionof intellectualism,apartfromtheofficialschoolsoflawandtheologyandthetemporary bloomingofscientificinterests,onlyafteritspenetrationbySufism,buttheorientationof thisintellectualismwasnotofrationalcharacter.Indeed,tendenciestowardrationalism werecompletelylackinginthepopularDervishpiety.InIslamonlyafewheterodox sects,whichpossessedconsiderableinfluenceatcertaintimes,displayedadistinctly intellectualisticcharacter.OtherwiseIslam,likemedievalChristianity,produced scholasticisminitsuniversities. (F.4.d)IntellectualisminMedievalChristianity Itisimpossibletodiscoursehereontherelationshipsofintellectualismtoreligionin medievalChristianity.Inanycasethisreligion,atleastasfarasitssociologically significanteffectsareconcerned,wasnotspecificallyorientedtointellectualelements. Thestronginfluenceofmonasticrationalismuponthesubstantivecontentoftheculture maybeclarifiedonlybyacomparisonofOccidentalmonasticismwiththatoftheNear EastandAsia,ofwhichabriefsketchwillbegivenlater.[97]Thepeculiarnatureof Occidentalmonasticismdeterminedthedistinctiveculturalinfluenceofthechurchinthe West.Duringthemedievalperiod,OccidentalChristianitydidnothavealay intellectualismofanyappreciableextent,whetherofapettycitizenorofapariah character,althoughsomelayintellectualismwasoccasionallyfoundamongthesects.On theotherhand,theroleoftheprivilegededucatedstratawasnotaminoroneforthe developmentofthechurch.TheeducatedstrataofCarolingian,Ottoman,andSalic imperialismworkedtowardsanimperialandtheocraticculturalorganization,justasdid theJosephitemonksin16thcenturyRussia.Aboveall,theGregorianreformmovement andthestruggleforpoweronthepartofthepapacywerecarriedforwardbytheideology ofanprivilegedintellectualstratumthatenteredintoaunitedfrontwiththerisingcitizen againstthefeudalpowers.Withtheincreasingspreadofuniversityeducationandwiththe struggleofthepapacytomonopolize,forthesakeoffiscaladministrationorsimple patronage,theenormousnumberofbeneficeswhichprovidedtheeconomicsupportfor thiseducatedstratum,theevergrowinginterestofthese"beneficiaries"turnedagainstthe papacyinwhatwasatfirstanessentiallyeconomicandnationalisticinterestin monopoly.Then,followingtheSchism,theseintellectualsturnedagainstthepapacy ideologically,becoming"carriers"oftheReformationandlaterofHumanism. (F.4.e)HumanistIntellectualism ThesociologyoftheHumanists,particularlythetransformationofafeudalandclerical educationintoacourtlyculturebasedonthelargesseofpatrons,isinteresting,butthisis nottheproperplacetodiscussit.TheambivalentattitudeoftheHumaniststowardthe

Reformationwasprimarilyconditionedbyprivilegedideologicalmotives.Insofaras HumanistsplacedthemselvesintheserviceofthechurchesofeithertheReformationor theCounterReformation,theyplayedanimportant,thoughnotdecisive,rolein organizingchurchschoolsandindevelopingdoctrine.Butinsofarastheybecamethe carriersofparticularreligiosity(actuallyawholeseriesofparticulartypesoffaith),they remainedwithoutenduringinfluence.Inkeepingwiththeirentireconductoflife,these Humanistgroupsoftheclassicallyeducatedwerealtogetherantiplebeianandantiascetic orientation.Theyremainedalientotheturmoilandparticularlytothedemagogyof priestsandpreachers;onthewholetheyremainedErastianorpacifistincharacter,for whichreasonalonetheyincreasinglylosttheirculturalinfluence. Inadditiontosophisticatedscepticismandrationalisticenlightenment,theHumanists displayedareligiosityofsoftmood,particularlyintheAnglicansoil;anearnestand frequentlyasceticmoralism,asinthecircleofPortRoyal(Jansenism);andan individualisticmysticism,asinGermanyduringthefirstperiodandinItaly.But whereverthestrugglesforthepowerandeconomicinterestswerewaged,ifnotby outrightviolence,atleastwiththemeansofdemagogy,theseHumanistgroupsceased theirgrowthatall.Itisobviousthatatleastthosestrugglingchurchesdesiredtowinthe participationoftherulingstrataandparticularlyoftheuniversitytrainedtheological polemicistsaswellaspreacherseducatedinclassics.WithinLutheranism,asaresultof itsalliancewiththepowerofthenobility,botheducationandreligiousactivitywere rapidlymonopolizedbyprofessionaltheologians. (F.4.f)PuritanIntellectualism Hudibras,SamuelButler' s(166378)poem,stillmockedthePuritansfortheirostensible philosophicalintellectualism,butwhatgavethePuritans,andabovealltheBaptistsects, theirinsuperablepowerofresistancewasnottheintellectualismoftheprivilegedbutthe intellectualismoftheplebeianandoccasionallyevenpariahpeople,forBaptist Protestantismwasinitsfirstperiodamovementcarriedbywanderingcraftspersonsor missionaries.Therewasnodistinctiveintellectualstratumcharacterizedbytheirspecific conductoflifeamongtheseProtestantsects,butafterthecloseofabriefperiodof missionaryactivitybytheirwanderingpreachers,itwasthemiddleclassthatbecame suffusedwiththeirintellectualism.Theunparalleleddiffusionofknowledgeaboutthe Bibleandinterestinextremelyabstruseandscholasticdogmaticcontroversieswhichwas characteristicofthePuritansof17thcentury,evenamongpeasants,createdamass intellectualismneverfoundsince,andcomparableonlytothatfoundinlateJudaismand tothereligiousmassintellectualismofthePaulinemissionarycommunities.Incontrast tothesituationsinHolland,partsofScotland,andtheAmericancolonies,thismass religiousintellectualismsoondwindledinEnglandafterthePuritansgainedand establishedtheirpowerthroughthereligiouswars.

(F.5)ModernIntellectualism (F.5.a)AngloSaxonandLatinIntellectualism However,inthisperiod,thismassintellectualismstampeditscharacteronthe intellectualismoftheprivilegedintheAngloSaxongentlemen,andmarkedita traditionaldeferenceagainstenlightenmentreligiosity,ofvaryingdegreesofmildness, whichneverreachthepointofanticlericalism(aphenomenonthatwewillnotpursueat thispoint).SincethisAngloSaxongentleman' sintellectualismwasconditionedbythe traditionalistattitudesandthemoralisticinterestsofthepoliticallypowerfulmiddleclass, andalsobyareligiousplebeianintellectualism.ThisdevelopmentinAngloSaxon countiesdemonstratedthesharpestcontrasttotheLatincounties' developmentfromthe intellectualismofthearistocraticandcourtcenterededucationintothatofradical antipathyorindifferencetothechurch. (F.5.b)GermanIntellectualism TheseAngloSaxonandLatindevelopments,whichultimatelyhadanantimetaphysical impact,contrastwiththeGermanintellectualismof"nonpolitical"educatedstrata,which isneitherapoliticalnorantipolitical.Thiscontrastresultedfromconcretehistorical eventsandwasconditionedbyfew(andmostlynegative)sociologicaldeterminants.It wasmetaphysicallyoriented,buthadverylittletodowithspecificallyreligious orientation,leastofallanyquestfor"salvation."Ontheotherhand,theplebeianand pariahintellectualismofGermany,likethatoftheLatincountries,increasinglytooka radicallyantireligiousturn,whichbecameparticularlymarkedaftertheriseofthe economicallyadventfaithofsocialism.Thisdevelopmentwasinmarkedcontrasttothat intheAngloSaxonareas,wherethemostseriousformsofreligionsincePuritantimes havehadasectarianratherthananinstitutionalauthoritariancharacter. (F.5.c)Socialism Onlytheseantireligioussectshadastratumofdeclassedintellectualswhowereableto sustainaquasireligiousbeliefinthesocialisteschatologyatleastforawhile.This particular"academic"elementrecededinproportiontothattherepresentativesofsocialist movementtookeconomicinterestsfortheirprimarypolicy.Itrecededfurtherbecauseof theinevitabledisillusionmentwithanalmostsuperstitiousbeliefin"science"asthe possiblecreatororatleastprophecyofsocialrevolution,violentorpeaceful,inthesense ofsalvationfromclassrule.So,too,itcomesaboutthattheonlyremainingvariantof

socialisminwesternEuropeequivalenttoareligiousfaith,namelysyndicalism,can easilyturnintoaromanticgameplayedbycircleswithoutdirecteconomicinterests. (F.5.d)RussianIntellectualism Thelastgreatmovementofintellectualswhich,thoughnotsustainedbyauniformfaith, wasenoughtoapproximateaquasireligiousintellectualismwastheRussian revolutionaryintellectuals,inwhichpatrician,academicandaristocraticintellectuals stoodnexttoplebeianones.Plebeianintellectualismwasrepresentedbytheminor officialdom,whichwashighlysophisticatedinitssociologicalthinkingandbroad culturalinterests;itwascomposedespeciallyofthesocalled"thirdelement"officials (zemstvo).Moreover,thiskindofintellectualismwasadvancedbyjournalists,elementary schoolteachers,revolutionaryapostlesandapeasantintellectualsthataroseoutofthe Russiansocialconditions.Inthe1870s,thismovementculminatedinanappealtoa theoryofnaturalrights,orientedprimarilytowardagriculturalcommunism,thesocalled narodnichestvo(populism).Inthe1890s,thismovementclashedsharplywithMarxist dogmatics,butinpartalsoaligneditselfwithit.Moreover,attemptsweremadetorelate it,usuallyinanobscuremanner,firsttoSlavophileromantic,thenmystical,religiosityor, atleast,religiousemotionalism.UndertheinfluenceofDostoevskyandTolstoy,an asceticandacosmisticconductofpersonallifewascreatedamongsomerelativelylarge groupsoftheseRussianintellectuals.Weshallleaveuntouchedherethequestionasto whatextentthismovement,sostronglyinfusedwiththeinfluenceofJewishproletarian intellectualswhowerereadyforanysacrifice,cancontinueafterthecatastropheofthe Russianrevolution(in1906). (F.5.e)EnlightenmentIntellectualism InWesternEurope,eversince17thcentury,thestrataofEnlightenmentreligions produced,inbothAngloSaxonand,morerecently,Frenchcultureareas,unitarianand deisticcommunitiesandcommunitiesofasyncretistic,atheistic,orfreechurchvariety. Buddhisticconceptions,orwhatpassedforsuch,alsoplayedsomepartinthis development.InGermany,Enlightenmentreligiousviewsfoundahearingamongthe samegroupsthatwereinterestedinFreemasonry,namelythosewhohavelittledirect economicinterests,especiallyuniversityprofessorsbutalsodeclassedideologistsand educatedstratawhopartlyorwhollybelongedtothepropertylesspeople.Ontheother hand,boththeHinduEnlightenment(BrahmoSamaj)andthePersianEnlightenment wereproductsofcontactwithEuropeanculture.

Thepracticalimportanceofsuchmovementsforthesphereofculturewasgreaterinthe pastthannow.Manyelementsconspiretorenderunlikelyanyseriouspossibilityofa newcommunalreligionbornebyintellectuals.Thisconstellationoffactorsincludesthe interestoftheprivilegedstratainmaintainingtheexistingreligionasaninstrumentfor controllingthemasses,theirneedforsocialdistance,theirabhorrenceofmass intellectualismastendingtodestroytheprestigeoftheprivilegedstrata,andtheir rejectionofanypossibilitythatanewcreedcouldbeacceptedliterarybylargesegments ofthepopulation[98]andcouldreplacethetraditionalcreeds.Finally,andaboveall, thereisthescornfulindifferenceoftheprivilegedstratatoreligiousproblemsandtothe church.Performanceofsomeboringformalitiesdoesnotcostmuchofsacrifice, inasmuchaseveryoneknowstheyarejustthatformalitiesbestperformedbytheofficial guardiansoforthodoxyandstatusconventions,andactedonintheinterestofasuccessful careerbecausethestaterequiresthemperformed. Theneedofliterary,academic,orcafesocietyintellectualstoinclude"religious"feelings intheinventoryoftheirsourcesofimpressionsandsensations,andamongtheirtopicsfor discussion,hasneveryetgivenrisetoanewreligion.Norcanareligiousrenascencebe generatedbytheneedofauthorstocomposebooksonsuchinterestingtopicsorbythe farmoreeffectiveneedofcleverpublisherstosellsuchbooks.Nomatterhowmuchthe appearanceofawidespreadreligiousinterestmaybesimulated,nonewreligionhasever resultedfromsuchneedsofintellectualsorfromtheirchatter.Thependulumoffashion willpresentlyremovethissubjectofconversationandjournalism. (G)THEODICYANDSALVATION (G.1)Theodicy (G.1.a)TranscendentalCreator OnlyJudaismandIslamarestrictly"monotheistic"inprinciple,andeveninthelatter therearesomedeviationsfrommonotheisminthelatercultofsaints.Christiantrinity appearstohaveamonotheisticeffectwhencontrastedwiththetritheisticformsof Hinduism,lateBuddhism,andTaoism.Yetinpractice,theRomanCatholiccultof sacramentsandsaintsactuallycomesveryclosetopolytheism.Itisbynomeansthecase thateveryethicalgodisnecessarilyendowedwithabsoluteunchangeability,almighty, andomnisciencethatistosay,withanabsolutelytranscendentalcharacter.This transcendentalcharacterofgodwastheproductofthethinkingandethicalenthusiasmof passionateprophets.OnlytheGodoftheJewishprophetsattainedthisconceptinan absoluteandconsistentquality,andhebecamealsotheGodoftheChristiansand

Muslims.Noteveryethicalconceptionofgodresultedinthisconclusion,nordiditlead toethicalmonotheismassuch.Hence,noteveryapproximationtomonotheismisbased onthedevelopmentoftheethicalconceptofgod.Itiscertainlytruethatnotevery religiousethichasdevelopedtheconceptoftranscendentalpersonalgodwhoalone createdtheuniverseoutofnothinganddirectedit. Yeteverydistinctiveethicalprophethasnormallydirectedtosuchrationalizationofthe conceptofgodsincethelegitimacyoftheprophetwasbasedonthegodwhogavehim theauthorityovertheworld.Ofcoursethetypeandthesignificanceofthisauthoritymay bequitedifferent,dependinginpartonexistingmetaphysicalconceptionsandinparton theexpressionoftheconcreteethicalinterestsoftheprophets.Butthemorethe conceptionofsoletranscendentalgodoftheuniversehasbeendeveloped,themorethere arisestheproblemofhowtheextraordinarypowerofsuchagodcanbereconciledwith theimperfectionoftheworldthathehascreatedandrulesover. (G.1.b)ProblemOfTheodicy ThustheproblemoftheodicyemergedinancientEgyptianliteratureaswellasinJoband inAeschylus,butinverydifferentforms.AllHindureligionwasinfluencedbythe problemoftheodicyinthedistinctivewaybyitsfundamentalpresuppositions:howa meaningfulcosmosofimpersonalandsuperdivineordercanreconcilewiththeproblem oftheworld's imperfections.Inoneformoranother,thisproblembelongseverywhere amongthefactorsdeterminingreligiousdevelopmentandthequestforsalvation.[99] Nowtheproblemoftheodicymaybesolvedinvariousways.Thesesolutionsstandinthe closestrelationshipbothtotheconceptofgodandtotheideasofsinandsalvation.Here weformulatethesolutionsoftheodicyintothepossiblerational"puretypes." (G.1.c)AdventSolution Onesolutionismessianicadvent:therealizationofjusticethroughthefuturejudgement ofthisworld.Inthiswaytheadventprocessbecomesapoliticalandsocial transformationofthisworld.Thissolutionholdsthatsoonerorlatertherewouldarisea powerfulsaviororgodwhowouldplacehisfollowersintherulingpositionsofthe world.Thesufferingofthepresentgeneration,itwasbelieved,istheconsequenceofthe sinsoftheancestors,forwhichgodholdsthedescendantsresponsible,justassomeone carryingoutbloodrevengemayholdanentireclanresponsible,andasPopeGregoryVII excommunicateddescendantsdowntotheseventhgeneration.Also,itisheldthatonly

thedescendantsofthepiouscouldbeholdthemessianickingdom,asarewardoftheir ancestors' piety.Ifitmaybenecessarytorenounceone' sownexperienceofsalvation, thereisnothingstrangeinthisconception.Careofone' schildreniseverywhereadefinite factoforganicsociallife,pointingbeyondthepersonalinterestofanindividualandin thedirectionof"anotherworld,"atleastaworldbeyondone's owndeath.Thelifeofthis worldremainsforthemtheexemplaryandstrictfulfillmentofthepositivedivine commandments,inordertoobtaintheoptimumopportunityforwelfareoflifebygod' s favor,andinordertoobtainforone' sdescendantsashareintherealmofsalvation."Sin" isabreachoffidelitytowardgodandanimpiousrejectionofgod's promises.Moreover, thedesiretoparticipatepersonallyinthemessianickingdomgeneratesatremendous religiousexcitationwhenthecomingofthekingdomofGodhereonearthappearssoon. Prophetsrepeatedlyproclaimedthecomingofthekingdom,butwhensuchadventofthe messianickingdomappearedtobeeverdelayed,itwasinevitablethatconsolationshould besoughtingenuine"otherworldly"hopes. (G.1.d)ConceptofOtherWorld Thegermoftheconceptionofaworldbeyondthepresentoneisalreadypresentinthe developmentofmagicintoabeliefinsouls.Butabeliefinthesoulofthedeadisbyno meansfollowedbyaconceptionofaspecialrealmofthedead.Rather,averywidespread notionisthatthesoulsofthedeadmaybeembodiedintoanimalsandplants,depending onthesouls'di fferentmannersoflifeanddeath,andinfluencedbytheirclanandstatus. Thisisthesourceofthetransmigrationofthesoul.Wheretheredevelopedabeliefina realmofthedeadatfirstinsomegeographicallyremoteplace,andlateraboveor beneaththeearthitbynomeansfollowsthatthesoulslivethereeternally.Forthesouls maybedestroyedbyviolence,mayperishastheresultofthecessationofsacrifices,or maysimplydie,whichisapparentlytheancientChinesebelief. Correspondingwiththe"lawofmarginalutility,"acertainconcernforone's destinyafter deathwouldgenerallyarisewhentheminimumstandardofthisworldlylifehavebeen satisfied.Thusthisconcernisatfirstlimitedtothecirclesofthenobleandthewelltodo. Onlythesegroupsandoccasionallyonlythechieftainsandpriests,butneverthepoorand onlyseldomwomen,canconcernforthemselveslifeinthenextworld,yettheydonot sparegreatexpenditurestodoso.Itisprimarilytheexampleofthesegroupsthatserves asastrongstimulusforpreoccupationwithotherworldlyexpectations. Atthispointthereisasyetnoideaof"retribution"intheworldtocome.Whenadoctrine ofretributionsarises,theprincipalcauseofsuchpunishmentisatfirstattributedtoritual faults.ThisisseenmostextensivelyinthesacredlawoftheHindus:whosoeverviolates acastetaboomaybecertainofpunishmentinhell.Onlyaftertheconceptofgodhasbeen

ethicalizeddoesthegodemploymoralconsiderationsindecidingthefateofhuman beingsintheworldtocome.Thedifferentiationofaparadiseandahelldoesnotarise simultaneouslywiththisdevelopment,butisarelativelylateproductofdevelopment. Asotherworldlyexpectationsbecomeincreasinglyimportant,theproblemofthe fundamentalrelationshipofgodtotheworldandtheproblemoftheworld's imperfectionspressintotheforegroundofthought.Thishappenswherelifehereonearth comestoberegardedasamerelytemporalformofexistencewhencomparedtothat beyond,wheretheworldcomestobeviewedassomethingcreatedbygodoutofnothing andthereforesubjecttoabolishment,wheregodhimselfisconceivedassubjectto transcendentalgoalsandvalues,andwhereaperson's behaviorinthisworldbecomes orientedtoone's destinyinotherworld.Attimes,thehopeforthelifeintheworld beyondbecomesadirectinversioninaccordancewiththeformula,"thelastshallbe first"[100]oftheprimordialviewinwhichthelifeofthenextworldwasamatterof onlythenobleandthewealthy. Butthishopehasseldombeenworkedoutconsistently,eveninthereligiousconceptions ofpariahpeoples.Itdidplayagreatrole,however,intheancientJewishethic.The notionthatsuffering,particularlyvoluntarysuffering,wouldbepleasedtogodand improveone'sc hancesintheworldtocomeisfoundsprinkledthroughanddevelopedin manytypesofexpectationregardingcontinuedexistenceafterdeath.Thesemayarise fromverydiversereligiousmotivations,andmayperhapsderivetosomeextentfromthe ordealsofheroicasceticismandthepracticeofmagicalmortification.Asarule,and especiallyinreligionsundertheinfluenceoftherulingstrata,theconverseviewobtained, namely,thatthisworldlydifferentiationsofstatuscouldcontinueintothenextworldas well,forthereasonthattheyhadbeendivinelyordained.Thisbeliefwasstillapparentup tothephrasecurrentinChristiannations,"HishighMajesty,theKing." However,thedistinctivelyethicalviewwasthattherewouldbeconcrete"retribution"of justiceandinjusticebythejudgementofthedead,generallyconceivedintheadvent processasthedayofuniversaljudgment.Inthisway,sinassumedthecharacterofa "crime"tobebroughtintoarationalcasuistry,acrimeforwhichjudgementmust somehowbegiveninthisworldorinthenextsothatonemightultimatelystandjustified beforethejudgeofthedead.Accordingly,itwouldhavemadesensetograderewardsand punishmentsintorelativedegreesofmeritandtransgression,whichwasstillthecasein Dante,withtheresultthattheycouldnotreallybeeternal.Butbecauseofthepaleand uncertaincharacterofaperson's chancesinthenextworld,bycomparisonwiththe realitiesofthisworld,theremissionofeternalpunishmentswaspracticallyalways regardedasimpossiblebyprophetsandpriests.Eternalpunishment,moreover,seemedto betheonlyappropriatefulfillmentsofthedemandforvengeanceagainstunbelieving, apostate,andgodlesssinners,especiallythosewhohadgoneunpunishedonearth.

Heaven,hell,andthejudgmentofthedeadachievedpracticallyuniversalimportance, eveninreligionsforwhichsuchconceptswerecompletelyalien,suchasancient Buddhism.Ontheotherhand,theconceptof"intermediaterealms"intheteachingsof Zoroasterorof"purgatoryrealms"intheRomanCatholic,whichencompass punishmentsonlyforlimiteddurations,weakenedtheconsistencyofconceptionsof eternal"punishment." (G.1.e)SolutionbyPredestination Therealwaysremainedthedifficultyofreconcilingthe"punishment"ofhumanactswith theconceptionofanethicalandatthesametimealmightycreatoroftheworld,whois ultimatelyresponsibleforthesehumanactionshimself.Thus,aspeoplecontinuedto reflectabouttheinsolubleproblemoftheimperfectionsoftheworldinthelightofgod's almighty,oneresultwasinevitable:theirreconcilabilityofatremendousethical judgmentoftranscendentalgodwiththehumanbeingscontinuouslystruggledinthetoils ofnewsin.Andthisconceptioninevitablyledtotheultimateconclusion,almostreached intheBookofJob,thatthealmightycreatorGodmustbeconceivedasbeyondallthe ethicalclaimsofhiscreatures,andHiscounselsmustbebeyondhumancomprehension. AnotherconclusionofthisviewwasthatGod's absolutepoweroverhiscreaturesis unlimited,andthereforethatthecriteriaofhumanjusticeareutterlyinapplicabletohis deed.Withthisconclusion,theproblemoftheodicysimplydisappearedaltogether. InIslam,Allahwasbelievedbyhismostpassionateadherentstopossessjustsucha limitlesspoweroverhumans.InChristianity,the"absolutegod"(deusabsconditus)was conceived,especiallybythevirtuosiofChristianpiety.Godhasabsolutesovereigntyand completefreewill;Hisdecisionisallwise,allrightandbeyondhumancomprehension. Asforhumanlife,thedeterminationofearthlylifeandthepredestinationofother worldlylifehavebeenestablishedfromtheeternity.Thedamnedmightwellcomplain abouttheirsinfulnessimposedbypredestination,ifanimalscouldcomplainthattheyhad notbeencreatedhumanbeings,anotionexpresslystatedinCalvinism.Insuchacontext, ethicalbehaviorcouldneverbringabouttheimprovementofone's ownchancesineither thisorotherworld.Yetitmighthaveanothersignificance,thepracticalpsychological consequencesofwhichwouldincertaincircumstancesbeofevengreaterimpact:a symptomofone'sownstateofreligiousgraceasestablishedbygod'sdecree.Forthe absolutesovereigntyofanalmightygodcompelsapracticalreligiousinteresttotryto see,atleastforone'sow ncase,god'sde signinindividualcases.Aboveall,toknowone's destinyinotherworldisanelementaryneedforanindividual.Hence,paralleledwiththe tendencytoregardgodastheunlimitedsovereignoverhiscreatures,thereisan inclinationtoseeandinterpretgod' s"providence"andone' spersonalpositioninthe courseoftheworldprocess.

(G.1.f)Providence "Beliefinprovidence"istheconsistentrationalizationofmagicaldivination,towhichit isrelated,andwhichforthatveryreasonitseekstodevaluateascompletelyaspossible, asamatterofprinciple.Nootherviewofthereligiousrelationshipcouldpossiblybeas radicallyopposedtoallmagic,bothintheoryandinpractice,asthisbeliefinprovidence whichwasdominantinthegreattheisticreligionsofAsiaMinorandtheOccident.No othersostronglyconceivedthegodinactive"deed"ashisessencenaturemanifestedin god' spersonal,providentialruleovertheworld.Moreover,noviewofthereligious relationshipholdssuchfirmviewsregardinggod's freegiftofgraceandthehuman creature' sneedofit,thetremendousdistancebetweengodandallhiscreatures,and consequentlythereprehensibilityofany"deification"ofthefleshasasacrilegeagainst thesovereigngod.Fortheveryreasonthatthisbeliefprovidesnorationalsolutionofthe problemoftheodicy,itbringsthegreatesttensionsbetweentheworldandgod,between theactuallyexistentandthegod' sdemand. (G.1.g)SolutionbyDualism Besidespredestination,thereareonlytwootherreligiousstandpointsthatgive systematicallyconsistentsolutionoftheproblemoftheworld' simperfections.Theoneis dualism,thelatedevelopmentofZoroastrianism,whichinfluencedmoreorless consistentlyinmanyreligionsinAsiaMinor,aboveallinBabylonianreligion (containingsomeJewishandChristianinfluences),andinMandaeanismandGnosticism, downtothegreatdualismofManichaeism.Attheturnofthethirdcentury,Manichaeism seemedtostandonthethresholdofabattleforworlddomination,eveninthe Mediterraneanarea.AccordingtotheManichean,godisnotalmighty,nordidhecreate theworldoutofnothing.Injustice,unrighteousness,andsininshort,allthefactorsthat havebroughtabouttheproblemoftheodicyresultfromthedarkeningoftheluminous purityofthegreatandgoodgodsthroughcontactwiththeoppositeautonomouspowers ofdarkness,whichareidentifiedwithimpurematter.Thedominanceoftheseforces, whichgivesdominionovertheworldtosomesatanicpower,hasarisenthroughsome primordialwickednessofhumansorofangels,or,asintheviewofGnosticism,through theweaknessofsomeinferiorcreatoroftheworld,forexample,Jehovahorthe Demiurge.Thefinalvictoryofthegodoflightintheongoingstruggleisgenerally regardedascertain,andthis,however,meansabreakofstrictdualism.Thelong sufferingofworldhistoryistheinevitableprocessofacontinuouspurificationofthe lightfromthecontaminationofdarkness.Thisconceptionofthefinalbattlenaturally producesaverypowerfulpathosforadvent.

Dualismgenerallyresultsintheemergenceofanaristocraticsenseofprestigeonthepart ofthepureandelect.Theconceptionofevil,which,asthepostulateofadefinitely almightygod,alwaystendstotakeapurelyethicaldirection,mayhereassumeastrongly spiritualcharacter.Thisisbecausepersonisnotregardedasamerecreaturefacingan absolutelyalmightypower,butasaparticipantintherealmoflight.Moreover,the identificationoflightwithwhatisclearestinperson,namelythespiritual,and conversely,theidentificationofdarknesswiththematerialandcorporealwhichcarryin themselvesalltheseveretemptations,ispracticallyunavoidable.Thisview,then, connectseasilywiththenotionof"impurity"foundintabooisticethics.Evilappearsas contaminationofimpurity,andsininamannerquitelikethatofmagicalmisdeeds appearsasareprehensibleandheadlongfalltoearthfromtherealmofpurityandclarity intothatofdarknessandconfusion,leadingtoastateofcontaminationanddeserved ignominy.Allethicalreligionsunavoidablylimitedthealmightinessofgodbytheform ofdualisticthought. (G.1.h)SolutionbyKarma Themostcompleteformalsolutionoftheproblemoftheodicyisthespecialachievement oftheIndianteachingof"karma,"thesocalledbeliefinthetransmigrationofsouls.This worldisviewedasacompletelyconnectedandselfcontainedcosmosofethical retribution.Guiltandmeritwithinthisworldareunfailinglycompensatedbydestinyin thesuccessivelivesofthesoul,whichmaybereincarnatedinnumerabletimesinanimal, human,orevendivinebeings.Ethicalmeritsinthislifecanmakepossiblerebirthinto lifeinheaven,butthatlifecanlastonlyuntilone'sc reditbalanceofmeritshasbeen completelyusedup.Theconfinedearthlylifeistheconsequenceofgoodorevildeedsin thepreviouslifeofaparticularsoul.Whatmayappearfromtheviewpointofretribution asunjustsufferinginthepresentlifeofapersonshouldberegardedasatonementforsin inapreviousexistence.Eachindividualmakesone' sowndestinyexclusively,andinthe strictestsenseoftheword.Thebeliefinthetransmigrationofsoulshascertainlinkswith widelydiffusedanimisticnotionsregardingthepassageofthespiritsofthedeadinto naturalobjects.Itrationalizesthesebeliefs,andindeedtheentirecosmos,bymeansof purelyethicalprinciples.Thenaturalistic"causality"ofourhabitsofthoughtisthus replacedbyauniversalmechanismofretribution,forwhichnoactthatisethically relevantcaneverbelost.Theconsequenceisthecompleteinability,andindeed unthinkableness,ofanalmightygod'sinterfere ncewiththismechanism,fortheeternal worldprocessprovidesforethicalchargesthroughautomaticworking.Themechanismof retributionis,therefore,aconsistentconclusionfromthesuperdivinecharacterofthe eternal"order"oftheworld,incontrasttopersonal,superworldlygodofpredestination whorulesovertheworld.

OriginalBuddhismreachedthelastconsequenceofthismechanisminitsgreatest consistencyofthought,thatis,thecompleteeliminationofthebeliefin"soul."What aloneisrelevantforthemechanismsofkarmaisthesumofindividualgoodorevil actions,notthe"soul"assuch,whichcomesfromtheillusionofthe"ego."Butontheir part,allactionsareproductsoftheeternallyhelplessstruggleofallcreatedlife,whichby theveryfactofitslimitedexistenceisdestinedforannihilation;theyallarisefromthe "thirstforlife,"whichbringsforththequestforotherworldaswellasallattachmentto thedesiresinthisworld.Thisthirstforlifeistheineradicablebasisofindividuationand createslifeandrebirthaslongasitexists.Strictlyspeaking,thereisno"sin,"butonly obstructionsagainstone' sownclearinterestinescapingfromthisendless"wheel,"orat leastinnotexposingoneselftoarebirthunderevenmorepainfulcircumstances.The meaningofethicalbehaviormaythenlie,whenmodestlyconceived,eitherinimproving one's chancesinthenextincarnationorifthesenselessstruggleformereexistenceis evertobeendedintheeliminationofrebirthassuch. Inthedoctrineofkarmathereisnoseparationoftheworldthatisfoundintheethical dualisticreligionsofprovidence.Thedualismofaholy,almighty,andmajesticgodand theethicalinadequacyofallhiscreaturesisaltogetherlacking.Noristhere,asin spiritualisticdualism:theseparationofallcreationintolightanddarknessorintopure andclearspiritontheonesidewithdarkanddefiledmatterontheother.Here,rather,is anphilosophicaldualism:thecontrastbetweentheworld's transitoryeventsandthe sereneandeternalbeingoftheorderofcosmosimmobiledivinity,restingindreamless sleep.OnlyBuddhismhasdeducedfromtheteachingofthetransmigrationofsoulsits ultimateconsequences.Thisisthemostradicalsolutionoftheproblemoftheodicy,and forthatveryreasonitprovidesaslittlesatisfactionforethicaldemandtogodasdoesthe beliefinpredestination. (G.2)SalvationAndRebirth Onlyafewreligionsofsalvationhaveproducedasinglepuresolutionoftheproblemof therelationofgodtotheworldandtohumanfromamongthevariouspossiblepuretypes wehavejustsketched.Whereversuchapuretypewasproduceditlastedforonlyalittle while.Mostreligionsofsalvationhavecombinedvarioussolutions,asaresultofmutual interactionwitheachother,andaboveallunderthepressureofthediverseethicaland intellectualneedsoftheiradherents.Consequently,thedifferencesamongvarious religioussolutionsoftheproblemofgod's relationtotheworldandtohumanmustbe measuredbytheirdegreeofapproximationtooneoranotherofthesepuretypes. Nowthevariousethicalcolorationsoftheteachingsofgodandsinstandinthemost intimaterelationshiptothestrivingfor"salvation,"thecontentofwhichwillbedifferent

dependingupon"fromwhere"and"towhere"onewantstobesaved.Noteveryrational religiousethicisnecessarilyanethicofsalvation.Thus,Confucianismisa"religious" ethic,butitknowsnothingatallofawantforsalvation.Ontheotherhand,Buddhismis exclusivelyateachingofsalvation,butitknowsnogod.Manyotherreligionsknow salvationonlyasaspecialoccasioninnarrowconventicles,frequentlyasasecretcult. Indeed,suchasalvationmaybeachievedonlybyoccasionalreligiousactivitieswhich areregardedasdistinctivelysacred.Thepromiseofsuchasalvationtotheirparticipants thenmeetswiththemostextensiveutilitarianexpectations,whichweareaccustomedto call"salvation." (G.2.a)PromiseofWealth Thepantomimicmusicalmysteryfestivalsofthegreatearthlydeities,whichcontrolled boththeharvestandtherealmofthedead,promisedtotheparticipantintheEleusinian mysterieswhowasrituallypure,firstwealthandthenimprovementinhislotinthenext world.Butthiswaspromisedwithoutanyideaofcompensation,purelyasaconsequence ofritualisticdevotion.InthecatalogofgoodsintheShihching,thehighestrewards promisedtotheChinesesubjectsfortheircorrectperformancesoftheofficialcultand theirfulfillmentofpersonalreligiousobligationsarewealthandlonglife,whilethereisa completeabsenceofhopetootherworldandanycompensationthere.Again,itiswealth thatZoroaster,bythegraceofhisgod,principallyexpectsforhimselfandhisfaithful, apartfromratherextensivepromisesofotherworld.Asrewardsforthecorrectconductof itslaity,Buddhismpromiseswealthandalongandhonorablelife,incomplete consonancewiththeteachingsofallinnerworldlyethicsoftheHindureligions.Finally, wealthistheblessingbestowedbyGoduponthepiousJew.Butwealth,whenacquired inasystematicandlegalfashion,isalsooneoftheindicesofthe"proof"ofthestateof graceamongProtestantasceticgroups,forexample,Calvinists,Baptists,Mennonites, Quakers,ReformedPietists,andMethodists.Tobesure,inthesecaseswearedealing withaconceptionthatdecisivelyrejectswealth(andotherthisworldlygoods)asa religiousgoal.Butinpracticethetransitiontothisstandpointisfluid. (G.2.b)PoliticalSalvation Itisdifficulttocompletelyseparateconceptionsofreligioussalvationfromsuchpolitical salvationfromoppressionandsufferingasthoseheldforthbythereligionsofthepariah peoples,particularlytheJews,andalsobytheteachingsofZoroasterandMuhammad. Forthefaithful,thesepromisesmightincludeworldrulershipandsocialprestige,which thetruebelieverinancientIslamcarriedinhisknapsackastherewardforholywar againstallinfidels;orthepromisesmightincludeadistinctivereligiousprestige,suchas thatwhichtheIsraelitesweretaughtbytheirtraditionthatGodhadpromisedthemas

theirinheritance.ParticularlyfortheIsraelites,therefore,Godwasinthefirstinstancea redeemer,becausehehadsavedthemfromtheEgyptianhouseofbondageandwould laterredeemthemfromtheghetto. (G.2.c)SalvationfromEvil Inadditiontosucheconomicandpoliticalsalvation,thereistheveryimportantfactorof salvationfromangerofbaddemonsandevilmagicofanysort,whichisheldtobe responsibleforthemajorityofalltheevilsinlife.ThatChristbrokethepowerofthe demonsbytheforceofhisspiritandredeemedhisadherentsfromtheirpowerwas,inthe earlyperiodofChristianity,oneofthemostimportantandinfluentialofitspromises. Moreover,theNationofGodproclaimedbyJesusofNazareth,whichhadalreadycome orwasheldtobecloseathand,[101]wasarealmofholinessuponthisearth,purgedof allhate,anxiety,andwant;onlylaterdidheavenandhellappearintheteaching.Of course,aneschatologyorientedtothisworldwouldshowadistincttendencytobecomea hopeforotherworld,oncetheSecondComing(parousia)wasdelayed.Henceforth, emphasishadtobeshiftedtotheafterlife:thosealiveatpresentwouldnotbeabletosee salvationduringtheirlifetime,butwouldseeitafterdeath,whenthedeadwouldawaken. (G.2.d)OtherworldlySalvation Thedistinctivecontentof"otherworldly"salvationmayessentiallymeanfreedomfrom thephysical,psychological,andsocialsufferingsofterrestrialexistence.Ontheother hand,itmaybemoreconcernedwithaliberationfromthesenselesstreadmilland transitorinessoflifeassuch.Finally,itmaybeperceivedasprimarilytheinevitable imperfectionoftheindividual,whetherthisberegardedmoreaschroniccontamination, acuteinclinationtosin,ormorespiritually,asentanglementinthemurkyconfusionof earthlyignorance. (G.2.e)SalvationandConductofLife Ourconcernisessentiallywiththequestforsalvation,whateveritskind,insofarasit producedcertainconsequencesforpracticalbehavioroflife.Thequestforsalvation acquiresapositiveandthisworldlyorientationmoststronglythroughthecreationof religiouslydetermined"conductoflife,"whichisintegratedintoacentralmeaningora positivegoal.Inotherwords,aquestforsalvationinanyreligionhasthestrongest chanceofexertingpracticalinfluenceswhentherehasarisen,outofreligious motivations,asystematizationofpracticalactionsformedfromanorientationtocertain

unifiedvalues.Thegoalandmeaningofsuchaconductoflifemayremainaltogether orientedtootherworld,oritmaydirectedtothisworld,atleastinpart.Inthevarious religions,thishastakenplaceinthehighestdegreesofdiversityandtypicallyvarious qualities,andevenwithineachreligiontherearecorrespondingdifferencesamongits variousadherents.Furthermore,thereligioussystematizationoftheconductoflifehas,in thenatureofthecase,certainlimitsinsofarasitseekstoexertinfluenceuponeconomic behavior.Finally,religiousmotivations,especiallythehopeofsalvation,neednot necessarilyexertanyinfluenceatallupontheconductoflife,particularlyeconomic conduct.Yettheymaydosotoaveryconsiderableextent. (G.2.f)SanctificationandRebirth Thehopeofsalvationhasthemostfarreachingconsequencesfortheconductoflife whensalvationcastsitsshadowinthislifealready,ortakesplacecompletelyinthis worldasainnerprocess;hence,whensalvationisvalidatedas"sanctification"orleads toitorisapreconditionofit.Sanctificationmaythenoccuraseitheragradualprocessof purificationorasuddentransformationoftheheart(metanoia),arebirth. Thenotionofrebirthassuchisveryancient,anditsmostclassicaldevelopmentis actuallytobefoundinthemagicalbeliefinspirit.Thepossessionofmagicalcharisma almostalwayspresupposesrebirth.Thedistinctiveeducationofthemagicianhimself,his specificconductoflife,andhisdistinctivetrainingofthewarriorheroareallorientedto rebirthandtheinsuranceofthepossessionofmagicalpower.Thisprocessismediatedby "removal"ofoldspiritintheformofecstasy,andbytheacquisitionofanewsoul, generallyfollowedbyachangeofname.Arudimentofthesenotionsisstillextantinthe monasticconsecrationceremony.Rebirthisatfirstrelevantonlytotheprofessional magician,asamagicalpreconditionforinsuringthecharismaofthemagicianorwarrior. Butinthemostconsistenttypesofsalvationreligionrebirthbecomesaqualityofheart indispensableforreligioussalvation,anattitudewhichtheindividualmustacquireand proofinone's conductoflife. Theinfluenceofareligionontheconductoflife,andespeciallyontheconditionsof rebirth,variesinaccordancewiththeparticularpathanditspsychicqualityofthe salvation,whichisdesiredandstrivenfor.Salvationmaybeaccomplishedbyone's self effortwithoutanyassistanceonthepartofsupernaturalpowers,forexample,inancient Buddhism. SALVATIONBYSELFEFFORT

(G.3)SalvationByRitual Onepathleadstosalvationmaybethroughthepurelyritualactivitiesandceremoniesof cults,bothwithinreligiousworshipandineverydaylife.Pureritualismassuchisnot verydifferentfrommagicinitseffectontheconductoflife.Indeed,ritualismmayeven lagbehindmagic,inasmuchasmagicalreligionoccasionallyproducedadefiniteand ratherthoroughmethodologyofrebirth,whichritualismdidnotalwayssucceedindoing. (G.3.a)RitualMood Areligionofsalvationmaysystematizethepurelyformalandspecificactivitiesofritual intoadistinctivereligious"mood,"inwhichtheritestobeperformedaresymbolsofthe divine.Thenthisreligiousmoodisindeedone' spossessionofsalvation.Ifthemoodis missing,onlythebareandformalmagicalritualismremains.Thishashappenedasa matterofcourseagainandagainintheroutinizationofallreligiosityofmood. Theconsequencesofaritualisticreligionofmoodmaybequitediversified.Therestless ritualisticregimentationoflifeamongpiousHindus,whichbyEuropeanstandardsplaced extensivedailydemandsuponthepious,wouldhaverenderedvirtuallyimpossiblethe coexistenceofalifeofexemplarypietyintheworldwithanyintensiveeconomic activity,ifthesedemandshadbeenfollowedexactly.Suchmostexternaltypeof devotionalpietyisexactlyoppositetoPuritanisminonerespect:suchaprogramof ritualismcouldbeexecutedcompletelyonlybyahumanofmeans,whoisfreefromthe needofeconomicactivity.Butthiscircumstancelimitingthenumberofthosewhose conductoflifecanbeinfluencedbyritualismistosomeextentavoidable,whereas anotherinherentlimitingcircumstanceisevenmorebasictothenatureofritualism. Ritualsalvation,especiallywhenitlimitsthelaypersontoanobserverrole,orconfines theparticipationtosimpleoressentiallypassivemanipulations,especiallyinsituationsin whichtheritualreligiosityissublimatedasmuchaspossibleintoapiousmood,thatis, themoodconditionofthepiousmomentthatappearstobringthesalvation. Consequently,thepossessionofaninnerstateisstrivenafter,andthissubjectivestateof possessionhasoftenonlyanegligibleeffectontheactionoflifebecauseitistemporal innatureanddistinctively"irresponsible"oncetheceremony,forexample,the observanceofamassoramysticalplay,isover.Themeagereffectsuchexperiences uponeverydayethicmaybecomparedtotheinsignificantinfluence,inthisrespect,ofa beautifulandspectacularplayuponthetheaterpublicnomatterhowmuchithasbeen movedbyit.Allmysticalsalvationhassuchaninconstantcharacterasitpurportsto

produceitseffectbymeansofanoccasionalpiousmood.Ritualsalvationlacksinner motivationofarequiredproof,whichmightguaranteearebirth. (G.3.b)RitualMysticism Ontheotherhand,whentheoccasionalpietyinducedbyritualisescalatedintoa continuingpietyandtheeffortismadetoincorporatethispietyintoeverydayliving,this ritualisticpietymostreadilytakesonamysticalcharacter.Thisdevelopmentto mysticismisfacilitatedbytheparticipant'sgoa lofreligiousmoodasthepossessionofa subjectivestate.Butthedispositiontomysticismisanindividualcharisma.Hence,itis noaccidentthatthegreatmysticalpropheciesofsalvation,liketheHinduandothersin theOrient,havetendedtofallintopureritualismastheyhavebecomeroutinized.Whatis ofprimaryconcerntousisthatbyritualismtheinnerhabitwhichisultimatelystrivenfor leadsdirectlyawayfromrationalaction.Virtuallyallmysterycultshavethiseffect. (G.3.c)Sacrament Theirtypicalmeaningisthedispensationof"sacramentalgrace":salvationfromguiltis achievedbythesacrednessofthemanipulationassuch.Likeeverymagic,thisprocess hasatendencytobecomedivertedfromeverydaylife,therebyfailingtoexertany influenceuponit. Butasacramentmighthaveaverydifferenteffectifitsdispensationwerelinkedtothe presuppositionthatthesacramentcouldbringsalvationonlytothosewhohavebecome ethicallypurifiedinthesightofgod,andmightindeedbringruintoallothers.Evenupto thethresholdofthepresenttime,largegroupsofpeoplehavefeltaterrifyingfearofthe Lord's Supper(thesacramentoftheEucharist)becauseoftheteachingthat"whoevereats anddrinksunworthilyeatsanddrinkscondemnationtooneself."[102]Suchfactorscould exertastronginfluenceuponeverydaybehaviorwherever,asinasceticProtestantism,the provisionof"absolution"islackedandwherefurtherparticipationinthesacramental communionoccurredfrequently,providingaveryimportantmarkofpiety. (G.3.d)Confessional InallChristiandenominations,participationinsacramentisconnectedwithaprescription ofconfessionalasthepreconditiontopartakingoftheLord's Supper.Butthe confessionalbecomesdecisiveonlywherereligiousconstitutionisprescribedandthe

sacramentmaybetakenfortheneedoftheparticipants.Onlyritualpuritywasrequired forthispurposebythemajorityofnonChristianancientmysterycults,thoughunder certaincircumstancesthedevoteewasdisqualifiedbygravebloodguiltorotherspecific sins.Thus,mostofthesemysteriesknownoconfession.Butwherevertherequirementof ritualpuritybecamerationalizedinthedirectionofspiritualpurityfromsin,theparticular formsofcontroland,whereitexisted,oftheconfessionalbecameimportantforthetype anddegreeoftheirpossibleinfluenceupondailylife. (G.3.e)PuritanRites Fromthepragmaticpointofview,ritualassuchwasineverycaseonlyaninstrumentfor influencingtheallimportantextraritualbehavior.Somuchisthisthecasethatwherever thesacramentwasmostcompletelystrippedofitsmagicalcharacter,andwherefurther nocontrolbymeansoftheconfessionalexisted,forexample,inPuritanism,the sacramentneverthelessexertedanethicaleffectpreciselybecauseoftheabsenceof magicalandconfessionalmeans. (G.3.f)JewishRitualism Aritualisticreligionmayexertanethicaleffectinanotherandindirectway,byrequiring thatparticipantsbespeciallyschooled.Thishappenedwhere,asinancientJudaism,the fulfillmentofritualcommandmentsrequiredofthelaitysomeactiveritualbehavioror someritualavoidance,andwheretheformalisticsideoftheritualhadbecomeso systematizedintoacomprehensivebodyoflawthatadequateunderstandingofitrequired specialschooling.PhiloemphasizedalreadyinancienttimesthattheJews,incontrastto allotherpeoples,weretrainedfromtheirearliestyouth(alongthelinesofourpublic schoolsystem)andreceivedacontinuousintellectualtraininginsystematiccasuistry. Indeed,theliterarycharacterofJewishlawisresponsibleforthefactthateveninmodern timesmanyJews,forexample,thoseinEasternEurope,havebeentheonlypeoplein theirsocietytoengagesystematicpopulareducation.EveninAntiquity,piousJewshad beenledtoregardpersonsunschooledinthelawasthegodless.Suchcasuisticschooling oftheintellectnaturallyexertsaneffectoneverydaylife,especiallywhenitinvolvesnot onlyritualandculticobligations,asthoseofHindulaw,butalsoasystematicregulation oftheeverydayethicaswell. (G.4)SalvationByGoodWorks

Salvationbyone'se ffort,thenwidelydifferentfromculticperformances,maybe achievedbysocialperformance.Salvationbysocialachievementsmayhavevery differentcharacters.Forexample,godsofwarinviteintotheirparadiseonlythosewho havefalleninbattle,orprimarythem.IntheBrahminethicthekingwasexplicitlysought deathinbattleoncehehadbeheldhisgrandson.Ontheotherhand,thesocial achievementsmaybeworksof"loveforone's neighbors." (G.4.a)AccountforEveryAction Butineithercasesystematizationmaydevelop,andaswehavealreadyseen,itis generallythepowerofprophecytoaccomplishthissystematization.Thesystematization ofanethicof"goodworks"maytakeeitheroftwoverydifferentcharacters. Inthefirsttypeofsystematization,everyaction,whethervirtuousorwickedaction,can beevaluatedsinglyandcreditedtotheindividual'sa ccountpositivelyornegativelyfor therequirementofsalvation.Eachindividualasthecarrierofone's ownactionpossesses ethicalstandardsonlytenuously;s/hemayturnouttobeaweakerorastrongercreature inthefaceoftemptation,accordingtotheinternalorexternalsituation.Yetitisheldthat one's religiousdestinydependsuponone' sactualachievements,intheirrelationshipto oneanother.ThisfirsttypeofsystematizationisconsistentlyfollowedinZoroastrianism, particularlyintheoldestGathasbythefounderhimself,whichdepictthejudgeofallthe deadbalancingtheguiltandmeritofindividualactionsinaveryprecisebookkeeping anddeterminingthereligiousdestinyoftheindividualpersonaccordingtotheoutcome ofthisaccounting.ThisnotionappearsamongtheHindusinanevenmoreheightened form,asaconsequenceofthedoctrineofkarma.Itisheldthatwithintheethical mechanismoftheworldnotasinglegoodorevilactioncaneverbelost.Eachaction, beingineradicable,mustnecessarilyproduce,byanalmostautomaticprocess,inevitable consequencesinthislifeorinsomefuturerebirth.Thisprincipleoflifeaccountingalso remainedthebasicstandpointofpopularJudaismregardingtheindividual' srelationship toGod.Finally,RomanCatholicismandtheorientalChristianchurchesheldviewsvery closetothis,atleastinpractice.Theintention(intentio),accordingtotheethical evaluationofbehaviorinCatholicism,isnotreallyaqualityofunifiedpersonality,in whichactionisanexpression.Rather,itistheconcreteintent(somewhatinthesenseof thegoodfaith(bonafides),badfaith(malafides),intentionaldamage(culpa),and unintentionaldamage(dolus)oftheRomanlaw)ofaparticularaction.Thisview,when consistentlymaintained,avoidstheyearningfor"rebirth"inthestrictsenseofanethicof heart.Aresultisthattheconductofliferemainsanimmethodicalandmiscellaneous successionofdiscreteactions. (G.4.b)TotalPersonality

Thesecondtypeofsystematizationofanethicofgoodworkstreatsindividualactionsas symptomsandexpressionsofanunderlyingethicaltotalpersonality.Itisinstructiveto recalltheattitudeofthemorerigorousSpartanstowardacomradewhohadfallenin battleinordertoatoneforanearliermanifestationofcowardice,akindof"redeeming duel"aspracticedbyGermanfraternities.Theydidnotregardhimashavingrehabilitated hisethicalstatus,sincehehadactedbravelyforaspecificreasonandnot"outofthe totalityofhispersonality,"aswewouldtermit.Inthereligiousspheretoo,formal sanctificationbythegoodworksshowninexternalactionsissupplantedbythevalueof thetotalhabituationofpersonality,whichintheSpartanexamplewouldbeanhabituated attitudeofheroism.Asimilarprincipleappliestosocialachievementsofallsorts.Ifthey demonstrate"loveforone' sneighbors,"thenethicalsystematizationofthiskindrequires thattheactorpossessthecharismaof"goodness."Inanycases,anindividualactionisa mere"symptom"ofthetotalcharacterandthatnosignificancebeattachedtoitwhenitis aresultof"accident."Thus,thisethicofheart,initsmosthighlysystematizedcharacter, maymakeincreaseddemandsatthestandardofthetotalpersonalityandyetbemore tolerantinregardtosingletransgressions.Butthisisnotalwaysthecase,andtheethicof heartisgenerallythemostdistinctivetypeofethicalrigorism.Therebythetotal habituationofpositivereligiousqualificationsmayberegardedasadivinegift,the presenceofwhichwillmanifestitselfinageneralorientationtowhateverisdemandedby religion,namelyamethodicallyunifiedconductoflife.Or,onthecontrary,thetotal habituationmaybe,inprinciple,acquiredby"training"ingoodness.Ofcoursethis trainingitselfwillconsistofarationalized,methodicaldirectionofthetotalconductof life,andnotanaccumulationofsingle,unrelatedactions. Inbothtypesofsystematization,practicalresultisverysimilar.Yet,inthemethodical habituationoftotalpersonality,thesocialandethicalqualityofactionsfallsinto secondaryimportance,whilethereligiouseffortupononeselfbecomesofprimary importance.Consequently,religiouslyqualifiedandsociallyorientedgoodworksbecome mereinstrumentsofselfperfection:a"methodologyofsanctification." (G.5)SalvationBySelfperfection (G.5.a)AnimisticMethodology The"methodology"ofsanctification,atfirst,knowsnoethicalreligiosity.Onthe contrary,itfrequentlyplayedsignificantrolesintheawakeningofcharismaticrebirth whichpromisedtheacquisitionofmagicalpowers.Thisanimisticuseofthe methodologyentailedbeliefintheincarnationofanewsoulwithinone' sownbody,the possessionofone' ssoulbyapowerfuldemon,ortheremovalofone's soultoarealmof spirits.Inallcasesthepossibilityofattainingsuperhumanactionsandpowerswas

involved."Otherworldly"goalswereofcoursecompletelylackinginallthis.Whatis more,thiscapacityforecstasymightbeusedforthemostdiversepurposes.Thus,only byacquiringanewsoulthroughrebirthcanthewarriorachievesuperhumandeedsof heroism.Theoriginalsenseof"rebirth"asproducingeitheraherooramagicianremains presentinallinitiationceremonies,forexample,thereceptionofyouthintothereligious brotherhoodofthephratryandtheirornamentswiththeequipmentofwar,orthe decorationofyouthwiththeinsigniaofmanhoodinChinaandIndia(wherethemembers ofthehighercastesaretermedthe"twiceborn").Alltheseceremonieswereoriginally associatedwithactivitieswhichproducedorsymbolizedecstasy,andthepurposeofthe associatedtrainingisthetestingorawakeningofthecapacityforecstasy. (G.5.b)InductionofEcstasy Ecstasyasanmeansof"sanctification"or"selfdeification,"ourexclusiveinteresthere, mayhavetheprimarycharacterofanacutementaldepartureorpossession,orelsethe characterofachronicallyheightenedspecificallyreligioushabiteithertowardgreater intensityoflifeortowardalienationfromlife.Thisescalated,intensifiedreligioushabit canbeofeitheramorecontemplativeoramoreactivetype.Ofcourse,theinductionof acuteecstasyisnottheplannedmethodologyofsanctificationbutprimarythemeansof breakingdownorganicfunction.Thisinductionofacuteinhibitedstatesbyalcohol, tobacco,orotherdrugswhichhaveintoxicatingeffects;bymusicanddance;by sexuality;orbyacombinationofallthreeiscalledorgy.Ecstasywasalsoinducedbythe provocationofhystericalorepilepticseizuresamongthosewithpredispositionstoward suchsuddenreactions,whichinturninduceorgiasticstatesinothers.However,these acuteecstasiesaretransitoryintheirnatureandleavebutfewpositivetracesoneveryday habit.Moreover,theyhavenomeaningfulcontentinrevealedpropheticreligions. Ontheotherhand,itwouldappearthatamuchmoreenduringpossessionofthe charismaticconditionisensuredbythosemilderformsofeuphoriawhichmaybe experiencedaseitheradreamlikemystical"illumination"oramoreactiveandethical conversion.Furthermore,theygiveameaningfulrelationshiptothe"world,"andthey correspondinqualitytothevalueofan"eternal"orderoranethicalgodsuchasare proclaimedbyprophets.Wehavealreadyseenthatmagicianalreadyknowasystematic methodologyof"awakening"ofcharismaticqualities,besidesmereacuteorgy,because professionalmagiciansandwarriorsneedenduringstatesofcharismaaswellasacute ecstasies. Notonlyorgiasticintoxicationisnotneededatallbytheprophetsofethicalsalvation, butratheritdirectlypreventsfromthesystematicethicalconductoflifetheyrequire.For thisreason,theprimarytargetofZoroaster' sindignantethicalrationalismwasorgiastic

ecstasy,particularlytheintoxicatingcultofthesomasacrifice,whichhedeemedthe wildnessandcrueltyofhumans.Forthesamereason,Mosesdirectlyattackedagainstthe orgyofthedance,justasmanyfoundersorprophetsofethicalreligionattacked "whoredom,"namely,orgiastictempleprostitution. (G.5.c)DevelopmentofMethodology Astheprocessofrationalizationwentforward,thegoalofreligiousmethodologyof sanctificationincreasinglytransformedfromtheacutestateinducedbyorgyintoamilder butmoreenduringandconsciouslypossessedhabit.Thistransformationwasstrongly influencedbytheconceptofthedivine.Naturallythehighestgoalofthemethodologyof sanctification,atfirst,remainedeverywherethesamewhichwasservedinanacuteform oforgy,namelytheincarnationofasupernaturalbeing,andthereforeselfdeification. Then,thisincarnationhadtobecomeacontinuoushabituation,sofaraspossible.Thus, themethodologyofsanctificationwasdirectedtoattainingthispossessionofthedivinity withinoneself. (G.5.c.1)TranscendentalGod Butwherevertheconceptoftranscendentalgod,allpowerfulincontrasttohiscreatures emerges,thegoalofthemethodologyofsanctificationcannolongerbeselfdeification inthissensebutbetheacquisitionofthosereligiousqualitiesthegoddemandsto humans.Hencethegoalofsanctificationbecomesorientedtotheworldbeyondandto ethics.Theaimisnotto"possess"god,forthiscannotbedone,buteithertobecomean instrumentofthegodortobespirituallysuffusedbythegod.Spiritualsuffusionis obviouslyclosertoselfdeificationthanisinstrumentality.Thisdifferencehadimportant consequencesforthemethodologyofsanctificationitself,asweshalldiscusslater.[103] Butinthebeginningofthisdevelopmenttherewereimportantpointsofagreement betweenthemethodsdirectedatinstrumentalityandthosedirectedatspiritualsuffusion. Inbothcasesthepersonhadtoeliminatefromone' severydaylifewhateverwasnot divine,whichwereprimarytheordinaryhabitsofthehumanbodyandtheeveryday world,asthoseweregivenbynature,sothats/hemightbecomemoreneartogod. (G.5.c.2)StatesofSanctification Atthisearlydevelopmentofsalvationalmethodologyofsanctification,itwasstill directlylinkedwiththemagicalnotion,inwhichonlythemethodsarerationalizedand accommodatedtoitsnewconceptconcerningthenatureofthesuperhumanandthe

meaningofreligioussanctification.Experiencetaughtthatbythehysteric"deadening"of thebodiesofthosewithspecialreligiousqualificationsitwaspossibletorendersuch bodiesinsensibleorcatalepticandtoproduceinthembysuggestionsundryactionsthat normalneurologicalfunctioningcouldneverproduce.Ithadalsobeenlearnedfrom experiencethatallsortsofvisionaryandspiritualexperiencemighteasilyappearduring suchstates.Indifferentpersons,thesephenomenamightconsistinspeakingwithstrange tongues,manifestinghypnoticandothersuggestivepowers,experiencingimpulses towardmysticalilluminationandethicalconversion,orexperiencingprofoundanguish overone' ssinsandjoyousemotionderivingfromsuffusionbythespiritofthegod.These statesmightevenfolloweachotherinrapidsuccession.Itwasafurtherlessonof experiencethatalltheseextraordinarycapacitiesandmanifestationswoulddisappear followingasurrendertothe"natural"functionsandneedsofthebody,orasurrenderto thedeclinedinterestsofeverydaylife.Thus,suchconsequencesoftherelationshipof mentalstatestothenaturalstatesofthebodyandtotheeverydaysocialandeconomic lifedreweverywherethedevelopmentoftheyarningforsalvation. (G.5.c.3)IndianMethodology Thespecificmeansofsanctification,intheirmosthighlydevelopedforms,arepractically allofIndiansources.InIndiatheywereundoubtedlydevelopedinconnectionwiththe methodologyofthemagicalcoercionofspirits;thesemeanswereincreasinglyusedfor themethodologyofselfdeification,andindeedtheyneverlostthischaracter.Self deificationwastheprevalentgoalofsanctification,fromthebeginningsofthesomacult oforgyinancientVedictimesuptothesublimedmeansofintellectualistecstasyandthe elaborationoferoticorgies(whetherinacuteorsublimedform,andwhetheractually enactedorimaginatively),whichtothisdaydominatethemostpopularformofHindu religion,thecultofKrishna.ThroughSufism,thissublimatedtypeofintellectualist ecstasyandamilderformoforgiasticDervishwereintroducedintoIslam.Tothisday IndiansarestilltheirtypicalcarriersevenasfarafieldasBosnia.[104] (G.5.c.4)CatholicismandConfucianism Thetwogreatestpowersofreligiousrationalisminhistory,theRomanchurchinthe OccidentandConfucianisminChina,consistentlysuppressedthisorgiasticecstasyin theirdomains.Christianityalsosublimatedecstasyintosemieroticmysticismsuchas thatofBernard,ferventworshipofVirginMary,QuietismoftheCounterReformation, andtheemotionalpietyofZinzendorf.Thespecificallyextraordinarynatureofthe experiencesofallorgiasticcults,andparticularlyofalleroticones,accountsforno influenceoneverydaylife,oratleastonthedirectionofrationalizationor

systematization.ThisisseenclearlyinthefactthattheHinduand(ingeneral)Dervish religiositiescreatednomethodologyoftheconductofeverydaylife. (G.5.c.5)CertaintyofSalvation Thedevelopmenttowardsystematizationandrationalizationofattainingreligiousstateof salvation,however,isprimarilydirectedjustlytoeliminatedthesecontradictionbetween everydayandextraordinaryreligioushabituations.Outoftheunlimitedvarietyof subjectivereligiousstateswhichmaybeproducedbythemethodologyofsanctification, someofthemmayfinallyasofcentralimportance,notonlybecausetheyrepresent psychophysicalstatesofextraordinaryquality,butbecausetheyalsoappeartoprovidea secureandcontinuouspossessionofthedistinctivereligiousgoods.Thisisthecertainty ofsalvation(certitudosalutis).Thiscertaintymaybecharacterizedbyamoremystical orbyamoreactivelyethicalcoloration,aboutwhichmorewillbesaidpresently.Butin eithercase,itconstitutestheconsciouspossessionofalasting,integratedfoundationof theconductoflife.Toheightentheconsciousawarenessofthisreligiouspossession, orgiasticecstasyandirrational,merelyirritatingemotionalmeansofdeadeningsensation arereplaced,principallybyplannedreductionsofbodilyfunctioning,suchascanbe achievedbycontinuousmalnutrition,sexualabstinence,regulationofrespiration,andthe like.Inaddition,thetrainingofthinkingandotherpsychicprocessesaredirectedtoa systematicconcentrationoftheminduponwhateverisaloneessentialinreligion. ExamplesofsuchpsychologicaltrainingarefoundintheHindutechniquesofYoga,the continuousrepetitionofsacredsyllables(forexample,Om),meditationfocusedoncircles andothergeometricalfigures,andvariousexercisesdesignedtoeffectaplanned evacuationoftheconsciousness. (G.5.c.6)RationalizationofMethodology Butintheinterestofthelastinganduniformcontinuityinthepossessionofthereligious good,therationalizationofthemethodologyofsanctificationfinallydevelopedeven beyondthemethodsjustmentionedtoanapparentreversal,aplannedlimitationofthe exercisestothosemeanswhichinsurecontinuityofthereligioushabit.Thismeantthe abandonmentofalltechniquesthatareirrationalfromtheviewpointofhygiene.Forjust aseverysortofintoxication,whetheritbetheorgiasticecstasyofheroes,eroticorgiesor theecstasyofdancingfrenzies,inevitablyculminatesinphysicalcollapse,sohysterical suffusionwithpneumaticemotionalismleadstopsychiccollapse,whichinthereligious sphereisinterpretedasastateofseriousabandonmentbygod.

InGreecethecultivationofdisciplinedmartialheroismfinallyattenuatedthewarrior ecstasyintotheconstantuniformity(sophrosyne),toleratingonlythepurelymusical, rhythmicallyengenderedformsofecstasy,andcarefullyevaluatingthe"ethos"ofmusic for"political"correctness.Inthesameway,butinamorethoroughmanner,Confucian rationalismpermittedonlythepentatonicscaleinmusic.Similarly,themonastic methodologyofsanctificationdevelopedincreasinglyinthedirectionofrationalization, uptothesalvationmethodologyofancientBuddhisminIndiaandtheJesuitmonastic orderintheOccident,whichexertedthegreatesthistoricalinfluence.Thus,allthese methodologiesofsanctificationdevelopedacombinedphysicalandpsychichygieneand anequallymethodicalregulationofthecontentandscopeofallthoughtandaction,thus producingintheindividualthemostcompletelyconscious,willful,andantiinstinctual controloverone' sownphysicalandpsychologicalprocesses,andinsuringthesystematic regulationoflifeinsubordinationtothereligiousend.Itiswithoutsayingthatthegoals, thespecificcontents,andtheactualresultsofthemethodologywereveryvariable. (G.5.d)ReligiousVirtuosi Thathumanbeingsdifferwidelyintheirreligiousqualificationswasfoundtobetruein everyreligionuponasystematicmethodologyofsanctification,regardlessofthespecific goalofsalvationandtheparticularmannerinwhichitwasimplemented.Asithadbeen recognizedthatnoteveryonepossessesthecharismawhichleadsapersontorebirthasa magician,soitwasalsorecognizedthatnoteveryonepossessesthecharismathatmakes possiblethecontinuousmaintenanceineverydaylifeofthedistinctivereligioushabit whichassuresthelastingcertaintyofgrace.Therefore,rebirthseemedtobeaccessible onlytoanaristocracyofthosepossessingreligiousqualifications.Justasmagicianshad beenrecognizedaspossessingdistinctivemagicalqualities,soalsothereligiousvirtuosi whoworkmethodicallyattheirsalvationnowgainadistinctivereligious"status"within thecommunityofthefaithful,andwithinthiscircletheyattainedwhatisspecificto everystatus,asocialhonor. InIndiaallthesacredlawsconcernedthemselveswiththeasceticinthissense,since mostoftheHindureligionsofsalvationweremonastic.TheearliestChristiansources representthesereligiousvirtuosiascomprisingaparticularcategory,distinguishedfrom theircomradesinthecommunity,andtheylaterconstitutedthemonasticorders.In Protestantismtheyformedtheasceticsectsorpietisticconventicles.InJudaismtheywere thePharisees,anaristocracywithrespecttosalvationwhichstoodincontrasttothe godlessJews(amhaarez).InIslamtheyweretheDervishes,andamongtheDervishes theparticularvirtuosiweretheauthenticSufis.IntheRussianSkoptsysectthey constitutedtheesotericcommunityofthecastrated.Weshalllaterreturntotheimportant sociologicalconsequencesofthesecategories.[105]

Initsinwardethicalinterpretation,themethodologyofsanctificationalwaysmeans practicallyovercomingparticulardesiresandemotionsofrawhumannaturewhichhad nothithertobeencontrolledreligiously.Whethersuchhumannatureiscowardice, brutality,selfishness,sensuality,againstwhichanindividualfoughtnoblyremainsthe questionofaspecificindividual.Thesedesiresandemotionsdrivetheindividualaway fromone's charismatichabituation.Thismatterbelongsamongthemostimportant substantivecharacteristicsofanyparticularreligion.Butthemethodologyof sanctificationalwaysremains,inthissenseofovercominghumannature,anethicof virtuosi.Likemagicalcharisma,italwaysrequiresdemonstrationofthevirtuosity.As wehavealreadydiscussed,[106]religiousvirtuosipossessauthenticcertaintyoftheir sanctificationonlyaslongastheirownvirtuosoreligiousattitudecontinuestorenewits demonstrationinspiteofalltemptations.Thisholdstruewhetherthereligiousvirtuosity isafollowerofaworldconqueringorderlikethatoftheMuslimsatthetimeofUmaror whetherheisaworldrejectingasceticlikemostmonksofeithertheChristianortheless consistentJainisttype.ItisequallytrueoftheBuddhistmonk,avirtuosoofworldfleeing contemplation,theancientChristian,whowasavirtuosoofpassivemartyrdom,andthe asceticProtestant,avirtuosooftheinnerworldlyvocation.Finally,thisholdstrueofthe formallegalismofthePharisaicJewandoftheacosmisticgoodnessofsuchpersonsas FrancisofAssisi.Thedemonstrationofthecertaintyofsanctificationvariedinits specificcharacter,dependingonthetypeofreligioussalvationinvolved,butitalways bothinthecaseoftheBuddhistmonk(arhat)andthecaseoftheearlyChristian requiredtheupholdingofreligiousandethicalstandards,andhencetheavoidanceofat leastthemostcorruptsins. InearlyChristianity,apersonofpositivereligiousqualification,namelyonewhohad beenbaptized,wasboundneveragaintofallintoamortalsin."Mortalsin"designatesthe typeofsinwhichdestroysreligiousqualification.Therefore,itisunpardonable,orat leastcapableofremissiononlyatthehandsofsomeonespeciallyqualified,byhis possessionofcharisma,toendowthesinneranewwithreligiouscharisma(thelossof whichthesindocumented).Whenthisvirtuosodoctrinebecameuntenableinpractice withintheancientChristiancommunitiesofthemasses,theMontanistclungfirmlyand consistentlytoonevirtuosorequirement,thatthesinofcowardiceremainunpardonable, quiteastheIslamicreligionofheroicwarriorsunfailinglypunishedapostasywithdeath. Accordingly,theMontanistssegregatedthemselvesfromthemasschurchoftheordinary ChristianswhenthepersecutionsunderDecius(249251)andDiocletian(284305)made eventhisvirtuosorequirementimpractical,inviewoftheinterestofthepriestsin maintainingthelargestpossiblemembershipinthecommunity. (H)ASCETICISMANDMYSTICISM

Aswehavealreadystatedatanumberofpoints,thepositivecharacterofthecertaintyof salvationandalsooftheassociatedpracticalconductiscompletelydifferentin accordancewiththecharacterofthesalvationalgoods,thepossessionofwhichassures sanctification.Thereareinprincipletwodirectionsofthemethodologyofsanctification: asceticismandmysticism. (H.1)Asceticism (H.1.a)Definition Salvationmaybethedistinctivegiftofactiveethicalactionperformedintheawareness thatgoddirectsthisaction,namely,thattheactorisaninstrumentofgod.Weshall designatethistypeofnotiontowardsalvation,whichischaracterizedbyamethodology ofreligioussalvation,as"ascetic."Thisdesignationisforourpurposeshere,andwedo notinanywaydenythatthistermmaybeandhasbeenusedinanotherandwidersense. Thecontrastbetweenourusageandthewiderusagewillbecomeclearerlateroninthis work. (H.1.b)Worldrejection Religiousvirtuosity,inadditiontoovercomingthenaturalinstinctunderasystematic conductoflife,alwaysleadstoaradicalethicalandreligiouscriticismofthesocial relationshipoflifeinordertoovercomeit,sincetheconventionalvirtuesofthesociety areinevitablyunheroicandutilitarian.Notonlydoesthemere"natural"moralwithinthe worldnotguaranteesalvation,butitactuallyendangerssalvationthroughpreventing fromwhatisaloneindispensableforit.The"world"inthereligioussense,namely,the domainofsocialrelationships,isthereforearealmoftemptations.Theworldisfullof temptations,notonlybecauseitisthesiteofsensualpleasureswhichareethically irrationalandcompletelydivertingfromthingsdivine,butevenmorebecauseitfostersin theselfsatisfactionandselfrighteousnessinthefulfillmentofcommonobligationsof religiouslyaveragepersons,attheexpenseofthesoleconcentrationonactive achievementsofsalvation. Concentrationuponsalvationmayentailaformalwithdrawalfromthe"world":from socialandpsychologicaltieswiththefamily,fromthepossessionofworldlygoods,and frompolitical,economic,artistic,anderoticactivitiesinshort,fromallcreaturely interests.Anyparticipationintheseaffairsmayappearasanacceptanceoftheworldand therebyasanalienationfromdivine.Thisis"worldrejectingasceticism."

(H.1.c)InnerworldlyAsceticism Ontheotherhand,concentrationuponsalvationmayrequirethemaintenanceofspecific qualityofreligiousattitudeastheelectedinstrumentofGodwithintheworldbutagainst totheorderoftheworld.Thisis"innerworldlyasceticism."Inthiscasetheworldis presentedtothereligiousvirtuosoastheassignedduty.Theascetic's taskistotransform theworldinaccordancewithher/hisasceticideals,inwhichcasetheasceticwillbecome arationalreformerorrevolutionaryofthe"naturalright."Examplesofthiswereseenin the"ParliamentoftheSaints"underCromwell,intheQuakerStateofPennsylvania,and intheconventiclecommunismofradicalPietism. Asaresultofthedifferencesinreligiousqualification,suchasceticsalwaysbecomean aristocratic,exclusiveorganizationwithinor,specifically,outsidetheworldofthe averagepeoplewhosurroundtheseascetics;inprinciple,anascetic's aristocracyisnot differentfroma"class".Suchanasceticenterprisemightbeabletoconquertheworld, butitstillcouldnotraisethereligiousendowmentoftheaveragepersontoitsownlevel ofvirtuosity.Anyrationalreligiousenterprisethatignoredthisselfevidencehadto experienceitsconsequence. Fromthepointofviewofasceticism,theworldasawholeremainstoan"eternal damnation"(massaperditionis).Theonlyremainingalternativeisarenunciationofthe illusionthattheworldcanmeettothereligiousrequirement.Consequently,ifa demonstrationofreligiousqualificationisstilltobemadewithintheordersoftheworld, thentheworld,fortheveryreasonthatitinevitablyremainsanaturalvesselofsin, becomesachallengeforthedemonstrationoftheasceticqualificationandforthe strongestpossiblebattleagainsttheworld's sins.Theworldabidesintheworthlessstate ofallthingsoftheflesh.Therefore,anysensuousattachmenttotheworld' sgoodsmay imperilconcentrationuponandpossessionofthegoodofsalvation,andmaybea symptomofunholinessofheartandfailureofrebirth.Nevertheless,theworldasa creationofgod,whosepowercomestoexpressioninitdespiteitscreatureliness,provides theonlymediumthroughwhichone'sunique religiouscharismamustproveitselfby meansofrationalethicalaction,sothatonemaybecomeandremaincertainofone'sow n stateofgrace. Hence,astheobjectofthisactivedemonstration,theorderoftheworldinwhichthe asceticissituatedbecomesforher/hima"vocation"whichs/hemust"fulfill"rationally. Asaconsequence,andalthoughtheenjoymentofwealthisforbiddentotheascetic,it becomeshisvocationtoengageineconomicactivitywhichmeetsrationalandethical requirementsandwhichconformstostrictlegality.Iftheactivitybringssuccessand

profit,itisregardedasthemanifestationofgod' srewarduponthelaborofthefaithful andofgod'sble ssingwithhiseconomicconductoflife. Anyexcessofemotionalfeelingisprohibitedasbeingadeificationofthecreaturely, whichdeniestheuniquevalueofthedivinegiftofgrace.Ontheotherhand,"vocation"is therationalandsoberlaboringforthecauseoftherationalpurposivesocietyofthe world,whichissetbytheGod's creation.Insimilarway,anyeroticismthattendstodeify thehumancreatureiscondemned.Ontheotherhand,itisadivinelyprescribedvocation ofhuman"tosoberlyproducechildren"(asthePuritansexpressedit)withinmarriage. Then,too,thereisaprohibitionagainsttheexerciseofforcebyanindividualagainst otherhumanbeingsforreasonsofpassionorrevenge,andaboveallforpurelypersonal motives.However,itisthedivinewillthattherationallyorderedstateshallsuppressand punishsinnersandrebels.Finally,allpersonalsecularenjoymentofpowerisforbidden asadeificationofthecreaturely.Howevertherulershipofarationallegalorderwithin societyisgod' swill. Innerworldlyasceticisarationalist,notonlyinthesensethatherationallysystematizes hisownconductoflife,butalsoinhisrejectionofeverythingthatisethicallyirrational, whetheresthetic,orpersonalemotionalreactionswithintheworldanditsorders.The distinctivegoalalwaysremainsthe"conscious,"methodicalmasteringofone' sown conductoflife.Thistypeof"innerworldlyasceticism"included,aboveall,ascetic Protestantism,whichheldthefulfillmentofthedutyandtaskassignedbythegodwithin theworldasthesolemeansofdemonstrationofreligiousqualification,thoughitsseveral branchesdemonstratedthistenetwithvaryingdegreesofconsistency. (H.2)Mysticism (H.2.a)MysticalIllumination Butthedistinctivegoodsofsalvationmaynotbeanactivequalityofaction,thatis,an awarenessofhavingfulfilledthedivinewill;itmayinsteadbeasubjectivestateofa distinctivekind,themostnotableformofwhichis"mysticalillumination."Thistoois achievableonlytoafewwhohaveparticularreligiousqualifications,andonlythrougha specifickindofsystematicactivity,namely,"contemplation."Toachievethegoalof mysticillumination,contemplationalwaysrequiresthebeingfreefromalleveryday interests.AccordingtotheexperienceoftheQuakers,Godcanspeakwithinone's soul onlywhenthecreaturelyelementinpersonisaltogethersilent.Allcontemplative mysticismfromLaoTzuandtheBuddhauptoTauler(13001361)isinaccordwiththis experience,ifnotwiththeseverywords.

(H.2.b)FlightfromtheWorld Theconsequenceofmysticexperiencemaybetheabsolutewithdrawalfromtheworld. Suchacontemplativeflightfromtheworld,characteristicofancientBuddhismandto somedegreecharacteristicofallAsiaticandNearEasternformsofsalvation,seemsto resembletheasceticworldview;butitisnecessarytomakeaverycleardistinction betweenthetwo. Inthesenseemployedhere,"worldrejectingasceticism"isprimarilyorientedtoactivity withintheworld.Onlyactivitywithintheworldhelpstheascetictoattainaqualityof god' sgraceforwhichs/hestrives.Theasceticattainsrenewedassurancesofone' sstateof gracefromtheconsciousnessthatthepowertoactflowsoutofthepossessionofthe centralreligioussalvation,andthatthroughtheactionsoneservesgod.Theasceticis consciousofoneselfasawarriorofgod,regardlessofwhotheenemyisandwhatthe meansofdoingbattleare.Fortheascetic,thewithdrawalfromtheworldisnota psychologicalescape,butasarepeatedvictoryoverevernewtemptationswhichs/hehas tocombatactively,timeandagain.Theworldrejectingasceticsustainsatleastthe negativeinnerrelationshipwiththe"world,"againstwhichs/heisdesignatedtostruggle. Itisthereforemoreappropriateinhiscasetospeakofa"rejectionoftheworld"thanof a"flightfromtheworld."Flightismuchmorecharacteristicofthecontemplative mystic. (H.2.c)MysticalUnion Incontrasttoasceticism,contemplationisprimarilythequestfor"rest"ingodandinhim alone.Itentailsinactionofeverythingthatinanywayremindsofthe"world,"andof coursetheabsoluteminimizationofallouterandinneractivity;andinitsmostconsistent formitentailsthecessationofthought.Bythesepathsthemysticachievesasubjective statewhichmayberegardedasthepossessionofthedivine,ormysticalunion(unio mystica).Thisisadistinctivehabituationofemotion,whichappearstobemediatedby "knowledge."Tobesure,themysticalunionmaybegroundedmoreuponthe extraordinarycontentofthisknowledgeormoreupontheemotionalcolorationofthe possessionofthisknowledge;objectively,thelatterisdecisive. Then,themorethemysticalknowledgebecomessuchanemotionalcharacter,themoreit becomesincommunicable;eventhoughmysticalunionemergesasknowledge,itgives themysticdirectlysuchemotionalcharacter.Formysticalknowledgeisnotnew knowledgeofanyfactsordoctrines,butrathertheperceptionofanoverallmeaningin theworld.Thisusageof"knowledge"isintendedwhereverthetermoccursinthe

numerousformulationsofmystics;itdenotesapracticalknowledge.Thecenterpointof suchknowledgeisbasicallya"possession,"fromwhichtheremaybederivedanew practicalorientationtotheworld,andundercertaincircumstancesevennewand communicable"recognition."However,recognitionconstitutesknowledgeofvaluesand nonvalueswithintheworld.Wearenotinterestedhereinthecontentsofthese knowledge,butonlyinthisnegativeeffectuponactionwhichisanatureofall contemplation,incontrasttoasceticisminoursenseoftheterm. (H.2.d)ConcentrationuponTruth Pendingamorethoroughdiscussion,wemaystronglyemphasizeherethatthedistinction betweenworldrejectingasceticismandworldfleeingcontemplationisofcoursefluid. Forworldfleeingcontemplationisoriginallyassociatedwithaconsiderabledegreeof systematicallyrationalizedconductoflife.Onlythis,indeed,leadstoconcentrationupon thegoalofsalvation.Yet,rationalizedconductoflifeisonlyanmeansforthegoalof contemplationandisofanessentiallynegativetype,consistingintheavoidanceof interruptionscausedbynatureandthesocialsurroundings.Contemplationdoesnot necessarilybecomeapassivesurrendertodreamsorasimpleselfhypnosis,thoughit mayapproachthesestatesinpractice.Onthecontrary,thedistinctivepathto contemplationisaveryenergeticconcentrationuponcertain"truth."Thedecisiveaspect ofthisprocessisnotthecontentofthetruth,whichfrequentlyseemsverysimpletonon mystics,butratherthetypeofemphasisplaceduponthetruth.Themysticaltruthviews thetotalaspectoftheworldfromitscentralpositionandgraspstheunifiedmeaningof theworld.InBuddhism,noonebecomesoneoftheilluminatedbyexplicitlyaffirming theobviouslyhighlytrivialformulationsofthecentralBuddhistdogma,orevenby achievingapenetratingunderstandingofthecentraldogma.Theconcentrationof thought,togetherwiththevariousothermeansforsalvation,isonlyaway,notthegoal. Thegoalisillumination,whichconsistsexclusivelyinauniquequalityofemotionor, moreobjectively,intheemotionalunityofknowledgewiththepracticalstateofmind whichprovidesthemysticwithdecisiveassuranceofone' sreligiousstateofgrace. (H.2.e)Containervs.Instrument Fortheascetictoo,theemotionalandconsciousperceptionofthedivinityisofcentral importance,onlyinthiscasethedivineemotionisofa"motor"type,sotospeak.This "emotion"ariseswhentheasceticlivesintheconsciousnessthats/he,asaninstrumentof god,hassucceededinrationalizedethicalactionintegrallyorientedtogod.Butthe contemplativemysticneitherseekstobenorcanbethegod' s"instrument,"butseeksonly tobecomethegod' s"container."Forthemystic,theascetic' sethicalstruggle,whetherof apositiveoranegativetype,appearstobeaperpetualexternalizationofthedivineinthe

directionofsomeminorfunction.Forthisreason,ancientBuddhismrecommended inactionasthepreconditionforthemaintenanceofthestateofgrace,andinanycase Buddhismavoidedeverytypeofrational,purposiveactionasagoal,foritwasthemost dangerousformofsecularization.Ontheotherhand,thecontemplationofthemystic appearstotheasceticasindolent,religiouslysterile,andasceticallyreprehensibleself indulgence,namely,aflounderinginselfcreatedemotionspromptedbythedeificationof thecreaturely. Fromthestandpointofacontemplativemystic,theasceticappears,byher/his extraordinaryselfinflictionandstruggles,andespeciallybyher/hisascetically rationalizedconductwithintheworld,tobeforeverinvolvedinalltheburdensofcreated things,confrontinginsolubletensionsbetweenviolenceandgoodness,betweenmatter offactnessandlove.Theasceticisthereforeregardedaspermanentlyalienatedfrom unitywithgod,andasforcedintocontradictionsandcompromisesthatarefarfrom salvation.Butfromtheconversestandpointoftheascetic,thecontemplativemysticdoes notthinkofgod,therealizationofgod's nationandglory,ortheactivefulfillmentof god' swill,butratherthinksexclusivelyaboutone's ownself.Thereforethemysticlives ineverlastinginconsistency,sincebyreasonoftheveryfactthats/hemustprovidefor themeansoflifeaslongass/helives.Thisisparticularlytruewhenthecontemplative mysticliveswithintheworldanditsorders.Inthissense,theworldfleeingmysticis moredependentupontheworldthanistheascetic.Theasceticcanmaintainoneselfasa secluded,ensuringthecertaintyofhisstateofgracethroughthelaborss/heexpendsinan efforttomaintainone's seclusion.Notsothecontemplativemystic.Ifs/heistolive consistentlywithmysticalstandpoint,s/hemustmaintainone'slif eonlybymeansof whatnaturegivesorpeoplevoluntarilydonatetoher/him.Thisrequiresthatthemystic liveonberriesinthewoods,whicharenotalwaysavailable,oronalms.Thiswas actuallythecaseamongthemostconsistentHindumonk(shramanas)anditaccounts alsofortheverystrictruleinallBuddhistmonk's (bhikshu)regulationsagainstreceiving anythingthathasnotbeengivenfreely. Inanycase,thecontemplativemysticlivesonwhatevergiftstheworldmaypresentto her/him,ands/hewouldbeunabletostayaliveiftheworldwerenotconstantlyengaged inthatverylaborwhichthemysticregardsassinfulandleadingtoalienationfromgod. FortheBuddhistmonk,agricultureisthemostreprehensibleofalloccupations,because itcausesviolentinjurytovariousformsoflifeinthesoil.Yetthealmshecollectsconsist principallyofagriculturalproducts.Incircumstanceslikethese,salvationalaristocracyof themysticinevitablereachesstrikingconclusionfortheunilluminatedandthose insufficienttocompleteillumination,totheirinevitabledestiny:thatis,theveneration andalmsgivingtothemonks,whoalonebelongtothereligiouscommunityofsalvation. ThiswasoriginallythecentralandsolevirtueamongtheBuddhistlaypersons.Ingeneral, however,everyhumanbeing"acts"insomeway,andeventhemysticinevitablyacts. Whatthemysticcandoisonlytominimizeactivitybecauseitcannevergiveone' s

certaintyofthestateofgrace,andwhatismore,becauseitmaydiverther/himfrom unionwiththedivine.Theascetic,ontheotherhand,demonstratethestateofgrace preciselyinher/hisactionintheworld. (H.2.f)Brokennessvs.Vocation Thecontrastbetweenasceticismandmysticismisclearestwhenthefullimplicationsof worldrejectionandworldflightarenotdrawn.Whentheasceticwishestoactwithinthe world,thatis,topractice"innerworldlyasceticism,"s/hemustbecomecontentwitha sortofhappyclosureoftheconcernregardinganyquestionaboutthe"meaning"ofthe world,fors/hemustnotworryaboutsuchquestions.Hence,itisnoaccidentthatinner worldlyasceticismreacheditsmostconsistentdevelopmentintheCalvinistgodof absoluteunserachablenessofHismotivesbyanyhumanstandard.Thus,theinner worldlyasceticisthe"personofvocation"whoneitherinquiresaboutnorfindsit necessarytoinquireaboutthemeaningofhisactualpracticeofavocationwithinthe totalworld,whichisnotone'sresponsibilitybut s.Fortheasceticitsufficesthat god' throughone' srationalactionsinthisworlds/heispersonallyfulfillingthewillofgod, whichisunsearchableinitsultimatesignificance. Ontheotherhand,thecontemplativemysticisconcernedwith"perceiving"theessential meaningoftheworld,buttheonecannotcomprehenditinarationalform,forthevery reasonthattheonehasalreadyconceivedoftheessentialmeaningoftheworldasaunity beyondallempiricalreality.Mysticalcontemplationhasnotalwaysresultedinaflight fromtheworldinthesenseofanavoidanceofeverycontactwiththesocialsurroundings. Onthecontrary,themysticmayalsorequireofoneselfthedemonstrationofone'ss tateof graceagainsteverypressureoftheworldlyorder.Inthatcase,eventhemystic's position withintheordersoftheworldbecomesa"vocation,"butaltogetherdifferentdirection fromanyvocationbyinnerworldlyasceticism. Neitherasceticismnorcontemplationaffirmstheworldassuch.Theasceticrejectsthe world's empiricalcharacterofcreaturelinessandethicalirrationality,andrejectsits ethicaltemptationstoworldlylust,toselfsatisfaction,andtorelianceuponnatural pleasuresandgifts.Butatthesametimeheaffirmsindividualrationalactionwithinthe ordersoftheworldashistaskandmeansfordemonstrationofone'ss tateofgrace.Onthe otherhand,thecontemplativemysticlivingwithintheworldregardsaction,particularly actionperformedwithintheworldorders,asinitsverynatureatemptationagainstwhich hemustmaintainhisstateofgrace.

Thecontemplativemysticminimizesone's actionbyresigningfromtheordersofthe worldasitis,andlivesinthemincognito,sotospeak,asthose"thatarequietintheland" [107]havealwaysdone,sincegodhasprescribedonceandforallthatthepersonmust liveintheworld.Theactivityofthecontemplativemysticwithintheworldis characterizedbyahumble"brokenness."Themysticisconstantlystrivingtoescapefrom activityintheworldbacktothequietnessandinwardnessofthegod.Conversely,the ascetic,whenevertheoneactsinconsistentwiththetype,iscertaintobecomegod' s instrument.Forthisreasontheobligationofcreaturely"humility"isalwaysofdubious character.Thesuccessoftheascetic's actionisasuccessofone'sgod,w hohasresultedin thesuccessoftheaction,orattheveryleastthesuccessisaspecialsignofdivine blessingupontheasceticandher/hisactivity.Butforthegenuinemystic,successofone's activitywithintheworldhasnosignificancetoone's salvation.Forthemystic,the maintenanceoftruehumilitywithintheworldisthesolewarrantyfortheconclusionthat her/hissoulhasnotfallenpreytothesnaresoftheworld.Asarule,themorethegenuine mysticremainswithintheworld,themore"broken"one's attitudetowarditbecomes,in contrasttotheproudaristocraticattitudeofthecontemplativemysticwholivesoutside thesecularworld. (H.2.g)Anomievs.Reformation Fortheascetic,thecertaintyofsalvationalwaysdemonstratesitselfinrationalaction, integratedastomeaning,end,andmeans,andgovernedbyprinciplesandrules. Conversely,forthemysticwhoactuallypossessesasubjectivestateofsalvation,this certaintyofsalvationmayresultinanomicsalvation.Mystic's salvationmanifestsitself notinanysortofactionbutinasubjectivestateanditsemotionalquality.Themystic feelsoneselfnolongerboundbyanyruleofconduct;regardlessofone's behavior,oneis certainofsalvation.Withthisconsequenceofmysticalcontemplationwiththefeeling that"allthingsarelawfultome"[108]Paulhadtostruggle;andinnumerousother contextstheabandonmentofrulesforconducthasbeenanoccasionalresultofthe mysticalquestforsalvation. Fortheascetic,moreover,thedivineimperativemayrequireofhumancreaturesan unconditionalsubjectiontothenormsofreligiousvirtue,andindeedarevolutionary reformationoftheworldforthispurpose.Inthatevent,theasceticemergesfromthe cloisteredcellofmonasterytotakehisplaceintotheworldasaprophetagainstthe world.Buttheasceticalwaysdemandsoftheworldanethicallyrationalorderand discipline,correspondingtohisownmethodicalselfdiscipline.Nowamysticmayarrive atasimilarpositioninrelationtotheworld.Hissenseofdivineinwardness,thechronic andquieteuphoriaofhissolitarycontemplativepossessionofsubstantivelydivine salvationmaybecometransformedintoanacutefeelingofsacredpossessionbyor possessionofthegodwhoisspeakinginandthroughhim.Hewillthenwishtobring

eternalsalvationtohumansassoonastheyhaveprepared,asthemystichimselfhas done,aplaceforgoduponearth,namely,intheirsouls.Butinthiscasetheresultwillbe theemergenceofthemysticasamagicianwhocauseshispowertobefeltamonggods anddemons;andthismayhavethepracticalconsequencesofthemystic'sbe cominga mysterycultist,somethingwhichhasactuallyhappenedveryoften. Ifthemysticdoesnotfollowthispathtowardsbecomingamysterycultist,foravariety ofreasonswhichwehopetodiscusslater,hemaybearwitnesstohisgodbyteaching alone.Inthatcasehisrevolutionarypreachingtotheworldwillbeadventiallyirrational, scorningeverythoughtofarational"order"intheworld.Forthemystic,theabsoluteness ofown' sownacosmisticsentimentofloveisthecompletelyadequateandonly acceptablefoundationofmysticallyrenewedcommunityofhumans,becausesuchlove alonecomesfromadivinesource.Thetransformationofamysticismoutsidetheworld intoonecharacterizedbyadventialandrevolutionaryorientationtookplacefrequently, mostimpressivelyintherevolutionarymysticismofthesixteenthcenturyBaptists.The contrarytransformationhasalsooccurred,asintheconversionofJohnLilburneto Quakerism. Aslongasaninnerworldlyreligionofsalvationisdeterminedbycontemplativefeatures, theusualresultis,atleast,therelativeindifferencetotheworldandyetthehumble acceptanceofthegivensocialstructure.Amysticcompleteshisday' slabor,thenseeks contemplativeunionwithhisgodintheevening,andgoesforthtohisusuallaborthe nextmorning,asTaulersentimentallystatedintherightinnerconstitutionofhisabided labor.OrlikeLaoTzu,amysticfindstheunitywiththeway(Tao)byone'shumilityand selfdepreciationbeforeotherhumans.ThemysticcomponentinLutheranism,forwhich thehighestsanctificationinthisworldistheultimatemysticalunion,wasconditionedby (alongwithotherfactors)theindifferenceoftheLutheranchurchtowardstheexternal organizationofthepreachingofthegospel,andalsoforthatchurch' santiasceticand traditionalisticcharacter. (H.2.h)MysticLove Inanycase,thetypicalmysticisneverapersonofstrongsocialactivity,norisatallto accomplishanyrationaltransformationoftheworldlyorderontheouterresultofa righteousmethodicalconductoflife.Wherevergenuinemysticismgivesrisetosocial action,suchactionischaracterizedbytheacosmismofthemysticalsentimentoflove.In thissense,mysticismmayexertapsychologicaleffectontheformationofcommunityin oppositiontoits"logical"conclusion.

ThecoreideaofthemysticorientalChristianchurchwasafirmconvictionthatChristian brotherlylove,whensufficientlystrongandpure,mustnecessarilyleadtounityinall things,evenindogmaticbeliefs.Inotherwords,theChristianswhosufficientlyloveone another,intheJohanninesenseofmysticallove,willalsothinkalikeand,becauseofthe veryirrationalityoftheircommunalsentiment,actinasolidaritywhichispleasingto God.Becauseofthisconcept,theEasternchurchcoulddismissaninfalliblyrational authorityinmattersofdoctrine.ThesameviewisbasictotheSlavophileconceptionof thecommunity,bothwithinandbeyondthechurch.Tosomeextent,thisnotionwasalso commoninearlyChristianity.ThesameconceptionisatthebasisofMuhammad' sbelief thatformaldoctrinalauthoritiescanbedispensedwith.Finally,thisconceptionalong withotherfactorsaccountsfortheminimizationoforganizationinthemonastic communitiesofearlyBuddhism. Conversely,totheextentthataninnerworldlyreligionofsalvationischaracterizedby distinctivelyasceticfeatures,italwaysdemandsapracticalrationalism,inthesenseof themaximizationofrationalactioninamethodicalsystematizationofconductoflife, andtheobjectificationoftherationalsocietyoftheworldorders,whethermonastic communitiesortheocracies. (H.3)OrientalVs.OccidentalSalvation ThedecisivehistoricaldifferencebetweenthepredominantlyorientalandAsiatictypesof salvationreligionandthosefoundprimarilyintheOccidentisthattheformerusually inclinedtocontemplationandthelatterinasceticism.Thegreatimportanceofthis distinction,forourpurelyempiricalobservationofreligions,isinnowaydiminishedby thefactthatthedistinctionisafluidone,recurrentcombinationsofmysticalandascetic characteristicsdemonstratingthattheseheterogeneouselementmaycombine,asinthe monasticreligiosityoftheOccident.Forourconcerniswiththeconsequencesforaction. InIndia,evensoasceticaplannedmethodologyofsalvationasthatoftheJainmonks culminatedinapurelycontemplativeandmysticalultimategoal;andinEasternAsia, Buddhismbecamethecharacteristicreligionofsalvation.IntheOccident,ontheother hand,apartfromafewrepresentativesofadistinctivequietismfoundonlyinmodern times,evenreligionsofanexplicitlymysticaltyperegularlybecametransformedintoan activepursuitofvirtue,whichwasnaturallyasceticinthemain.Statedmoreprecisely, thereoccurredalongthewayaninnerselectionofmotivationswhichplacedtheprimary preferenceuponsometypeofactiveconduct,generallyatypepointingtoward asceticism,andwhich,inpractice,implementedthishabituation.Neitherthemystical contemplativenessofSt.Bernardandhisfollowers,norFranciscanspirituality,northe contemplativetrendsamongtheBaptistsandtheJesuits,noreventheemotional

suffusionsofZinzendorfwereabletopreventeitherthecommunityortheindividual mysticfromattributingsuperiorimportancetoactionandtothedemonstrationofgrace throughaction,thoughthiswasconceptualizedverydifferentlyineachcase,ranging frompureasceticismtoattenuatedcontemplation.ItwillberecalledthatMeisterEckhart finallyplacedMarthaaboveMary,notwithstandingtheteachingofJesus.[109] ButtosomeextentthisemphasisuponactionwascharacteristicofChristianityfromthe veryoutset.Evenintheearliestperiod,whenallsortsofirrationalcharismaticgiftsofthe spiritwereregardedasthedecisivehallmarkofsanctity,Christianapologeticshad alreadygivenadistinctiveanswertothequestionofhowonemightdistinguishthedivine originofthepneumaticachievementsofChristandtheChristiansfromcomparable phenomenathatwereofSatanicordemonicorigin:thisanswerwasthatthemanifest effectofChristianityuponthemoralityofitsadherentsprovesitsdivineorigin.No Hinducouldmakethiskindofstatement. Thereareanumberofreasonsforthisbasicdifferentbetweenthesalvationreligions, OrientandOccident,butatthispointitisonlynecessarytostressthefollowingaspects ofthedistinction. (H.3.a)ConceptofDivine 1.Theconceptofatranscendental,absolutelyomnipotentgod,implyingtheutterly subordinateandcreaturelycharacteroftheworldcreatedbyhimoutofnothing,arosein AsiaMinorandwasimposedupontheOccident.OneresultofthisfortheOccidentwas thatanymethodologyofsalvationtoanyselfdeificationandtoanygenuinelymystical possessionofgodwaspermanentlyclosed,atleastinthestrictsenseoftheterm,because thisappearedtobeablasphemousdeificationofamerecreatedbeing.Theultimate pantheisticconsequencesofthemysticalpositionwasblockedaswell,beingalways regardedasheterodox.Onthecontrary,salvationwasalwaysregardedashavingthe characterofanethical"justification"beforegod,whichultimatelycouldbefulfilledand provedonlybysomesortofactiveactionwithintheworld.The"demonstration"ofthe actualdivinequalityofthemysticalpossessionofsalvation(accordingtomystic's own formulation)evenarrivedatthroughthepathofactionalone.Actioninturnalways causedmysticismintoparadoxes,tensions,andthelossofthemystic' sunionwithgod. ThiswasexemptedinHindumysticism.FortheOccidentalmystic,theworldisa"work" whichhasbeen"created"andisnotsimplygivenforalleternity,noteveninitsorders,as intheviewoftheAsiaticmystic.Consequently,intheOccidentmysticalsalvationcould notbefoundsimplyintheconsciousnessofanabsoluteunionwithasupremeandwise "order"itselfastheonlytrue"being."Nor,ontheotherhand,couldaworkofdivine

providenceeverberegardedintheOccidentasapossibleobjectofabsoluteescape,asit wasacharacteristicoftheOrient. (H.3.b)Knowledgevs.Action 2.ThiscontrastbetweenorientalandOccidentalreligionsiscloselyrelatedtothe characterofAsiaticsalvationreligionsaspurereligionsofintellectualswhonever abandonedthe"meaningfulness"oftheempiricalworld.FortheHindu,therewas actuallyawayleadingdirectlyfrom"insight"intotheultimateconsequencesofthechain ofcausality(karma),toillumination,andthencetoaunityof"knowledge"andaction. Thiswayremainedforeverclosedtoeveryreligionthatfacedtheabsoluteparadoxofthe creationofapermanentlyimperfectworldbyaperfectgod.Indeed,inthislattertypeof religion,theintellectualmasteryoftheworldleadsawayfromgod,nottowardhim.From thepracticalpointofview,thoseinstancesofOccidentalmysticismwhichhaveapurely philosophicalfoundationstandclosesttotheAsiatictype. (H.3.c)RomanLaw 3.Frompracticalpointofthiscontrast,theobservationmustbeplacedonthefactthatthe RomanOccidentalonedevelopedandmaintainedarationallaw,forvariousreasonsyet tobeexplained.IntheOccidenttherelationshipofhumantogodbecame,inadistinctive kind,asortoflegallydefinablerelationshipofthelordandtheservant.Indeed,the questionofsalvationcanbesettledbyasortoflegalprocess,amethodwhichwaslater distinctivelydevelopedbyAnselmofCanterbury.Suchalegalisticmethodologyof sanctificationcouldneverbeproducedbytheOrientalreligionswhichpresupposedan impersonaldivinepoweror,insteadofagodstandingabovetheworld,agodstanding withinaworldwhichisselfregulatedbythecausalchainsofkarma.Norcouldthe legalisticdirectionbetakenbyreligionsconceptsofTao,beliefinthecelestialancestor godsoftheChineseemperor,or,aboveall,beliefintheAsiaticpopulargods.Inallthese casesthehighestformofpietytookapantheisticform,andonewhichturnedpractical motivationstowardcontemplation. (H.3.d)RomanRulership 4.AnotheraspectoftherationalcharacteroftheOccidentalmethodologyofsalvation wasinoriginpartlyRoman,partlyJewish.TheGreeks,despitealltheantipathyofthe urbanpatriciatetowardtheDionysiancultofintoxication,setapositivevalueupon ecstasy,boththeacuteformoforgiasticintoxicationandthemilderformofeuphoria

inducedprimarilybyrhythmandmusic,astheuniquelydivinebeing.Indeed,amongthe Greekstherulingstratumespeciallylivedwiththismildformofecstasyfromtheirvery childhood.Sincethetimewhenthedisciplineofthehopliteshadbecomedominant, GreecehadlackedastratumpossessingtheprestigeoftheofficenobilityinRome.Social relationshipsinGreecewere,inallrespects,fewandlessfeudal.InRomethenobles, whoconstitutedarationalnobilityofofficeofincreasingrange,andwhopossessed wholecitiesandprovincesasclientholdingsofsinglefamilies,completelyrejected ecstasy,likethedance,asutterlyimproperandunworthyofanoble's senseofdignity. ThisisobviousevenintheterminologyemployedbytheRomanstorendertheGreek wordecstasy(ekstasis)intoLatin"superstition"(superstitio).Culticdanceswere performedonlyamongthemostancientcollegesofpriests,andinthespecificsenseofa roundofdances,onlyamongthecollegeofpriesthood(fratresarvales),andthenonly behindcloseddoors,afterthedepartureofthecommunity.MostRomansregarded dancingandmusicasunseemly,andsoRomeremainedabsolutelyuncreativeinthese arts.TheRomansexperiencedthesamedistastetowardsthenakedexercisesinthe gymnasium,whichtheSpartanshadcreatedasanarenaforplannedexercise.TheSenate condemnedtheDionysiancultofintoxication.Rome's worldconqueringmilitaryofficial nobilityrejectedeverytypeofecstasyandallpersonalmethodologyofsalvation,which correspondscloselytotheequallystrongantipathyoftheConfucianbureaucracytowards allmethodologiesofsalvation.Thiswasoneofthesourcesofastrictlypragmatic rationalismwithathoroughlypracticalpoliticalorientation. (H.3.e)RomanChurch AsChristiancommunitiesdevelopedintheOccident,theywerestronglycharacterizedby theseprimarilyRomanreligiosity.TheChristiancommunityofRomeinparticular adoptedthischaracteragainstecstasyquiteconsciouslyandconsistently.Innoinstance didthiscommunityacceptonitsowninitiativeanyirrationalelement,fromcharismatic prophecytothegreatestinnovationsinchurchmusic,intothereligionortheculture.The RomanChristiancommunitywasinfinitelypoorerthantheHellenisticOrientandthe communityofCorinth,notonlyintheologicalthinkersbutalso,asthesourcesseemto suggest,ineverysortofmanifestationofthe"spirit"(pneuma).Whetherdespitethislack oftheologyandspiritorbecauseofit,thesoberlypracticalrationalismofChristianity, themostimportantheritageofRometotheChristianchurch,afterallsetthetoneofa dogmaticandethicalsystematizationofthefaith,asiswellknown. ThedevelopmentofthemethodologyofsanctificationintheOccidentcorrespondedto thisline.TheasceticrequirementsoftheoldBenedictineregulationsandthereformsof Clunyare,whenmeasuredbyHinduororientalstandards,extremelymodestand obviouslyadaptedtonovicesrecruitedfromthehighersocialcircles.Yet,itisprecisely intheOccidentthatlaboremergesasthedistinctivemarkofChristianmonasticism,and

asameansofbothhygieneandasceticism.Thisemphasiscametothestrongest expressioninthestarklysimple,methodicalregulationsoftheCistercians.Eventhe mendicantmonks,incontrasttotheirmonasticcounterpartsinIndia,wereforcedintothe serviceofthehierarchyandcompelledtoserverational"purposes"shortlyaftertheir appearanceintheOccident.Theserationalpurposesincludedpreaching,thesupervision ofheretics,andsystematiccharity,whichintheOccidentwasdevelopedintoaregular "enterprise."Finally,theJesuitorderexpelledalltheunhygienicelementsoftheolder asceticism,becomingthemostcompletelyrationaldisciplineforthepurposesofthe church.Thisdevelopmentisobviouslyconnectedwiththenextpointwearetoconsider. 5.TheOccidentalchurchisaunifiedrationalorganizationwithamonarchicalheadanda centralizedcontrolofpiety.Thatis,itisheadednotonlybyapersonaltranscendental god,butalsobyaterrestrialrulerofenormouspower,whoactivelyregulatesthesubject's conductoflife.SuchafigureislackinginthereligionsofEasternAsia,partlyfor historicalreasons,partlybecauseofthenatureofthereligionsinquestion.Even Lamaism,whichhasastrongorganization,doesnothavetherigidityofabureaucracy,as weshallseelater.TheAsiatichierarchsinTaoismandtheotherhereditarypatriarchsof ChineseandHindusectswerealwayspartlymysterycultists,partlytheobjectsof idolatrousveneration,andpartlyasinthecasesoftheDalaiLamaandTashiLamathe chiefsofacompletelymonasticreligionofmagicalcharacter.OnlyintheOccident, wherethemonksbecamethedisciplinedarmyofarationalbureaucracyofoffice,and outerworldlyasceticismbecomeincreasinglysystematizedintoamethodologyofactive, rationalconductoflife. (H.3.f)AsceticProtestantism Moreover,onlyintheOccidentwastheadditionalsteptakenbyasceticProtestantism oftransferringrationalasceticismintothelifeoftheworld.Theinnerworldlyorderof DervishesinIslamcultivatedamethodologyofsalvation,butthis,forallitsvariations, wasorientedultimatelytothemysticalquestforsalvationoftheSufis.TheDervishes methodologyofsalvation,derivingfromIndianandPersiansources,hadorgiastic, spiritualistic,orcontemplativecharacteristicsindifferentinstances,butinnocasedidit constitute"asceticism"inthespecialsenseofthattermwhichwehaveemployed.Indians haveplayedaleadingroleinDervishorgiesasfarafieldasBosnia.[110]Theasceticism oftheDervishesisnot,likethatofasceticProtestants,areligious"ethicofvocation,"for thereligiousactionsoftheDervisheshaveverylittlerelationshiptotheirsecular occupations,andintheirschemesecularvocationshaveatbestapurelyexternal relationshiptothemethodologyofsalvation.Evenso,themethodologyofsalvation mightexertindirecteffectsonone'soc cupationallife.Thesimple,piousDervishis,other thingsbeingequal,morereliablethananonreligiousperson,inthesamewaythatthe

piousParseeisprosperousasabusinessmanbecauseofhisstrictadherencetotherigid commandmenttobehonest. Butanunbrokenunityintegratinginsystematicfashionanethicofvocationintheworld withassuranceofreligioussalvationwastheuniquecreationofasceticProtestantism alone.Furthermore,onlyintheProtestantethicofvocationdoestheworld,despiteallits creaturelyimperfections,possessuniqueandreligioussignificanceastheobjectthrough whichonefulfillshisdutiesbyrationalactionaccordingtothewillofanabsolutely transcendentalgod.Therational,sober,andpurposivecharacterofactivityanditsresult, whichwereyetnotattachedtotheworld,wereasignthatgod' sblessingrestsuponsuch action.Incontrast,thesedistinctiveconsequencesofOccidentalinnerworldlyasceticism werenotfoundinanyotherreligionsoftheworld.Thisinnerworldlyasceticism demandednotcelibacyasamonk,buttheavoidanceofalleroticpleasure;notpoverty, buttheeliminationofallidleandexploitativeenjoymentofunearnedwealthandincome, antheavoidanceofallfeudalistic,sensuousostentationofwealth;nottheasceticdeath inlifeofthecloister,butanawakened,rationallycontrolledconductoflife,andthe avoidanceofallattachmenttothebeautyoftheworld,toart,ortoone'sow nmoodsand emotions.Theclearandsinglemindedgoalofthisasceticismwasthediscipliningand methodicalconductoflife.Itstypicalrepresentativewasthe"personofavocation,"and itsuniqueresultwastherationalobjectificationofsocialrelationships. (I)SALVATIONBYOTHER' SACHIEVEMENT (I.1)SalvationByGrace Whentheideaofsalvationisfurtherdeveloped,one'sow nworkisregardedas completelyinadequateforthepurposeofsalvation.Atthisdevelopment,salvationis accessibleonlyasaconsequenceoftheachievementofsomegreatlyendowedhero,or eventheachievementofagodwhohasbecomeincarnateforthisverypurposeandwhose gracewillworkbyitself.Gracemightbedistributedtoasadirecteffectofmagical activities,oroutoftheexcessofgracewhichhadaccumulatedasaresultofthehumanor divinesavior's achievements. (I.1.a)Savior Theideaofsalvationbyother' sachievementarosefromthedevelopmentofsalvational myths,aboveallmythsofthestrugglingorsufferinggod,whoinhisvariouspossible manifestationshadbecomeincarnateanddescendeduponearthoreventraveledintothe

realmofthedead.Insteadofagodofnature,particularlyasungodwhostruggleswith otherpowersofnature,especiallywithdarknessandcold,andhavingwonavictoryover themprecedesinthespring,therenowarisesasavioronthebasisofthesalvationmyths. Therearevarioustypesofthesavior;Christliberateshumansfromthepowerofthe demons;theGnosticsevenarchonssavehumansfromenslavementtotheastrological determinismoffate;andtheGnosticism'ss avior,atthecommandoftheconcealedand graciousgod,rescuesthecorruptedworldwhichwascreatedbyaninferiorcreatorgod (Demiurge).ThesaviorJesussaveshumansfromthehardheartedhypocrisyoftheworld anditsjustificationbyselfworks.Oragain,thesalvationmaybefromtheoppressive consciousnessofsin,arisingfromman's awarenessoftheimpossibilityoffillingcertain requirementsofthelaw,aswasthecasewithPauland,somewhatdifferently,with AugustineandLuther.Finally,thesalvationmaybefromtheabysmalcorruptionofthe individual' sownsinfulnature,asinAugustine.Inallthesecasesthesaviorledhuman upwardtowardasecurehaveninthegraceandloveofagoodgod. (I.1.b)DoctrinesofSavior Toaccomplishthesepurposesthesaviormustfightwithdragonsorevildemons, dependingonthecharacterofthesalvationinquestion.Insomecasesheisnotableto engageinsuchbattlerightawayheisoftenachildcompletelypureofsinandsohe mustgrowupinconcealmentormustbeslaughteredbyhisenemiesandjourneytothe realmofthedeadinordertoriseagainandreturnvictorious.Fromthisparticularbelief maydeveloptheviewthatthedeathofthesaviorisatributaryatonementforthedevil' s powergainedoverthesoulsofhumansasaresultofmen's sins.Thisistheviewof earliestChristianity.Or,onthecontrary,thedeathofthesaviormaybeviewedasa meansofsmoothingthewrathofgod,beforewhomthesaviorappearsasanintercessor forhumans,asinthecasesofChrist,Muhammad,andotherprophetsandsaviors.Again, thesaviormay,liketheancientbearerofsalvationinmagicalreligions,bringperson forbiddenknowledgeoffire,technicalarts,writing,orpossiblythelorerequisitefor subjugatingdemonsinthisworldoronthewaytowardheaven,asinGnosticism.Finally, thedecisiveachievementofthesaviormaybecontained,notinhisconcretestrugglesand sufferings,butintheultimatemetaphysicalrootoftheentireprocess.Thisultimate metaphysicalbasiswouldofcoursebetheincarnationofagodastheonlydevicefor bridgingthegapbetweengodandhiscreatures.Thismetaphysicalconceptionconstituted theculminationofGreekspeculationaboutsalvation,inAthanasius.Theincarnationof godpresentedhumanswiththeopportunitytoparticipatesignificantlyingod,oras Irenaeushadalreadyphrasedit,"enabledhumanstobecomegods."ThepostAthanasian philosophicalformulaforthiswasthatgod,bybecomingincarnate,hadassumedthe essence(inthePlatonicsense)ofhumanity.Thisformulapointsupthemetaphysical significanceoftheconceptoftheSonwhois"ofthesamesubstance"astheFather.

Accordingtoanotherview,thegodmightnotbecontentwithonesingleactof incarnation,butasaresultofthepermanenceoftheworld,whichispractically presupposedinAsiaticthought,hemightbecomeincarnateatvariousintervalsoreven continuously.BeliefincontinuousincarnationistheprincipalforceoftheMahayana BuddhistideaoftheBodhisattva,thoughthisideaisrelatedtooccasionalutterancesof theBuddhahimself,inwhichheapparentlyexpressedabeliefinthelimiteddurationof histeachingonearth.Furthermore,theBodhisattvawasoccasionallyrepresentedasa higheridealthantheBuddha,becausetheBodhisattvaforgoeshisownentranceinto salvation(Nirvana),whichhasonlyexemplarysignificance,toprolonghisuniversal functionintheserviceofhumankind.Hereagain,thesavior"sacrifices"himself. (I.1.c)Incarnation ButjustasJesuswassuperiorinhisowntimetothesaviorsofothercompeting salvationalcults,bythefactthathehadbeenanactualpersonwhoseresurrectionhad beenobservedbyhisapostles,sothecontinuouslycorporealandlivingincarnationof godintheDalaiLamaisthelogicalconclusionofeveryincarnationdoctrineofsalvation. Butevenwhenthedivinedistributorofgracelivesonasanincarnation,andespecially whenhedoesnotlingercontinuouslyonearth,certainmoretangiblemeansarerequired forthemassoftheadherents,whowishtoparticipatepersonallyinthegracemade availablebytheirgod.Itisthesemeansofgrace,exhibitingawidevariety,whichexerta decisiveinfluenceonthecharacterofthereligion. Ofanessentiallymagicalnatureistheviewthatonemayincorporatedivinepowerinto himselfbythephysicalingestionofsomedivinesubstance,somesacredtotemicanimal inwhichamightyspiritisincarnated,orsomehostthathasbeenmagicallytransformed intothebodyofagod.Equallymagicalisthenotionthatthroughparticipationincertain mysteriesonemaydirectlysharethenatureofthegodandthereforebeprotectedagainst evilpowers.Thisisthecaseof"sacramentalgrace." (I.1.d)SacramentalGrace Nowthemeansofacquiringthesedivinegracemaytakeeitheramagicaloraritualistic form,andineithercasetheyentail,notonlybeliefinthesaviorortheincarnateliving god,butalsotheexistenceofhumanpriestsormysterycultists.Moreover,thecharacter ofpriestlymeansbetweenthesaviorandhumansdependsinconsiderableextenton whetherornotthesegracesarepersonalpossession,andwhetherornottheproofof possessionofcharismaticgraceisrequired.Iftheproofisrequired,areligiousdispenser whonolongerpossesssuchastateofgrace,asforexampleapriestlivinginmortalsin,

cannotlegitimatelymediatethisgraceofsacrament.Suchastrictconsistencyinthe principleofcharismaticdispensationofgracewasmaintainedbytheMontanists, Donatists,andingeneralallthosereligiouscommunitiesofAntiquitythatbasedthe organizationoftheirchurchontheprincipleofpropheticcharismaticleadership.From thisstandpoint,noteverybishopwhooccupiesaninstitutionalofficeandconfessthe beliefexternally,butonlythosebishopwhowitnessesinternallytheprophecyorother giftofthespiritcouldeffectivelydispensedivinegrace.Thiswasatleastthecasewhen thedispenserofgracehadfallenintomortalsin. (I.1.e)InstitutionalGrace Whenweleavethisrequirement,wearedealingwithanaltogetherdifferentnotionofthe dispensationofgrace.Nowsalvationisbroughtbythegracewhichisdispensedona continuousbasisbyaninstitutionalcommunitythathaseitherdivineorprophetic credentialsforitsestablishment.Thistypeofthedispensationiscalled"institutional grace."Theinstitutionmaydispenseitsgracedirectlythroughpurelymagicalsacraments orthroughitstreasuriesoftheaccumulatedachievementsbyofficialsorvirtuosos. Whereverinstitutionalgraceoperatesconsistently,threebasicprinciplesareinvolved. Thefirstisthatsalvationcannotbereceivedwithoutbelongingaparticularinstitution vestedwiththecontrolofgrace.Thesecondprincipleisthatitisnotthepersonal charismaticqualificationofthepriestbuttheordinationofsucceededofficewhich determinestheeffectivenessofthedispensationofdivinegrace.Third,thepersonal religiousqualificationofthepriestisaltogetheramatterofindifferencetotheinstitution whichhasthepowertodistributereligiousgrace.Thatis,salvationisuniversal;itis accessibletootherthanthereligiousvirtuosi. (I.1.f)CatholicInstitution Indeedthereligiousvirtuosomayeasilyandinevitablyfallintospiritualdangerto chancesofsalvationandthegenuinenessofhisreligiousqualificationifheseeksone's specialwaytoGod,insteadofultimatelytrustingtheinstitutionofgrace.Inthisdogma, whatgodrequiresistheobediencetotheinstitutionanditsdispensationofgrace;itmust betheprincipleinordertodistributesalvationforallhumanbeings.Thelevelofpersonal ethicalrequirementmustthereforebemadecompatiblewithaveragehuman qualifications,andthisinpracticemeansthatitwillbesetquitelow.Whoevercan achievemoreintheethicalstandard,namely,thereligiousvirtuoso,maythereby,in additiontoinsuringhisownsalvation,accumulategoodworksforthecreditofthe institution,whichwillthendispensethemtothoseinwantofgoodworks.

ThisviewisthespecificstandpointoftheCatholicchurchanddeterminesitscharacteras aninstitutionofgrace,whichdevelopedthroughoutmanycenturiesbuthasbeen establishedsincethetimeofGregoryI(600AD).Inpractice,however,theviewpointof theCatholicchurchhasswungbetweenamoremagicalandamoreethicaland salvationalorientation. (I.1.g)DispensationandConductofLife Thewayinwhichthedispensationofcharismaticorofinstitutionalgraceinfluencesthe actualconductoflifeoftheadherentsdependsupontheconditionswhichare presupposedtothedemonstrationofthemeansofgrace.Thustherearesimilaritieshere toritualism,towhichsacramentalandinstitutionalgraceaccordinglyshowcloseaffinity. Ethicalreligiosityisaffectedinthesamedirectioninyetanotherrespect,whichmaybe ofconsiderablesignificance:Everytypeofactualdispensationofgracebyaperson, regardlessofwhetheritsauthorityislegitimizedbypersonalcharismaticgiftsorbythe officeofaninstitution,hastheneteffectofweakeningtheethicaldemandsuponthe individual,justasdoesritualism.Thedispensationofgracealwaysentailsaninner releasefromtherequirementforsalvation;itconsequentlyeasestheburdenofguiltand alsoweakenstheinnerdevelopmentofone's ethicalsystematizationofmethodicallife, otherthingsbeingequal.Thesinnerknowsthats/hecanalwaysreceiveabsolutionby participatinginsomeoccasionaldispensation.Itisparticularlyimportantthatsinsremain individualactions,againstwhichotherindividualdispensationsmaybesetupas compensationsorpenances.Hence,notthetotalpersonalitybutconcretesingleactions arevalued.Herelacksthedevelopmentoftheintegralhabituationofethicalpersonality, whichisalwaysnewlyformedbyasceticism,contemplation,orconsciousselfcontrol anditsconstantdemonstration.Further,herelacksthenecessitytoattainthe"certaintyof salvation"itselfbyone' seffort,andthiscategory,whichissoethicallyeffective,recedes inbackground. (I.1.h)ConfessionalandConductofLife Theconstantregulationofanindividual' sconductoflifebythepriest's controlofgrace, whetherfatherconfessororspiritualdirector,undercertainconditions,isveryeffective. But,forthereasonsjustdiscussed,theregulationisinpracticeveryoftencancelledby thecircumstancethatthereisalwaysthegraceremainingtobedistributedanew.The institutionoftheconfessional,especiallywhenassociatedwithpenances,isinsignificant initspracticaleffectsoftheconductoflifesinceitimplementedvariouslyby practitioners.Thegeneralbutfewspecifiedtypeoftheconfessionofsinwhichwas particularlycharacteristicoftheRussianchurch,frequentlytakingtheformofa collectiveadmissionofiniquity,wascertainlynowaytoeffectanyenduringinfluence

overtheconductoflife.Also,theconfessionalpracticeoftheearlyLutheranchurchwas undoubtedlyineffective.ThecatalogofsinsandpenancesintheHindusacredscriptures makesnodistinctionbetweenritualandethicalsins,andenjoinsritualobedience(or otherformsofcompliancewhichareinlinewiththestatusinterestsoftheBrahmins,as virtuallythesolemethodofatonement.Asaconsequence,theconductofeverydaylife couldbeinfluencedbythesereligionsonlyinthedirectionoftraditionalism.Indeed,the sacramentalgraceoftheHindugurusevenfurtherweakenedanypossibilityofethical influence.TheCatholicchurchintheOccidentcarriedthroughtheChristianizationof WesternEuropewithunparalleledforce,byanunexampledsystemofconfessionalsand penances,whichcombinedthetechniquesofRomanlawwiththeTeutonicconceptionof fiscalexpiation.Buttheeffectivenessofthissystemindevelopingarationalmethodof lifewasquitelimited,evenapartfromtheinevitablehazardsofaloosesystemof dispensations.Evenso,theinfluenceoftheconfessionaluponconductisapparent "statistically,"asonemightsay,intheimpressiveresistancetothetwochildrenper familysystemamongpiousCatholics,thoughthelimitationsuponthepowerofthe CatholicchurchinFranceareevidenteveninthisrespect. (I.1.i)JudaismandAsceticProtestantism Ontheotherhand,JudaismandasceticProtestantismknownothingaboutthe confessionalandthedispensationofgracebyahumanormagicalsacramentalgrace.This lackoftheconfessionalandthedispensation,however,exertedatremendoushistorical forceforthedevelopmentofanethicalandmethodicalrationalizationoflifeinboth JudaismandasceticProtestantism,despitetheirdifferencesinotherrespects.These religionsprovidenoopportunityforreleasingtheburdenofguiltthroughtheconfessional andtheinstitutionalgrace.OnlytheMethodistsmaintainedatcertainoftheirmeetings, thesocalled"assemblageofthedozens,"asystemofconfessionalwhichhadeven comparableeffects,andinthatcasetheeffectswereinanaltogetherdifferentdirection. Fromsuchpublicconfessionsofsinfulnesstheredevelopedthesemiorgiasticpenitential practicesoftheSalvationArmy. (I.1.j)InstitutionalAuthority Institutionalgrace,byitsverynature,ultimatelyandnotablytendstomakeobediencea cardinalvirtueandadecisivepreconditionofsalvation.Thisofcourseentailssubjection toauthority,eitheroftheinstitutionorofthecharismaticpersonalitywhodistributes grace.InIndia,forexample,thegurumayonoccasionexerciseunlimitedauthority.In suchcasestheconductoflifeisnotsystematizedfromwithin,radiatingoutfromacenter whichtheindividualoneselfhasattained,butratherisnurturedfromthecenteroutside

theself.Theformationoftheconductoflifeisnotpushedinthedirectionofethical systematization,butratherinthereversedirection. Suchexternalauthority,however,certainlycreatedaninnerethic,thatis,theelastic adjustmenttoconcreteholycommandstochangedexternalcircumstances,thoughina directiondifferentfromanethicofheart.Anexampleofthiselasticityisprovidedbythe Catholicchurchofthenineteenthcentury;theprohibitionagainstusurywasinpractice notenforced,despiteoftheeternalvalidityoftheofficialprohibitiononthebasisof biblicalauthorityandpapaldecretals.Tobesure,thiswasnotpracticedopenlyby outrightinvalidation,whichwouldhavebeenimpossible,butbyanconfidentialdirective fromtheVaticanofficetotheconfessionalprieststhatthenceforththeyshouldrefrain frominquiringduringconfessionconcerninginfractionsoftheprohibitionagainstusury, andthattheyshouldgrantabsolutionforthisinfractionaslongasitcouldbepresupposed thatiftheHolySeeshouldeverreturntotheolderpositionthebelieverswould obedientlyacceptsuchareversal.TherewasaperiodinFrancewhentheclergyagitated forasimilartreatmentoftheproblempresentedbyfamilieshavingonlytwochildren. Thus,theultimatereligiousvalueispureservantlikeobediencetotheinstitution,andnot concrete,substantiveethicalcommandments,noreventhequalificationofvirtuous ethicalcapacityachievedthroughone'sow nmethodicalethicalactions.Whereverthe institutionalauthorityiscarriedthroughconsistently,thesoleprincipleoftheunified conductoflifeisaformalhumilityofobedience,whichlikemysticismproducesa specificcharacterof"brokenness"inthepious.Inthisrespect,theremarkthat"freedom oftheCatholicconsistsinbeingfreetoobeythePope"appearstoentailuniversal validityforinstitutionalgrace.[111] (I.2)SalvationByFaith (I.2.a)FaithandMagic Salvation,however,maybelinkedwithfaith.Insofarasthisconceptisnotidenticalwith submittingtopracticalnorms,italwayspresupposessomeattributiontocertain metaphysicaltruthandsomedevelopmentof"dogmas,"theacceptanceofwhichbecomes thedistinctivehallmarkofthebelongingoftheparticularfaith.Wehavealreadyseenthat dogmasdevelopinverydifferentdegreeswithinthevariousreligions.However,some degreeofdoctrineisthedifferentialmarkofprophecyandpriestlyreligionfrompure magic.Ofcourseevenpuremagicrequiresfaithinthemagicalpowerofthemagician, and,forthatmatter,firstofall,themagician'sow nfaithinhimselfandhisability.This holdstrueofeveryreligion,includingearlyChristianity.Thus,Jesustaughthisdisciples thatsincetheydoubtedtheirownabilitytheycouldnothealthepossessedindemon. [112]Whosoeveriscompletelyconfidentinone' sownpowerstodoamiracle,suchfaith

canmovemountains.Ontheotherhand,magicalsorequiresthefaithofthosewho demandamagicalmiracle,tothisveryday.SoJesusfoundhimselfunabletoperform miraclesinhisbirthplaceandoccasionallyinothercities,and"wonderedattheir disbelief."[113]Herepeatedlydeclaredthathewasabletohealthecrippledandthose possessedbydemonsonlythroughtheirbeliefinhimandhispower.[114]Ontheother hand,thisfaithwassublimatedinanethicaldirection.Thus,becausetheadulterous womanbelievedinhispowertopardonsins,Jesuswasabletoforgiveheriniquities. (I.2.b)FaithofIslamandJudaism Ontheotherhand,religiousfaithdevelopedintoanaffirmationofintellectual propositionswhichwereproductsofrationalization,andthisisourprimarilyconcern here.Accordingly,Confucianism,whichknowsnothingofdogma,isnotanethicof salvation.InancientIslamandancientJudaism,religionmadenorealdemandsof dogma,requiringonly,asprimevalreligiondoeseverywhere,beliefinthepower(and hencealsointheexistence)ofitsowngod,nowregardedbyitasthe"only"god,andin themissionoftheprophets.Butsinceboththesereligionswerescriptural(inIslamthe Koranwasbelievedtohavebeendivinelycreated),thecontentsofthescripturemustbe alwaysvalidatedasdivineinspired.Yet,apartfromtheircosmological,mythological,and historicalnarratives,thebiblicalbooksofthelawandtheprophetsandtheKorancontain primarilypracticalcommandmentsanddonotinherentlyrequireintellectual understandingofadefinitekind. (I.2.c)NonpropheticFaith Onlythenonpropheticreligionsknowfaithasmeresacredknowledge.Inthesereligions thepriestsarestill,likethemagicians,guardiansofmythologicalandcosmological knowledge;andassacredbardstheyarealsocustodiansoftheheroicsagas.TheVedic andConfucianethicsattributedfullmoralqualificationtothetraditionalliterary educationsobtainedthroughschoolingwhich,byandlarge,wasidenticalwithmere moodlikeknowledge.Therequirementofintellectual"understanding"iseasily transformedtothephilosophicalorgnosticformofsalvation.Thistransformation, however,producesatremendousgapbetweenthefullyqualifiedintellectualsandthe masses.Butevenatthispointthereisstillnoreal,official"dogmatics,"only philosophicalopinionslikemoreorlessorthodoxVedantaorheterodoxSankhyain Hinduism. (I.2.d)DogmaticFaith

Onthecontrary,asaconsequenceoftheincreasingintrusionofintellectualismandthe growingoppositiontoit,theChristianchurchesproducedanunexampledmassofofficial andbindingrationaldogmas,atheologicalfaith.Inpracticeitisimpossibletorequire bothunderstandingandfaithindogmauniversally.Itisdifficultforustodaytoimagine thatareligiouscommunitycomposedprincipallyofsmallcitizenscouldhavethoroughly masteredandreallyunderstoodthecomplicatedcontentsoftheEpistletotheRomans,for example,yetapparentlythismusthavebeenthecase.Thistypeoffaithrelatedtothe viewsofsalvationbecomealwayscurrentamongthegroupofurbanproselyteswhowere accustomedtomeditatingontheconditionsofsalvationandwhoweretosomedegree familiarwithJewishandGreekcasuistry.Similarly,itiswellknownthatinthesixteenth andseventeenthcenturiesbroadsmallcitizencirclesachievedintellectualmasteryover thedogmasoftheSynodsofDordrechtandWestminster,andoverthemanycomplicated compromiseformulaeoftheReformationchurches.Still,undernormalconditionsit wouldbeimpossibleforsuchintellectualpenetrationtotakeplaceincommunalreligions withoutproducingoneofthefollowingresults:allthosenotbelongingtothe philosophicallyknowledgeable(gnosis)wouldbeeitherexcludedfromsalvationor limitedtoalesserrankofsalvationforthenonintellectualpious(pistis).[115]These resultsoccurredinGnosticismandintheintellectualreligionsofIndia. AcontroversyragedinearlyChristianitythroughoutitsfirstcenturies,sometimesopenly andsometimeslatently,astowhethertheologicalknowledge(gnosis)orsimplefaith (pistis)isthehigherreligiousquality,providingthesoleguaranteeofreligioussalvation. InIslam,theMu' tazilitesheldthatapersonwhoisa"believer"intheaveragesense,and notschooledindogma,isnotactuallyamemberoftherealcommunityofthefaithful.A decisiveinfluencewaseverywhereexertedonthecharacterofreligionbythe relationshipsbetweenthetheologicalintellectuals,whowerethevirtuosiofreligious knowledge,andthepiousnonintellectuals,especiallythevirtuosiofreligiousasceticism andthevirtuosiofreligiouscontemplation,whoequallyregarded"deadknowledge"asof negligiblevalueinthequestforsalvation. (I.2.e)ExplicitandImplicitFaith EvenintheGospelsthemselves,theparabolicformofJesus'm essageisrepresentedas beingpurposefullyesoteric.Ifthisconsequencewouldnotbringanintellectualist aristocracy,religiousfaithmustbaseitselfuponsomethingotherthanareal understandingandaffirmationofatheologicalsystemofdogma.Asamatteroffact, everypropheticreligionhasbasedreligiousfaithuponsomethingotherthanreal understandingoftheology,eitherattheveryoutsetoratalaterstagewhenithasbecome acommunalreligionandhasformeddogmas.Ofcoursetheacceptanceofdogmasis alwaysrelevanttoreligiousfaith,exceptintheviewsofasceticsandmoreespecially mysticalvirtuosiButthepersonalunderstandingofdogmas,forwhichthetechnicalterm

inChristianityis"explicitfaith,"wasrequiredonlytothosearticlesoffaithasabsolutely essential,incontrasttootherdogmas,whichwerepermittedgreaterlatitude.Inthispoint, Protestantismmadeparticularlystrictdemandsuponthedogma,becauseofitsteaching ofjustificationbyfaith.Thiswasespecially,thoughnotexclusively,trueofascetic Protestantism,whichregardedtheBibleasacodificationofdivinelaw.Thisreligious requirementwasthemainmotivefortheintensivetrainingoftheyouthoftheProtestant sectsandfortheestablishmentofuniversalpublicschoolslikethoseoftheJewish tradition.Thissamereligiousrequirementwastheunderlyingreasonforthefamiliarity withtheBibleonthepartoftheDutchandAngloSaxonPietistsandMethodists(in contrasttotheconditionsintheEnglishpublicschools,forexample),whicharousedthe amazementoftravelersaslateasthemiddleofthenineteenthcentury.Here,thepeople' s convictionaboutthedefinitelydogmaticcharacteroftheBiblewasunderlyingreasonfor thefarreachingdemandthateachknowthetenetsofone' sownfaith. Incontrast,themassofdogmawhichisrequiredinachurchinstitutionis"implicitfaith," thatis,ageneralreadinesstosubmitone' sownfaithtoreligiousauthority.TheCatholic churchhasrequiredthistothegreatestpossibledegree,andindeedcontinuestodoso. Butanimplicitfaithisbynomeansanactualpersonalaffirmationofdogmas;rather,itis adeclarationofrelianceonanddedicationtoaprophetortoaninstitutionalauthority.In thisway,faithlosesitsintellectualcharacter. (I.2.f)FaithofHeart Religionretainsonlyasecondaryinterestinintellectualmattersaslongasreligion becomespredominantlyethicalandrational.Thishappensbecausethemereaffirmation ofintellectualpropositionsfallstotheloweststageoffaithbeforethehighest,the"ethic oftheheart,"asAugustineamongothersmaintained.Faithmustalsotakeonaqualityof inwardness.Personalreliancetoaparticulargodismorethan"knowledge"andis thereforecalledas"faith."ThisisthecaseinboththeOldandNewTestaments.The "faith"ofAbrahamwhichwas"accountedtorighteousness"wasnointellectual understandingofdogmas,butatrustuponthepromisesofGod.ForbothJesusandPaul, faithheldthesamecentralsignificance.Knowledgeandfamiliaritywithdogmasreceded farintothebackground. (I.2.g)AristocracyofDogma Inaninstitutionalchurch,therequirementofthe"explicitfaith"is,inpractice,limitedto priests,preachers,andtheologians,allofwhomhavebeentrainedindogmatics.Suchan aristocracyofthosetrainedandlearnedindogmaticsariseswithineveryreligionthathas

beensystematizedintoatheology.Thesepersonsthenclaim,indifferentdegreesand withvaryingmeasuresofsuccess,thattheyaretherealcarriersofthereligion.Theview thatthepriestmustdemonstratehiscapacityofunderstandingandfaithmorethanthe averagehumanmindisstillwidelydiffusedtoday,particularlyamongthepeasantry.This isonlyoneoftheformsinwhichtherecomestoexpressioninreligionthe"status" qualificationthrougheducationthatisfoundineverytypeofbureaucracy,beitpolitical, military,churchly,orprivate. (I.2.h)VirtuosoofFaith Butevenmorefundamentalistheaforementionedteaching,foundalsointheNew Testament,offaithasthespecificcharismaofanextraordinaryandpurelypersonal relianceupongod's providence,suchasthecaregiverandtheheroesoffaithmust possess.Bythischarismaticconfidenceingod'ss upport,thespiritualrepresentativeand leaderofthecommunity,asavirtuosooffaith,mayactdifferentlyfromthelaypersonin practicalsituationsandbringaboutdifferentresults,farsurpassingnormalhumanability. Inthecontextofpracticalaction,faithcanprovideasubstituteformagicalpowers. Thisantirationalinnerattitudecharacteristicofreligionsofunlimitedtrustingodmay occasionallyproduceanuniversalisticindifferencetoobviouspracticalandreasonable expectation.Itfrequentlyproducesanunconditionalrelianceongod' sprovidence, attributingtogodalonetheconsequencesofone's ownactions,whichareinterpretedas pleasingtogod.InChristianityandinIslam,aswellaselsewhere,thisantirational attitudeoffaithissharplyopposedto"knowledge,"particularlytotheological knowledge.Antirationalitymaybemanifestedinaproudvirtuosityoffaith,or,whenit avoidsthisdangerofarrogantselfdeification,itmaybemanifestedinanunconditional religioussurrenderandaspiritualhumilitythatrequires,aboveallelse,thedeathof intellectualpride.Thisattitudeofunconditionaltrustplayedamajorroleinancient Christianity,particularlyinthecaseofJesusandPaulandinthestrugglesagainstGreek philosophy,andinmodernChristianity,particularlyintheantipathiestotheologyonthe partofthemysticalspiritualistsectsoftheseventeenthcenturyinWesternEuropeandof theeighteenthandnineteenthcenturiesinEasternEurope. (I.2.i)FaithandIntellect Atsomepointinitsdevelopment,everygenuinereligionoffaithbringsabout,directlyor indirectly,that"sacrificeoftheintellect"inthecauseofasuperintellectual,distinctive religiousqualityofabsolutetrustandutterconfidencewhichisexpressedintheformula "Ibelievenotbecauseofabsurdbutinspiteofit"(credononquodsedquiaabsurdum

est).Thesalvationreligionsofatranscendentalgodstress,hereaseverywhere,the inadequacyoftheindividual' sintellectualabilitybeforetheexaltedstateofthedivinity. SuchlimitationoftheintellectisaltogetherdifferentfromtheBuddhist's renunciationof knowledgeconcerningtheworldbeyond,whichisgroundedsimplybecausesuch knowledgecannotaccordwithcontemplationthatalonebringssalvation.Itisalso altogetherdifferentinessencefromtheintellectualskeptic'sre nunciationof understandingthe"meaning"oftheworld,againstwhichsalvationreligionmustcombat morevigorouslythantheBuddhistformofrenunciationofknowledge.Skepticismhas beencommontotheintellectualstrataofeveryperiod.ItisevidentintheGreekgrave inscriptionandinthehighestartisticproductionsoftheRenaissance,suchastheworksof Shakespeare;ithasfoundexpressioninthephilosophiesofEurope,China,andIndia,as wellasinmodernintellectualism. DeliberatefaithintheabsurdaswellasintriumphantjoyisfoundinthesermonsofJesus overthatthecharismaoffaithhasbeengrantedbyGodtochildrenandunlearnedrather thantoscholars.Thisfaithtypifiesthetremendoustensionbetweensalvationreligionand intellectualism.Nevertheless,thistypeofreligionconstantlyhastousetheintellecttoits ownpurposes.AsChristianitybecameincreasinglypenetratedbyGreekformsof thought,eveninAntiquitybutfarmorestronglyafterthefoundationofuniversitiesinthe MiddleAges,itcametofosterintellectualism.Themedievaluniversitieswereactually centersforthecultivationoflogicalarguments,createdtocounterbalancethe achievementsoftheRomanjuristsintheserviceofthecompetingpowerofImperialism. Everyreligionoffaithpresupposestheexistenceofapersonalgod,aswellashis intermediariesandprophets,inwhosefavortheremustbearenunciationofself righteousnessandintellectualknowledgeatsomepointorother.Consequently, religiositybasedonthisformoffaithischaracteristicallyabsentintheAsiaticreligions. (I.2.j)FaithandMysticism Wehavealreadyseenthatfaithmaytakeverydifferentforms,accordingtoitsspecific use.Tobesure,"salvation"religionoffaithbythepeacefulstrataisnottheprimordial trustofthewarriorsinthetremendouspoweroftheirowngod,whichcharacterizesboth ancientIslamandthereligionofYahweh.Thesalvationreligionoffaithhasastriking similaritytocontemplativemysticisminspiteofalldiversities.Thissimilarityderives fromthefactthatwhenthesubstantivecontentofsalvationisenvisagedandstrivenafter as"redemption,"thereisalwaysatleastatendencyforsalvationtoevolveintoa primarily"state"ofthe"mysticunion"withthedivine.Indeed,themorethe"attitudinal" characteroffaithissystematized,themoreeasilythefaithmayresultindirect antinomianism,asoccursineverymystics.

(I.2.k)FaithandEthic Thegreatdifficultyofestablishingadefiniterelationshipbetweenethicaldemandsanda religionoffaith,namely,agenuinesalvationreligionbasedontrustrelationship,was alreadydemonstratedbythePaulineletters,andevenbycertaincontradictionsinthe utterancesofJesus,asthoseutterancesarerecordedinthetradition.Paulstruggled continuallywiththeimmediateconsequencesofhisownviews,employingavery complicatedmannerofdeduction.TheMarcionite'sc onsistentconclusionofaPauline salvationbyfaithfullydemonstratedtheantinomianconsequencesofsalvationbyfaith. Normally,salvationbyfaithdoesnotworkeasilyforanactiveethicalrationalizationof theconductoflifewithineverydayreligion,asitisthenaturalcasefortheprophet oneself.Undercertaincircumstances,salvationbyfaithcanhavedirectlyantirational effectsinconcretecasesaswellasinprinciple.Aminorillustrationofthisisfoundinthe resistanceofmanyreligiousLutheranstoenteringintoinsurancecontracts,ontheground thatsuchactionwouldmanifestanirreligiousdistrustofGod' sprovidence.Thewider importanceofthisproblemliesinthefactthateveryrationalandmethodicalstrivingfor salvation,everyrelianceongoodworks,andabovealleveryefforttosurpassnormal ethicalbehaviorbyasceticachievement,isregardedbyreligionoffaithasawicked preoccupationwithpurelyhumanpowers. (I.2.l)IdeaofVocation Wherevertheconceptionofsalvationbyfaithhasbeendevelopedconsistently,asin ancientIslam,otherworldlyasceticismandespeciallymonasticismhavebeenrejected. Asaresult,salvationbyfaithmaydirectlyplacethereligiousvalueuponvocational activitywithintheworld,asactuallyhappenedinthecaseofLutheranProtestantism. Moreover,religionoffaithmayalsostrengthenthemotivationsforareligiouslypositive evaluationofvocationswithintheworld,particularlywhensuchreligionalsodevalues thepriestlygraceofpenanceandsacramentinfavoroftheexclusiveimportanceofthe personalreligiousrelationshiptogod.Lutheranismtookthisstandinprinciplefromits veryoutset,andstrengthenedthestandsubsequently,afterthecompleteeliminationof theconfessional.Thesameeffectofthebeliefinfaithuponvocationalmotivationswas particularlyevidentinthevariousformsofPietism,whichweregivenanasceticcastby SpenerandFrancke,butwhichhadalsobeenexposedtoQuakerandotherinfluencesof whichtheythemselveswerenottoowellaware.Moreover,theGermanwordfor "vocation"(beruf)isderivedfromtheLutherantranslationoftheBible.Thepositive evaluationofethicalconductwithinone' sworldlycalling,astheonlymodeoflife acceptabletogod,wascentralinLutheranismfromtheverybeginning. (I.2.m)LutheranFaith

ButinLutheranism,good"works"didnotenterintoconsiderationastherealbasisforthe salvationofthesoul,asinCatholicism,nordidgoodworksprovidetherecognizingbasis fortherebirth,asinasceticProtestantism.Instead,certaintyofsalvationwasderived fromthehabitualfeelingofhavingfoundrefugeinGod'sgoodne ssandgrace.Hence, Lutheranismremaineditsattitudetowardtheworldasa"sickconformity"towardthe world's orders.Inthisregard,Lutheranismpresentsastrikingcontrasttothosereligions especiallythoseformsofProtestantism,whichrequiredfortheassuranceofone's salvationeitheradistinctivemethodicalconductoflifeorademonstrationofgood works,suchaswasknownas"effectivefaith"amongthePietistsandasaction(amal) amongtheMuslimKharijite,andanequallystrikingcontrasttothevirtuosireligionsof asceticsects. Lutheranismlacksanymotivationtowardrevolutionaryattitudesinsocialorpolitical relationshipsandanyrationalreformistattitudestowardeverydayactivity.Toassurethe possessionofsalvationbyfaithintheworldoragainstit,Lutheranism,however,doesnot requireonetoattemptatransformationoftheworldinanyrationalizedethicaldirection. TheLutheranChristianhasallthatisneedfulforoneself,ifonlythewordofGodis proclaimedpureandclear;theformationoftheeternalorderoftheworldandevenofthe churchisamatterofindifference(adiaphoron).Tobesure,thisemotionalcharacterof theobedientfaith,whichisrelativelyindifferenttotheworld,butincontrastto asceticismalso"open"toit,wastheproductofagradualdevelopment.Itisdifficultfor suchanemotionalreligionoffaithtocreateantitraditionalist,rationalconductoflife sinceitlacksanydrivetowardtherationalcontrolandtransformationoftheworld. (I.2.n)FaithandCarriers "Faith,"intheformknowntothewarriorreligionsofancientIslamandofYahwism, tooktheformoffollower' ssimpletrusttothegodortotheprophet,alongthe relationshipsthatoriginallycharacterizeallhumanizedgods.Thefaithfulisrewardedand theunfaithfulpunishedbythegod.Thispersonalrelationshiptothegodtakesonother qualitieswhenthecarriersofsalvationreligionformpeacefulcommunities,andmore particularlywhentheycomefromthecitizenstrata.Onlythencanfaithasameansof salvationtakeaemotionalcharacteranddevelopthesentimentofloveforthegodorthe savior.ThisdevelopmentisalreadyappearedinexilicandpostexilicJudaism,[116]and evenmorestronglyinearlyChristianity,especiallyintheteachingsofJesusandJohn. [117]Godnowappearsasagraciousmasterorfatherofahousehold.[118]Butitisof courseagraveerrortoseeinthepaternalqualityofthegodproclaimedbyJesusan intrusionofnonSemiticreligion,ontheargumentthatthegodsofthe(generallySemitic) desertpeoples"create"humankindwhereastheGreekdeities"beget"it.FortheChristian godneverthoughtofbegettinghumansthephrase"begottenandnotcreated" (gennhyentamhpoihyenta)ispreciselythedistinctivedoctrineoftheTrinitarian,deified,

Christwhichsetshimofffromhumankind;moreover,eventhoughtheChristiangod surroundshumankindwithsuperhumanlove,heisbynomeansatendermodern"daddy," butratheraprimarilybenevolent,yetalsowrathfulandstrict,kinglypatriarch,suchas wasalsotheJewishgod. (I.2.o)EmotionalFaith Inanycase,theemotionalreligionsoffaithmaybedeepenedfurtherwiththe consciousnessasthechildofgod,insteadoftheasceticviewasmerelyaninstrumentof god.Theunityofone's conductoflife,thereby,issoughtmoreintheemotionalmood andinnerrelianceupongod,ratherthanintheconsciousnessofone' sethical demonstration.Thistendencymayevenfurtherweakenthepractical,rationalcharacterof thereligion.Suchanemotionalemphasisissuggestedbythe"languageofCanaan" whichcametoexpressionwiththerenaissanceofPietism,thatweepingtoneoftypical LutheransermonsinGermanywhichhassooftendrivenstrongpersonsoutofthe church. Acompletelyantirationaleffectupontheconductoflifeisgenerallyexertedbyreligions offaithwhentherelationshiptothegodorthesaviortakesthecharacterofpassionate devotion,andalsoalatentormanifesttraitoferoticism.Thisisapparentinthemany varietiesofloveofgodinSufism,inthelovesongsofmysticismofBernardandhis followers,inthecultofMaryandtheSacredHeartofJesus,inothercomparableformsof devotionals,andfinallyinthecharacteristicmanifestationsofemotionallysuffused PietismwithinLutheranism,suchasthemovementofZinzendorf.However,itsmost strikingmanifestationoccursinthecharacteristicallyHindureligiosityoflove(bhakti)in aradicalantithesistotheproudandnobleintellectualisticreligionofBuddhismfromthe fifthandsixthcenturies,becomingthepopularformofsalvationreligionamongthe massesofIndia,particularlyinthesalvationalformsofVishnuism.InthisHindu religiosityoflove,devotiontoKrishna,whohadbeenapotheosizedfromthe Mahabharatatothestatusofasavior,andmoreespeciallydevotiontotheKrishnachild, israisedtoastateoferoticallyarticulateddevotion.Thisprocesstakesplacethroughthe fourlevelsofcontemplation:servantlove,friendshiplove,filialorparentallove,and,at thehighestlevel,aeroticlove,afterthefashionoftheloveoftheKrishna's mistresses (gopis).Thewayofattainingsalvationbythisdevotionalreligiosityofloveis particularlyhostiletotheconcernsofeverydaylife,asitshostilityhasalways presupposedsomedegreeofsacramentalintermediationofgrace,bypriests,gurus,or gosains.Initspracticaleffects,thisreligionisasublimatedcounterpartoftheShakti religion,whichispopularamongthelowestsocialstratainIndia.ThereligionofShakti isaworshipofthewivesofgods,alwaysveryclosetotheorgiasticreligionand frequentlyinvolvingacultoferoticorgies.Ofcoursesuchorgiasticreligionisutterly remotefromareligionofpurefaith,suchasChristianity,withitscontinuousand

unshakabletrustinGod'sprovidenc e.Theeroticallycoloredpersonalrelationshiptothe saviorinHinduislargelythetechnicalproductofthedevotionalpractices;whereas,in markedcontrast,theChristianfaithinprovidenceisacharismathatmustbemaintained willfully. (I.3)SalvationByPredestination Finally,salvationmaybeacompletelyfree,inexplicablegiftofgracefromagod absolutelyunsearchableastohisdecisions,whoisnecessarilyunchangingbecauseofhis omniscience,andutterlybeyondtheinfluenceofanyhumanbehavior.Thisisthegrace ofpredestination.Thisconceptionunconditionallypresupposesatranscendentalcreator god,andisthereforelackinginallancientandAsiaticreligions.Predestinationis distinguishedfromthenotionofsupergodlyfateinwarriorandheroicreligions,since theprovidenceofpredestinationistherationalorderofGod's governingworldeven thoughitmayappearirrationaltohumanbeings.Ontheotherhand,theconceptof predestinationshoutsoutthebenevolenceofgod,forhebecomesahard,majesticking.It shareswithreligionsoffateforresultinginnobilityandrigorinitsdevotees.Despite,or ratherbecausethegodisabsolutelyalmightyandallpredestined,thecomplete devaluationofallhumanpowersbecomesaprerequisiteforone's salvationbygod' sfree gracealone. (I.3.a)MenofPredestination DispassionateandsoberethicalhumanslikePelagiusmightbelieveintheadequacyof theirowngoodworks.Butamongtheprophetsandpersonsoffaith,predestination forcefulenergizedadriveforrationalandreligiouspower,asinthecaseofCalvinand Muhammad,eachofwhomconvincedthatthecertaintyofone' sownmissioninthe worldcamenotfromanypersonalperfectionbutfromhissituationintheworldandfrom god' swill.Inothercases,forexample,AugustineandalsoMuhammad,thefaithin predestinationmayariseasaresultofthenecessityforcontrollingtremendouspassions andtheexperiencethatthiscanbeaccomplishedonly,ifatall,throughanactingpower fromwithoutandaboveone' sownself.Luther,too,reachedthefaithinpredestination duringtheterriblyshakenperiodafterhisdifficultstrugglewithsin,butitrecededin importanceforhimafterheincreasinglyaccommodatedtotheworld. (I.3.b)PowerofPredestination

Predestinationprovidestheindividualoffaithwiththehighestpossibledegreeof certaintyofsalvation,onces/hehasconvincedthats/hebelongstothearistocracyofthe fewwhoarethechosen.Buttheindividualmustfindcertainsymptombywhichs/hemay determinewhethers/hepossessesthisincomparablecharisma,inasmuchasitis impossibleforher/himtoliveoninabsoluteuncertaintyofher/hissalvation.Sincegod hasgrantedtorevealatleastsomepositivecommandmentsforthetypeofconduct pleasingtohim,thesymptomsmustreside,inthisinstanceasinthecaseofevery religiouslyactivecharisma,inthedecisivedemonstrationofthecapacitytoserveasone ofgod's instrumentsinfulfillinghiscommandmentsinaperseveringandmethodical attitude,foronepossessespredestinedgraceeithereternallyornotatall.However,the predestinedpersonfallsrepeatedlyintoantransgressionasallsinnersdobecauses/heisa merecreature.Yettheconvictionofpredestinationandpreservedgracecomefromthe recognitionthat,inspiteofindividualtransgressions,god'sw illedactionsflowoutof one's innerrelationshipwithGod.Therelationshipwithgodisliftedupthroughmystical receptionofgrace;itisthecentralandenduringqualityofpersonality. Hence,incontrastwiththeexpected"logical"consequenceoffatalism,thefaithin predestinationproducesinitsmostconsistentfollowersthestrongestpossiblemotivesfor actinginaccordancewithgod'sw ill.Ofcoursethisactiontakesdifferentforms, dependingupontheprimarycontentofthereligiousprophecy.InthecaseoftheMuslim warriorsofthefirstgenerationofIslam,thefaithinpredestinationoftenproduceda completeindifferencetoself,inthecauseoffulfillmentofthereligiouscommandmentof aholywarfortheconquestoftheworld.InthecaseofthePuritansgovernedbythe Christianethic,thesamefaithinpredestinationoftenproducedethicalrigorism,legalism, andthemethodicallyrationalizedconductoflife.Disciplineinthefaithduringwarsof religionwasthesourceoftheunconquerablenessofboththeIslamicandCromwellian cavalries.Similarly,innerworldlyasceticismandthedisciplinedquestforsalvationina god' swilledvocationwerethesourcesofthevirtuosityofbusinesscharacteristicofthe Puritans.Everyconsistentteachingofpredestinedgraceinevitablybroughtaradicaland ultimatedevaluationofallmagical,sacramental,andinstitutionaldispensationsofgrace, forthecauseofgod'ss overeignwill.Thedevaluationoccurredwhereverthedoctrineof predestinationdevelopedinitsfullpurityandmaintaineditsstrength.Byfarthestrongest suchdevaluationofmagicalandinstitutionalgraceoccurredinPuritanism. (I.3.c)Islamicvs.PuritanPredestination Islamicpredestinationknewnothingofthe"doubledecree";itdidnotdareattributeto Allahthepredestinationofsomepeopletohell,butonlyattributedtohimthewithdrawal ofhisgracefromsomepeople,abeliefwhich"admitted"human' sinadequacyforthe graceandinevitabletransgression.Moreover,asawarriorreligion,Islamhadsomeofthe characteristicsoftheGreek"fate"(moira)inthatitdevelopedfarlessthespecifically

rationalelementsofa"worldorder"andthespecificdeterminationoftheindividual's destinyintheworldbeyond.Therulingconceptionwasthatpredestinationdetermined, notthedestinyoftheindividualintheworldbeyond,butrathertheextraordinaryevents ofthisworld,andaboveallsuchquestionsaswhetherornotthewarriorofthefaith wouldfallinbattle.Thereligiousdestinyoftheindividualinthenextworldwasheld,at leastaccordingtotheolderview,tobeadequatelysecuredbytheindividual' sbeliefin Allahandtheprophets,sothatnodemonstrationofsalvationintheconductoflifeis needed.Anyrationalsystemofasceticcontrolofeverydaylifewasalientothiswarrior religionfromtheoutset,sothatinIslamtheteachingofpredestinationmanifestedits powerespeciallyduringthewarsoffaithandthewarsoftheMahdi.Theteachingof predestinationtendedtoloseitsimportancewheneverIslambecamemore"civilian," becausetheteachinghasnodrivetomethodicalconductofeverydaylife,incontrastto thePuritandoctrineofpredestination. InPuritanism,predestinationdefinitelyisconcernedwiththedestinyoftheindividualin theworldbeyond,andthereforehisassuranceofsalvationwasdeterminedprimarilyby hisethicaldemonstrationwithineverydaylife.Forthisreason,thebeliefinpredestination becomegreaterimportanceinCalvinismasthisreligionbecamemore"civilian"ithad beenattheoutset.ThemostcharacteristicdifferencebetweenthePuritanandtheIslam predestinationisfoundintherelationshipwithsecularrulership.ThePuritanbeliefin predestinationwasregardedbyauthoritieseverywhereasdangeroustothestateandas hostiletoauthority,becauseitmadePuritansskepticalofthelegitimacyofallsecular power.Ontheotherhand,inIslamthefamilyandfollowingofUmar,whowere denouncedspecificallyfortheir"secular"allegation,weresupportersofthe predestination,sincetheyexpectedtoseetheirrulership,whichhadbeenestablishedby illegitimatemeans,legitimizedbythepredestinedwillofAllah.Clearly,everyuseof predestinationtodetermineconcreteeventsinhistory,ratherthanone's destinyinthe worldbeyond,immediatelycausespredestinationtoloseitsethical,rationalcharacter. Thebeliefinpredestinationpracticallyalwayshadanasceticeffectamongthesimple warriorsortheearlyIslamicfaith,whichintherealmofethicsexertedlargelyexternal andritualdemands,buttheasceticeffectsoftheIslamicbeliefinpredestinationwerenot rational,andforthisreasontheywererepressedineverydaylife.TheIslamicbeliefin predestinationeasilyassumedfatalisticcharacteristicsinthebeliefsofthemasses, namely,kismet,andforthisreasonpredestinationdidnoteliminatemagicfromthe popularreligion. (I.3.d)ChineseDestiny Finally,theChinesepatrimonialbureaucracy,incorrespondencewiththecharacterofits Confucianethic,consideredknowledgeof"destiny"astheguaranteeofnobleattitude. Ontheotherhand,theConfuciannotionof"destiny"inevitablyentailedfatalistic

characteristicsinthemagicalreligionofthemasses,thoughinthereligionofthe educateditassumedapproximatelyamiddlepositionbetweenprovidenceandfate (moira).Forjustasthemoira,togetherwiththecouragetoendureit,nurturedtheheroic prideofwarriors,soalsodidpredestinationfeedthe"pharisaical"prideoftheheroesof citizenryasceticism. (I.3.e)AristocracyofPredestination Butinnootherreligionwastheprideofthearistocracyofpredestinedsalvationso closelyassociatedwiththepersonofavocationandwiththeideathatsuccessin rationalizedactivitydemonstratesgod's blessingasinPuritanism(andhenceinnoother religionwastheinfluenceofasceticmotivationupontheattitudetowardeconomic activitysostrong).Predestinationtooisabeliefofvirtuosi,whoalonecanacceptthe thoughtoftheeverlasting"doubledecree."Butasthisdoctrinecontinuedtoflowintothe routineofeverydaylivingandintothereligionofthemasses,itsgloomysevereness becamemoreandmoreintolerable.Finally,allthatremainedofitinOccidentalascetic Protestantismwasaremains(caputmortuum),thecontributionwhichthisdoctrineof gracemadetotherationalcapitalisticorientation,namelytheconceptofthemethodical demonstrationofvocationinone' seconomicconduct.TheNeoCalvinismofKuyperno longerdaredtomaintainthepuredoctrineofpredestinedgrace.Nevertheless,the doctrinewasnevercompletelyeliminatedfromCalvinism;itonlyaltereditsform.Under allcircumstancesthedeterminismofpredestinationremainedaninstrumentforthe greatestpossiblesystematizationandcentralizationofthe"ethicofheart."The"total personality,"aswewouldsaytoday,hasbeenprovidedwiththeaccentofeternalvalue by"God's election,"andnotbyanyindividualactionofthepersoninquestion. (I.3.f)ThisworldlyDeterminism Thereisanonreligiouscounterpartofthisreligiousevaluation,onebasedonaworldly determinism.Itisthatdistinctivetypeof"shame"and,sotospeak,godlessfeelingofsin whichcharacterizesmodernsecularpersonpreciselybecauseofsystematizationofthe ethicofheart,regardlessofitsmetaphysicalbasis.Notthatonehasdoneaparticular deed,butthatbyone' sunalterablequalities,acquiredwithoutone'sc ooperationone"is" suchthatonecouldcommitthedeedthisisthesecretanguishbornebymodernperson, andthisisalsowhattheothers,intheir"Phariseeism"(nowturneddeterminism),blame himfor.Itisa"merciless"attitudebecausethereisnosignificantpossibilityof "forgiveness,""contrition,"or"restitution"inmuchthesamewaythatthereligious beliefinpredestinationwasmerciless,butatleastitcouldconceiveofsomeimpenetrable divinerationality.

(J)RELIGIOUSETHICSANDTHEWORLD (J.1)InternalizationOfReligiousEthic Themoreareligionofsalvationhasbeensystematizedandinternalizedinthedirectionof anethicofheart,thegreaterbecomesitstensiontowardtherealityoftheworld. (J.1.a)RitualisticReligion Thistensionbetweenreligionandtheworldappearslessandleastasamatterof principle,solongasthereligionisasimpleritualisticorlegalistickind.Intheseforms, religionsofsalvationgenerallyexertthesameeffectsasthoseofmagicalethics.Thatis tosay,suchareligiongenerallyassignsinviolablesanctiontothoseconventionsreceived byit,sincealltheadherentsofaparticulargodareinterestedinavoidingthewrathofthe deity,andhenceinpunishinganytransgressionofthenorms.Consequently,oncean injunctionhasachievedthestatusofadivineorder,itrisesoutofthecircleofalterable conventionsintotherankofsanctity.Henceforth,thesanctionsofareligionareregarded, liketheorderofthecosmosasawhole,aseternallyvalidnormonlysusceptibleof interpretation,butnotofalteration,unlessthegodhimselfrevealsanewcommandment. Inthisstage,thereligionexercisesastereotypingeffectontheentirerealmoflegalorders andsocialconventions,inthesamewaythatsymbolismstereotypescertainsubstantive elementsofacultureandprescriptionofmagicaltaboosstereotypesconcrete relationshipstohumanbeingsandtogoods.ThesacredbooksoftheHindus,Muslims, ParseesandJews,andtheclassicalbooksoftheChinesetreatlegalprescriptionsin exactlythesamemannerthattheytreatceremonialandritualnorms.Thelawissacred law.Therulershipofreligiouslystereotypedlawconstitutesoneofthemostsignificant limitationsontherationalizationofthelegalorderandhencealsoontherationalization oftheeconomy. Conversely,whenethicalprophecieshavebrokenthroughthestereotypedmagicalor ritualnorms,asuddenoragradualrevolutionmaytakeplace,eveninthedailyorderof humanliving,andparticularlyintherealmofeconomics.Itisselfevident,ofcourse,that therearelimitstothepowerofreligioninbothspheresofstereotypingandbreaking throughtheorder.Itisbynomeanstruethatreligionisalwaysthedecisiveelementwhen itappearsinconnectionwiththeaforementionedtransformation.Furthermore,religion nowherecreatescertaineconomicconditionsunlesstherearealsocertainpossibilitiesof suchaneconomictransformation.Ofcourse,thesepowerofreligioussanctionis

conditionedbyevenmorepowerfuldrivestowardtheexistingrelationshipsand constellationsofinterests.Itisnotpossibletostateanygeneralformulathatwill summarizethecomparativesubstantivepowersofthevariousfactorsinvolvedinsucha transformationorwillsummarizethemanneroftheir"accommodation"tooneanother. Theneedsofeconomiclifemakethesacredcommandmentstransformedeitherthrougha reinterpretationortheircasuisticbypassing.Occasionallythetransformationalsocomes throughasimple,practicaleliminationofreligiouscommandmentsinthecourseofthe churchlydispensationofpenanceandgrace.Oneexampleofthisistheeliminationofthe prohibitionagainstusurywithintheCatholicchurchwithoutanyexpressabrogation(foro conscientiae),whichwouldhavebeenimpossible.Concerningthisissue,weshallhave moretosaypresentlybecauseofanimportantprovision.Probablythesameprocesstook placeinthecaseofanotherprohibitionofthe"birthcontrolpractice"(onanismus matrimonialis). Suchambivalentandimplicitreligiousnormstowardnewproblemsandpractices inevitablyresultinparallelexistencesofabsoluteunalterablestereotypingontheone handandextraordinaryarbitrarinessandutterincalculabilityofitsactualvalidityonthe other.Thus,intheIslamiclaw(shari'ah ),itisvirtuallyimpossibletoassertwhatisthe practicetodayinregardtoanyparticularmatter.Thesamedoublestandardsarisetoall sacredlawsandethicalregulationsthathaveaformalritualisticandcasuisticcharacter, abovealltheJewishlaw. (J.1.b)EthicofHeart Butthesystematizationofreligiousdutyinthedirectionofan"ethicofheart" (Gesinnungsethik)producesafundamentallydifferentsituation.Suchsystematization breaksthroughthestereotypeofindividualnormsonbehalfofa"meaningful"total relationshipoftheconductoflifetothegoalofreligioussalvation.Moreover,anethicof heartdoesnotrecognizeany"sacredlaw,"butonlya"sacredheart"thatmaysanction differentmaximsofconductindifferentsituations,andwhichisthuselasticand susceptibleofaccommodation.Themoreanethicofheartdirecttheconductoflife,the moreitmaybringrevolutionaryeffectsfromwithin,insteadofexertingastereotyping effect.Buttheethicofheartacquiresthispoweratthepriceofgreatlyintensifiedand internalizedproblemsoflife.Theinnerconflictbetweenthereligiouspostulateandthe realityoftheworlddoesnotdiminish,butratherincreasesindeed.Withthegrowing systematizationandrationalizationofsocialrelationshipsandoftheirsubstantive contents,theexternalsolutionsprovidedbythedoctrineoftheodicyarereplacedbythe strugglesofparticularautonomousspheresoflifeagainsttherequirementsofreligion.

Themoreintensifiedthereligiousrequirementis,themoretheworldpresentsaproblem. Letusnowclarifythismatterbyarticulatingsomeoftheprincipalconflicts. Religiousethicspenetrateintosocialordersinverydifferentextents.Whatisdecisive hereisnotthedifferencebetweenmagicalritualsanctionsandreligiousethic,butrather itsprincipledattitudetowardtheworld.Themorethisattitudesisrationallysystematized fromthereligiousviewpointofcosmos,themoreitsethicaltensionwithworldlyorders becomeintensified.Thisismoretrue,themoretheworldordersaresystematized accordingtoitsownlaw.Herethereligiousethicofworldrejectionemerges,andbyits natureitlackscompletelythestereotypingcharacterofthesacredlaw.Indeed,thetension thatthisreligiousethicbringsintotherelationshipoftheworldisastronglydynamic factorofsocialdevelopment. (J.2)ReligiousEthicAndEconomics (J.2.a)Religiousvs.FamilyEthic Aslongasareligiousethicsimplyappropriatesthegeneralvirtuesoflifewithinthe world,nodiscussionisrequiredhere.Thesegeneralvirtuesnaturallyinclude relationshipswithinthefamily,truthfulness,reliability,andrespectforanotherperson's lifeandproperty,includingwives.Buttheaccentuationofthevariousvirtuesis characteristicallydifferentindifferentreligions.Confucianismplacedatremendousstress onfamilialpiety,astresswhichwasmotivatedbymagicbeliefinancestorspirit.This familialpietywascultivatedinpracticebyapatriarchalandpatrimonialbureaucratic politicalorganization.Confucius,accordingtoadictumattributedtohim,regarded "insubordinationasmorereprehensiblethanbrutality,"[119]whichindicatesthathe expresslyinterpretedobediencetofamilyauthoritiesveryliterallyasthedistinctivemark ofallsocialandpoliticalqualities.Thedirectlyoppositeattitudetowardfamilyisfound inthosemoreradicaltypesofcommunalreligionwhichadvocatethedissolutionofall familyties:"WhosoevercannothatehisfathercannotbecomeadiscipleofJesus."[120] Anotherexampleofthedifferentaccentuationsofvirtuesisthestressplacedon truthfulnessintheHinduandZoroastrianethics,whereastheTenCommandmentsofthe JudeoChristiantraditionconfinesthisvirtuetojudicialtestimony.Ontheotherhand,the completerecessionoftheobligationofveracityinfavorofthevariedcommandmentsof ceremoniousproprietyisfoundinthestatusethicoftheConfucianChinesebureaucracy. Zoroastrianismforbidsthetortureofanimals,asaconsequenceofthefounder' scampaign againstorgiasticreligion.Hindureligiongoesfarbeyondanyotherinabsolute

prohibitionofthekillinganylivingbeings(ahimsa),whichwasgroundedonthebeliefs inanimismandtransmigrationofsoul. (J.2.b)Religiousvs.NeighborlyEthic Thecontentofeveryreligiousethicwhichgoesbeyondparticularmagicalprescriptions andfamilialpietyisprimarilydeterminedbytwosimplemotivesthatconditionall everydaybehaviorbeyondthelimitsofthefamily,namely,retaliationagainstoffenders andbrotherlyhelpinneed.Bothareinasensecompensations:theoffender"mustbe" punishedinordertopacifytheangerofgod;andconversely,thereligiousbrothersand sistersaredeservedforhelpinneed.ItisselfevidentinChinese,Vedic,orZoroastrian ethics,orinthatoftheJewsuntilpostexilictimes,thatanenemymustbecompensated withevilfortheevilhehasdone.Indeed,theentiresocialorderofthesesocietiesappears tohaverestedonjustcompensation.Forthisreasonandbecauseofitsaccommodation withtheworld,theConfucianethicrejectedtheideaofloveforone's enemy,whichin Chinawaspartlymysticalandpartlybasedonnotionsofsocialutility,asbeingcontrary tothereasonofthestate.Thenotionofloveforone's enemywasacceptedbytheJewsin theirpostexilicethic,[121]butonlyintheparticularsenseofcausingtheirenemiesthe greaterhumiliationbythebenevolentconductoftheJews.ThepostexilicJewsadded aboveallanimportantcommandment,whichChristianityretained,thatvengeanceisthe properprerogativeofGod,whowillthemorecertainlyexecuteitthemoreperson refrainsfromdoingsobyoneself.[122] Communalreligiondemandstheirfellowadherentsthedutyofbrotherlyhelpinneed, whichalreadyincludedthebandsofkinship,clanandtribe.Statedmorecorrectly, communalreligiontakestheplaceoftheclanandtribalbands:"Whoeverdoesnotleave hisownfatherandmothercannotbecomeafollowerofJesus."[123]Thisisalsothe generalmeaningandcontextofJesus'rema rkthat"hecamenottobringpeace,butthe sword."[124]Outofallthisgrowsthecommandmentof"brotherlylove,"whichis especiallycharacteristicofcommunalreligion,becauseitcarriesoutmostseriouslythe emancipationfrompoliticalbands.EveninearlyChristianity,forexampleinthedoctrine ofClementofAlexandria,brotherlyloveinitsfullestextentwasenjoinedonlywithinthe circleoffellowbelievers,andnotbeyond. Neighborlymutualassistanceinworkandhelpinneedweredevelopedamongvarious socialstrata,aseconomicdifferentiationproceeded.Thesameprocessisalsoreflectedin religiousethicsataveryearlytime.Thebrotherlyhelpinneedwasderived,aswesaw, [125]fromtheneighborhoodband.Thenearestpersonhelpstheneighborbecausethe personmayonedayrequiretheneighbor' shelpinturn.Theemergenceofthenotionof universalloveispossibleonlyafterpoliticalandethniccommunitieshavebecome

considerablyintermixed,andafterthegodshavebeenliberatedfromconnectionwith politicalbandsandbecomeuniversalpowers.Universallovetowardtheadherentsof anotherreligionsismoredifficultwhentheotherreligiouscommunitieshavebecome competitors,eachproclaimingtheuniquenessofitsowngod.Thus,Buddhisttradition relatesthattheJainistmonksexpressedamazementthattheBuddhahadcommandedhis disciplestogivefoodtothemaswellastoBuddhistmonks.[126] (J.2.c)AlmsGiving Singersandmagicians,theoldest"professionals"whowerefirstliberatedfromthesoil, livedfromthebountyoftherich.Consequently,thewealthywhowasgeneroustosingers andmagicianswaspraisedbythematalltimes,whilethegreedywascursed.However, undertheearlyagriculturaleconomy,thestatusofnoblewashonoredbythesingersand magiciansnottothewealthyassuch,buttothepersonoffreegivingandhospitable conductoflife,asweshallseelateron.[127]Hence,thegivingofalmsbecamea universalandprimarycomponentofeveryethicalreligion,thoughthemotivationwas varied.Jesusoccasionallymadeuseoftheprincipleofcompensationthatgodwouldall themorecertainlyrendercompensationtothegiverofalmsintheworldbeyond,sinceit wasimpossibleforthepoortoreturnthegenerosityinthisworld.[128]Tothis motivation,theprincipleofthesolidarityofthefaithfulwasfounded,whichundercertain circumstancesmightbringthebrotherlinesstoa"communismoflove." InIslam,thegivingofalmswasoneofthefivecommandmentsofthefaithful.[129] Givingofalmswasthe"goodwork"enjoinedinancientHinduism,[130]in Confucianism,[131]andinearlyJudaism.[132]InancientBuddhism,thegivingofalms wasoriginallytheonlyactivityofthepiouslaypersonthatreallymattered.Finally,in ancientChristianity,thegivingofalmsattainedalmostthedignityofasacrament,and eveninthetimeofAugustinefaithwithoutalmswasregardedasunrighteous.[133] TheimpoverishedMuslimwarriorforthefaith,theBuddhistmonk,andtheimpoverished fellowbelieversofancientChristianity,especiallythoseoftheChristiancommunityin Jerusalem,werealldependentonalms,asweretheprophets,apostles,andfrequently eventhepriestsofsalvationreligions.InancientChristianity,andamongChristiansects aslateastheQuakercommunity,opportunityofalmsgivingandofhelpinneedwere regardedasaresidencerequirementandamaineconomicmotiveofthemaintenanceof thereligiouscommunityandmissionary.Hence,whencommunalreligionlostitsinitial characterofalmsgiving,themeaningofistransformedto,moreorless,amechanical ritual.Yet,almsgivingremainsasafundamentalcommandment.InChristianity,even afteritsexpansion,thegivingofalmsremainedsounconditionallynecessaryforthe

achievementofsalvationbythewealthythatthepoorwereactuallyregardedasa distinctiveandindispensable"status"withinthechurch. (J.2.d)ProtectionofWeak Inthesametoken,thesick,widows,andorphanswererepeatedlydescribedasreligiously valuableobjectsofethicaldeeds.Therelationshipsamongbrothersinthefaithcameto becharacterizedbythesameexpectationswhichwerefeltbetweenfriendsandneighbors, suchastheexpectationsthatcreditwouldbeextendedwithoutinterestandthatone' s childrenwouldbetakencareofintimeofneedwithoutanycompensation.Manyofthe secularizedassociationswhichhavereplacedthesectsintheUnitedStatesstillmake suchrequirementupontheirmembers.Aboveall,thepoorbrotherinthefaithexpects thiskindofassistanceandgenerosityfromthepowerfulandfromhisownmaster. Indeed,withincertainlimitations,thepowerholders' owninterestsdictatedthathe protecthisownsubordinatesandshowthemgenerosity,sincethesecurityofhisown incomedependedultimatelyontheirgoodwillandcooperation,aslongasnorational methodsofcontrolexisted.Ontheotherhand,everypropertyless,especiallysacred singer,seekstogainanopportunity,patronage,andhelpinneedfrompowerful individualsandpraisethemfortheirgenerosity.Whereverpatriarchalrelationshipsof powerdeterminedthesocialstratification,especiallyintheOrient,thepropheticreligions wereable,inconnectionwiththeaforementionedpurelypracticalsituation,tocreate somekindofprotectorateoftheweaksuchaswomen,children,slaves,etc.Thisis especiallytrueoftheMosaicandIslamicpropheticreligion. Thisprotectioncanalsobeextendedtorelationshipsbetweenclasses.Thepowerful class's limitlessexploitationoftheweakerclassistypicalinprecapitalisttimes.The mercilessenslavementofdebtorsandtheaggressiveaccumulationoflandholdings, whichareinpracticeidentical,meetswithconsiderablesocialcondemnationand religiouscensure,asbeinganoffenseagainstthesolidarity.Similarobjectionsapplyto themaximumutilizationofone' spurchasingpowerinacquiringconsumergoodsforthe speculativeexploitationofthecriticalconditionofthoseinlessfavorablepositions.On theotherhand,themembersoftheancientwarriornobilitytendtoregardasanoutsider anypersonwhohasriseninthesocialscaleasaresultoftheacquisitionofmoney. Therefore,thekindofgreedjustdescribediseverywhereregardedasabominablefrom thereligiouspointofview.ItwassoregardedintheHindulegalbooks,aswellasin ancientChristianityandinIslam.InJudaism,thereactionagainstsuchgreedledtothe creationofthecharacteristicinstitutionofajubileeyearinwhichdebtswerecancelled andslavesliberated,toamelioratetheconditionsofone'sfe llowbelievers.This institutionwassubsequentlyconstruedasthe"sabbaticalyear,"aresultoftheological casuistryandofamisunderstandingonthepartofthosepiouspeoplewhoseprovenience waspurelyurban.Everyinternalsystematizationofethictransformedfromallthese

individualdemandsoftheprotectionoftheweakintothedistinctivereligiousethicof heart:"charity"(caritas). (J.2.e)ReligiousAntipathytoUsury Therejectionofusuryappearsasanoutcomeofthiscentralreligiousspiritinalmostall ethicalregulationofeconomiclife.Suchaprohibitionagainstusuryiscompletely lacking,outsideofProtestantism,onlyinthereligiousethicswhichhavebecomeamere accommodationtotheworldlikeConfucianism;andinthereligiousethicsofancient BabyloniaandtheMediterraneanregioninwhichtheurbancitizenry(moreparticularly thenobilityresidinginthecitiesandmaintainingeconomicinterestsintrade)hindered thedevelopmentofaconsistentethicofcharity.TheHindubooksofcanonicallaw prohibitthetakingofusury,atleastforthetwohighestcastes.AmongtheJews, collectingusuryfrom"fellowfolks"wasprohibited.InIslamandinancientChristianity, theprohibitionagainstusuryatfirstappliedonlytobrothersinfaith,butsubsequently becameunconditional.ItseemsprobablethattheprohibitionofusuryinChristianityis notoriginalinthatreligion.Jesusjustifiedthebiblicalcommandmenttolendtothe unbelieveronthegroundthatGodwillnotrewardthelenderintransactionswhich presentnorisk.Thisverse:"Donotexpectanythingfromit,"[134]wasthenmisreadand mistranslatedas:"Donotdepriveanybodyofhope"intheVulgate,whichresultedinthe prohibitionofusury.[135]Theoriginalbasisfortherejectionofusurywasgenerallythe primitivecustomofeconomichelpinneed,inaccordancewithwhichthetakingofusury "amongbrothers"wasundoubtedlyregardedasaseriousbreachagainsttheobligationto helpinneed.Thefactthattheprohibitionagainstusurybecameincreasinglyseverein Christianity,underquitedifferentconditions,wasdueinparttovariousothermotives andfactors.Theprohibitionofusurywasnot,asthematerialistconceptionofhistory wouldrepresentit,areflectionoftheabsenceofinterestoncapitalunderthegeneral conditionsofanaturaleconomy.Onthecontrary,theChristianchurchanditsservants, includingthePope,tookinterestwithoutanyhesitationevenintheearlyMiddleAges, thatis,intheveryperiodofanaturaleconomy;evenmoreso,ofcourse,theycondoned thetakingofinterestbyothers.Itisstrikinglyparallelthatthechurchlypersecutionof usuriouslendingaroseandbecameevermoreintensevirtuallyastheactualcapitalist commerceandparticularlyofprofitmakingenterpriseinoverseastradewasincreasingly developed.Whatisinvolved,therefore,isastruggleinprinciplebetweenethical rationalizationandtheprocessofrationalizationinthedomainofeconomics.Aswehave seen,onlyinthenineteenthcenturywasthechurchobliged,underthepressureofcertain unalterablefacts,toremovetheprohibitioninthemannerwehavedescribedpreviously. Therealreasonforreligiousantipathytowardusuryisdeeplyrelatedtothepositionof religiousethicstowardtheautonomyofrationalprofitmakingbusinessassuch.Evenin earlyreligions,thosewhichotherwiseplacedahighpositivevalueonthepossessionof

wealth,purelyprofitmakingenterpriseswerepracticallyalwaystheobjectsof antipatheticjudgment.Thisantipathywasfoundnotonlyinpredominantlyagrarian economiesundertheinfluenceofwarriornobilities,butrightlyinthestageofeconomy thatcommercialtransactionswerealreadyrelativelyadvanced.Andindeedreligious antipathyaroseinconsciousprotestagainstsuchcommercialdevelopment. (J.2.f)AntipathytoRationalEconomy Firstofall,everyeconomicrationalizationoftradeandbusinesshasweakenedthe traditionsuponwhichtheauthorityofthesacredlawprimarydepended.Forthisreason alonethepursuitofmoney,thetypicalgoaloftherationalprofitmaking,isreligiously suspect.Consequently,thepriesthoodfavoredthemaintenanceofanaturaleconomy(as wasapparentlythecaseinEgypt)wherevertheparticulareconomicinterestsofthe templeasabankfordepositandloansunderdivineprotectiondidnotcountmuchagainst anaturaleconomy. Inparticular,theimpersonalandeconomicallyrationalized(butforthisveryreason ethicallyirrational)characterofpurelycommercialrelationshipsassuchevokedthe suspicion,neverclearlyexpressedbutallthemorestronglyfelt,ofethicalreligions.For everypurelypersonalrelationshipofhumantoperson,ofwhateversortandeven includingcompleteenslavement,canbeethicallyregulatedandmaybesubjectedto ethicalrequirements.Thisistruebecausethestructuresoftheserelationshipsdepend uponthesubject' sgoodwillandcanmakeroomforthecharitablevirtues.Butthisisnot thesituationoftheeconomicallyrationalizedrelationships,wherethemoreeconomic relationshipisrationallydifferentiated,thelessitispersonallyandethicallyregulated. Thereisnopossibilityinpracticeoreveninprinciple,ofanycharitableregulationofthe relationshipsarisingbetweentheholderofasavingsandloanbankmortgageandthe mortgageewhohasobtainedaloanfromthebank,orbetweenaholderofafederalbond andacitizentaxpayer.Norcananycharitableregulationariseintherelationships betweenstockholdersandfactoryworkers,betweentobaccoimportersandforeign plantationworkers,orbetweenindustrialistsandtheminerswhohavedugfromtheearth therawmaterialsusedintheplantsownedbytheindustrialists.Thegrowing impersonalityoftheeconomyonthebasisofrationalizationofthemarketfollowsits ownrules,ignoringofwhichwillresultineconomicfailureand,inthelongrun, economicruin. Rationaleconomicrelationshipalwaysbringsaboutdepersonalization,anditis impossibletocontrolacosmosofobjectivelyrationalizedactivitiesbyappealingcharity toparticularindividuals.Therationalizedworldofcapitalismcertainlyoffersnosupport foranysuchcharitableregulation.Theappealofreligiouscharityisdisregardnotmerely

becauseoftheignoringandweaknessofparticularindividuals,asithappenseverywhere, butbecausecharitylosesitsmeaningaltogether.Religiousethicshastoconfrontwitha worldofdepersonalizedrelationshipswhichforfundamentalreasonscannotsubmitto religiousnorms.Consequently,inapeculiarduality,priesthoodshavetimeandagain protectedpatriarchalismagainstimpersonalbusinessrelationshipsintheinterestof traditionalism,whereaspropheticreligionhasbrokenuppatriarchalsocialrelationships. However,themorethereligiositybecomesthematterofprincipleandopposesto economicrationalismassuch,themorethereligiousvirtuosiendsupwithananti economicrejectionoftheworld. (J.2.g)EconomicCreditandReligion Inreality,ofcourse,thereligiousethicshavedemonstrateddiversepositionstowardthe worldbecauseoftheinevitablecompromises.Fromofold,religiousethicshasbeen directlyutilizedforrationaleconomicpurposes,especiallythepurposesofcreditors.This wasespeciallytruewhereverthestateofindebtednesslegallyinvolvedonlythepersonof thedebtor,sothatthecreditorhadtoappealtothefilialpietyoftheheirs.Anexampleof thispracticeistheconfinementoftheembalmedbodyofthedeceasedinEgypttoappeal hisdescendantsthesenseofshameofnotpayingthedebts.Anotherexampleisthebelief insomeAsiaticreligionsthatwhoeverfailstokeepapromise,includingapromiseto repayaloanandespeciallyapromiseguaranteedbyanoath,wouldbetorturedinthe nextworldandconsequentlymightdisturbthequietofhisdescendantsbyevilmagic.In theMiddleAges,thecreditstandingofbishopswasparticularlyhighbecauseanybreach ofobligationontheirpart,especiallyofanobligationassumedunderoath,mightresultin theirexcommunication,whichwouldhaveruinedabishop'sw holeexistence.[136]This remindsoneofthecreditworthinessofourlieutenantsandfraternitystudentswhichwas similarlyupheldbytheefficacyofthreatstothefuturecareer. (J.2.h)Asceticismvs.Economy Byapeculiarparadox,asceticismactuallyresultedinthecontradictorysituationalready mentionedonseveralpreviousoccasions,[137]namelythatitwaspreciselyitsrationally asceticcharacterthatledtotheaccumulationofwealth.Thecheaplaborofascetic celibates,whounderbidtheindispensableminimumwagerequiredbymarriedmale workers,wastheprimarilyreasonfortheexpansionofmonasticbusinessesinthelate MiddleAges.Theantipathyofthecitizenstrataagainstthemonasteriesduringthis periodwasbasedonthe"lowwage"economiccompetitionbythemonks.Inthesame way,theseculareducationofferedbythecloisterwasabletounderbidtheeducation offeredbymarriedteachers.

Thestandpointofareligioncanoftenbeexplainedongroundsofeconomicinterest.The Byzantinemonkswereeconomicallymakersoficons,andtheChinesemonkshadan economicinterestintheproductsoftheirworkshopsandprintingestablishments.An extremeexampleofthiskindisprovidedbythemanufactureofalcoholicliquorsin modernmonasteries,whichdefiesthereligiouscampaignagainstalcohol.Factorssuchas thesehavetendedtoworkagainstanyconsistentreligiousoppositiontoworldly economicactivities.Everyorganization,andparticularlyeveryinstitutionalreligion, requiressourcesofeconomicpower.Indeed,scarcelyanydoctrinehasbeenattackedby suchpapalcurses,especiallyatthehandsofthegreatestfinancialorganizerofthechurch, thePopeJohnXXII(131634),asthedoctrinethatChristrequiresgivingupofproperty forhistruefollowers,whichauthorizedinthescripturalandwasconsistentlyexercisedby theFranciscanSpirituals.FromthetimeofArnoldofBrescia(110055)anddown throughthecenturies,awholetrainofmartyrsdiedforthiscause. (J.2.i)CatholicEconomicLife ItisdifficulttoestimatethepracticaleffectofCatholic's prohibitionofusury,andeven moredifficulttoestimatethepracticaleffectofCatholic' sdoctrine:"NoBusinessperson canpleaseGod."[138]Theprohibitionsagainstusurygeneratedlegalisticcircumventions ofallsorts.Afterahardstruggle,thechurchitselfwasvirtuallycompelledtopermit undisguisedusuryinthecharityfunds(montespietatis)whentheloanswereinthe interestsofthepoor;thisbecamedefinitivelyestablishedafterthePopeLeoX(151321). Furthermore,emergencyloansforbusinessesatfixedratesofinterestwereprivilegedto theJewsduringtheMiddleAges. Wemustnote,however,thatintheMiddleAgesfixedinterestchargeswererareinthe entrepreneurialcontractsextendingbusinesscredittoenterprisessubjecttogreatrisk, especiallyoverseascommerce(creditcontractswhichinItalyalsousedthepropertyof trusts).Themoreusualprocedurewasactualparticipationintheriskandprofitofan enterprise(commenda,dareadproficuumdemari),withvariouslimitationsand occasionallywithagraduatedscalesuchasthatprovidedinthe"PisanConsortiumof Usury."[139]Yetthegreatmerchantguildsneverthelessprotectedthemselvesagainstthe violationofprivateusurybyexpulsionfromtheguild,boycott,orblacklistpunitive measurescomparabletothosetakenunderourstockexchangeregulationsagainst violationofcontract.Theguildsalsotookcareofthemember' spersonalsalvationofthe soulsbyprovidingchurcheswithinnumerabletestamentarygiftsofconsciencemoneyor endowmentsasdidtheFlorentineguildofthebankersandtraders(ArtediCalimala). Thelaypersonsfrequentlyfeltadeepdiscrepancybetweentheinevitabilitiesofeconomic lifeandtheChristianideal.Inanycasethisethicalseparationkeptthemostpiouspeople

andallethicalpeoplefarfromtheoccupationsoftradeandcommerce.Aboveall,time andagainitmadeeffectontheethicaldevaluationofrationalbusinessspiritandimpeded itsdevelopment.Theriseofaconsistent,systematic,andethicallyregulatedconductof lifeintheeconomicdomainwascompletelypreventedbythemedievalinstitutional church' sexpedientsbygradingreligiousobligationsaccordingtoreligiouscharismaand ethicalvocationandbygrantingdispensations.(Thefactthatpeoplewithrigorousethical standardssimplycouldnottakeupabusinesscareerwasnotalteredbythedispensation ofindulgences,norbytheextremelylaxprinciplesoftheJesuitprobabilisticethicsafter theCounterReformation.)Abusinesscareerwasonlypossibleforthosewhowerelaxin theirethicalthinking. (J.2.j)ProtestantAsceticism TheinnerworldlyasceticismofProtestantismfirstproducedacapitalisticethics, althoughunintentionally,foritopenedthewaytoacareerinbusiness,especiallyforthe mostpiousandethicallyrigorouspeople.Aboveall,Protestantisminterpretedsuccessin businessasthefruitofarationalconductoflife.Indeed,Protestantism,andespecially asceticProtestantism,confinedtheprohibitionagainstusurytoclearcasesofcomplete selfishness.Butbythisprincipleitnowdenouncedunreasonableusuryinsituations whichtheRomanchurchitselfhad,asamatterofpractice,tolerated,forexample,inthe "charityfunds"(montespietatis),theextensionofcredittothepoor.Itisworthyofnote thatCatholicbusinesspersonsandtheJewshadlongsincefelttobewearinessthe competitionoftheseinstitutionswhichlenttothepoor.VerydifferentwastheProtestant justificationofinterestasalegitimateformofparticipationbytheproviderofcapitalin thebusinessprofitsincreasingfromthemoneyhehadlent,especiallywherevercredithad beenextendedtothewealthyandpowerfulforexample,aspoliticalcredittotheprince. ThetheoreticaljustificationofthisattitudewasdonebySalmasius(deusuris,1638). OneofthemostnotableeconomiceffectsofCalvinismwasitsdestructionofthe traditionalformsofcharity.Firstiteliminatedrandomalmsgiving.Tobesure,thefirst stepstowardthesystematizationofcharityhadbeentakenwiththeintroductionoffixed rulesforthedistributionofthebishop' sfundinthelatermedievalchurch,andwiththe institutionofthemedievalhospitalinthesamewaythatthetaxforthepoorinIslam hadrationalizedandcentralizedalmsgiving.Yetrandomalmsgivinghadstillretaineda "goodwork."Theinnumerablecharitableinstitutionsofethicalreligionshavealwaysled inpracticetothecreationanddirectcultivationofmendicancy,andinanycasecharitable institutionstendedtomakeofcharityapurelyritualgesture,asthefixednumberofdaily mealsintheByzantinemonasticestablishmentortheofficialsoupdaysoftheChinese. Calvinismputanendtoallthis,andespeciallytoanybenevolentattitudetowardthe beggar.ForCalvinismheldthattheinscrutableGodpossessedgoodreasonsforhaving distributedthegiftsoffortuneunequally.Itneverceasedtostressthenotionthataperson

provedoneselfexclusivelyinone'svoc ationalwork.Consequently,beggingwas explicitlystigmatizedasaviolationofthecommandmenttoloveone' sneighbor,inthis casethepersonfromwhomthebeggarsolicits. Whatismore,allPuritanpreachersproceededfromtheassumptionthattheidlenessofa personcapableofworkwasinevitablyhisownfault.Butitwasfeltnecessarytoorganize charitysystematicallyforthoseincapableofwork,suchasorphansandcripples,forthe greatergloryofGod.Thisnotionoftenresultedinsuchstrikingphenomenaasdressing institutionalizedorphansinuniformsreminiscentoffool' sclothesandparadingthem throughthestreetsofAmsterdamtodivineserviceswiththegreatestpossiblefanfare. Careforthepoorwasorientedtothegoalofdiscouragingthelazy.Thisgoalwasquite apparentinthesocialwelfareprogramoftheEnglishPuritans,incontrasttotheAnglican program.[140]Inanycase,charityitselfbecamearationalized"enterprise,"andits religioussignificancewasthereforeeliminatedoreventransformedintotheopposite significance.Thiswasthesituationinconsistentasceticandrationalizedreligions. Mysticalreligionshadtotakeapatheticallyoppositepathwithregardtothe rationalizationofeconomics.Thepathosofbrotherlyloveinoppositiontotheloveless realitiesoftherationalizedeconomicdomainledtotherequirementofloveforone's neighboruntilacompletelyindiscriminate"loveforeverybody".Suchobjectless"love" didnotinquireintothedignityoftheperson,orone's capacityofselfhelp.Itquickly gavetheshirtwhenthecloakhadbeenaskedfor.Thiswasthebasisandoutcomeof mystic'sa bsolutedevotionassuch.Inthefinalanalysis,theindividualforwhomthe mysticmakesthesacrificeisunimportant.One's "neighbor"issimplyapersonwhomone happenstoencounteralongtheway;theneighborhassignificanceonlybecauseof her/hisneedandher/hiscondition.Thisresultsinadistinctivelymysticalflightfromthe worldwhichtakestheformofselfdevotioninobjectlesslove,notforthesakeofthe personbutforthesakeofthedevotionitselfwhatBaudelairehastermed"thesacred prostitutionofthesoul." (J.3)ReligiousEthicsAndPolitics (J.3.a)ConditionsofReligionandPolitics Everyreligiouslygroundeduniversalloveandindeedeveryethicalreligion,insimilar measureandforsimilarreasons,mustfacesharptensionswiththepoliticalaction.This tensionappearsassoonasreligionhasbecomeautonomousfrompoliticalbands.

(J.3.a.1)AncientPoliticalReligion Tobesure,theancientlocalgodofpolitics,evenwherehewasanethicalanduniversally powerfulgod,existedmerelyfortheprotectionofthepoliticalinterestsofhisbands. EventheChristianGodisstillinvokedasagodofwarandasagodofourfathers,in muchthesamewaythatlocalgodswereinvokedintheancientcitystate.Oneis remindedofthefactthatforcenturiesChristianpriestshaveprayedalongthebeachesof theNorthSeafora"blessinguponthestrand"(namely,fornumerousshipwrecks).Onits partthepriesthoodgenerallydependeduponthepoliticalband,eitherdirectlyor indirectly.Thisdependenceissostrongthatevencontemporarychurchesaresupported fromgovernmentalpension.Atthebeginning,thepriestswerecourtorpatrimonial officialsofrulersorlandlords,forexample,thecourtBrahman(purohita)ofIndiaand theByzantinecourtbishopssinceConstantine(306337).Or,theprieststhemselveswere eitherfeudallordsexercisingsecularpower(forexample,asduringthemedievalperiod intheOccident),ornoblepriestlyfamilies.AmongtheChineseandHindusaswellasthe Jews,thesacredsingers,whosecompositionswerepracticallyeverywhereincorporated intothescriptures,sangthepraisesofheroicdeath.Accordingtothecanonicalbooksof theBrahmins,aheroicdeathwasasmuchanidealdutyoftheKshatriyacastememberat theagewhenhehad"seenthesonofhisson"aswithdrawalfromtheworldintothe forestsformeditationwasandutyofmembersoftheBrahmincaste.Ofcourse,magical religionhadnoconceptionofthewaroffaith.Butformagicalreligion,andevenforthe ancientreligionofYahweh,politicalvictoryandespeciallyvengeanceagainsttheenemy constitutedtherealrewardgrantedbygod. Themorethepriesthoodattemptedtoorganizeitselfasaindependentauthorityfromthe politicalpowerandthemorerationalizeditsethicbecame,themoretheoriginalposition wasshifted.Thecontradictionwithinthepriestlydoctrine,betweenbrotherlinesstoward fellowadherentsandtheglorificationofwaragainstoutsiders,didnotasageneralrule determinethedegradationofmartialvirtuesandheroicqualities.Intheoldandgenuine warriorethics,adistinctionbetweenjustandunjustwarwasunknown;thisdistinction wasaproductofpharisaicalthought. (J.3.a.2)RiseofReligiousCommunity Offargreaterimportancewastheriseofreligiouscommunityamongpolitically demilitarizedandpriestlydomesticatedpeoplessuchastheJews,andalsotheriseof peacefulgroupswho,atleastcomparativelyunmilitary,becameincreasinglyimportant forthepriests'maintena nceoftheirpowerpositionwherevertheyhaddevelopedintoan independentorganization.Thepriesthoodunquestioninglywelcomedthecharacteristic virtuesoftheseclasses,namely,simplicity,patienceinaffliction,humblesubmissionto

existingauthority,andfriendlyforgivenessandpassivityinthefaceofinjustice, especiallysincethesevirtueswereusefulinestablishingtheobediencetoanethicalgod andoftheprieststhemselves.Thesevirtueswerealsocomplementarytothespecial religiousvirtueofthepowerful,namelygenerouscharity,sincethepatriarchalrulers expectedanddesiredthesevirtuesinthosewhowereundertheirprotection. Themoreareligionbecame"communal,"themoredidpoliticalcircumstancescontribute totheethicsofreligioussubjugation.Thus,Jewishprophecy,inarealisticrecognitionof theexternalpoliticalsituation,preachedsubmissiontotheforeignrulershipbythegreat powers,asadestinyapparentlywilledbyGod.Thedomesticationofthemasseswas assignedtopriestsbyforeignrulers(forthefirsttimesystematicallybythePersians),and laterlocalrulersfollowedsuit.Moreoverthepersonalandpeacefulactivityofthe priesthoodweredistinctivelyaffiliatedwiththereligioussensibilityofwomenasshown everywhere.Asreligionbecamemorepopularized,thisdomesticationprovidedever strongergroundsforassigningreligiousvaluetotheessentiallyfemininevirtuesofthe ruled.However,thispriestlyorganized"slaverevolt"ofmoralitywasnottheonly internalforceofpacification.Inaddition,byitsownnature,everyascetic,andespecially everymysticquestforpersonalsalvationtookthisdirection.Certaintypicalexternal situationsalsocontributedtothisdevelopment,forexample,theapparentlymeaningless changesoflimitedandtemporalsmallpoliticalpowerstructuresincontrastto universalisticandrelativelyunitarysocialculturesofreligionssuchasthatofIndia.Two otherhistoricalprocessesoperatingintheoppositedirectionalsocontributedtothesame development:universalpacificationandtheeliminationofallstrugglesforpowerinthe greatworldempires,andparticularlythebureaucratizationofallpoliticaldominion,asin theRomanEmpire. (J.3.a.3)ReligiousRejectionofPolitics Allthesefactorsremovedthegroundfromthepoliticalandsocialinterestsinvolvedina militarypowerstruggleandasocialstatusstruggle.Thustheymakestrongeffectonthe samedirectionofanantipoliticalrejectionoftheworldandonthedevelopmentofa religiousethicofbrotherlyloveandrenunciationofallviolence.Thepowerofthe apoliticalChristianreligionoflovewasnotderivedfrominterestsinsocialreform,nor fromanysuchthingas"proletarianinstincts,"butratherfromthecompletelossofsuch socialandpoliticalinterests.Thesamemotivationaccountsfortheincreasingimportance ofallsalvationreligionsandcommunalreligionsfromthefirstandsecondcenturyofthe RomanImperialperiod.Thistransformationwascarriedoutnotonlybythesubjugated classeswiththeirslaverevoltinmoralitybut,inparticular,byeducatedstratawhichhad lostinterestinpoliticsbecausetheyhadlostinfluenceorhadbecomedisgustedby politics.Theeducatedstratumwasthecareerofspecificallyantipoliticalsalvation religion.

Thealtogetheruniversalexperiencethatviolencebreedsviolence,thatsocialoreconomic powerinterestsmaycombinewithidealisticreformsandevenwithrevolutionary movements,andthattheemploymentofviolenceagainstsomeparticularinjustice producesasitsultimateresultthevictory,notofthegreaterjustice,butofthegreater powerorcleverness,didnotremainconcealed,atleastnotfromtheintellectualswho lackedpoliticalinterests.Thisrecognitioncontinuedtoevokethemostradicaldemands fortheethicofbrotherlylove,namely,thatevilshouldnotberesistedbyforce,a commandmentthatiscommontoBuddhismandtotheteachingofJesus.[141]Butthe ethicofbrotherlyloveisalsocharacteristicofmysticalreligions,becausetheirpeculiar questforsalvationfostersanattitudeofhumilityandselfsurrenderasaresultofits minimizationofactivityanditsstateofincognitointheworldastheonlyprovenmethod forsalvation.Indeed,fromthepurelypsychologicalpointofview,mysticalreligionmust necessarilycometotheconclusionofnonviolencebyitsacosmisticsentimentoflove. Everypureintellectualismbearswithinitselfthepossibilityofsuchamystical development. Ontheotherhand,innerworldlyasceticismcancompromisewiththepoliticalpower orderbyinterpretingthemasinstrumentsfortherationalizedethicaltransformationofthe worldandforthecontrolofsin.Itmustbenoted,however,thatthecoexistenceisbyno meansaseasyinthiscaseasinthecasewhereeconomicinterestsareconcerned.For publicpoliticalactivityleadstoafargreatersurrenderofrigorousethicalrequirements thanbyprivatebusinessactivity,sincepoliticalordermustinstallonthepresenceof averagehumanqualities,tocompromises,tocraft,andtotheemploymentofother ethicallysuspectmeansandpeople,andtherebyorientedtorelativismofallgoals.Thus, itisverystrikingthatundertheprosperousregimeoftheMaccabees(2ndBC),afterthe firstintoxicationofthewarofliberationhadbeendissipated,[142]therearoseamongthe mostpiousJewsapartywhichpreferredalienrulershiptothenationalkingdom.This maybecomparedtothepreferencefoundamongsomePuritandenominationsforthe subjectionofthechurchestotherulershipofunbelievers,becausegenuinenessofreligion canbeprovenonlyinsuchchurches.Inboththesecasestwodistinctmotiveswere operative.Onewasthatagenuinecommitmentinreligioncouldbetrulydemonstrated onlyinmartyrdom;theotherwasthereligiousprinciplethattruereligiousvirtuewhether uncompromisingrationalethicoruniversalbrotherlylove,couldneverbeaplacewithin thepoliticalapparatusofforce.Thisisonesourceoftheaffinitybetweeninnerworldly asceticismandtheadvocacyoftheminimizationofstatecontrolsuchaswasrepresented bythefreetradedoctrineofthe"Manchesterschool."[143] (J.3.b)TensionbetweenReligionAndPolitics (J.3.b.1)AbsenceofConflict

Theconflictofasceticethics,aswellasofthemysticallyorientedbrotherlylove,withall politicalstructureoftheapparatusofforcehasproducedthemostvariedtypesoftension andcompromise.Naturally,thetensionbetweenreligionandpoliticsisleastwherever,as inConfucianism,religiosityisthestageofthebeliefinspiritsandmagic,andethicsisno morethanaprudentaccommodationtotheworldfortheeducatedperson. Nordoesanyconflictbetweenreligionandpoliticsexistwherever,asinIslam,religion makesobligatorytheviolentpropagationofthetrueprophecywhichconsciouslyavoids universalconversionandenjoinsthesubjugationofunbelieversundertherulingorderof thewarrioroffaithwithoutaimingthesalvationofthesubjugated.Forthisisobviously nouniversalisticsalvationreligion.Theuseofviolenceposesnoproblem,asgodis pleasedbytheforciblerulershipofthefaithfulovertheinfidels,whoaretoleratedonce theyhavebeensubjugated. Innerworldlyasceticismreachedasimilarsolutiontotheproblemoftherelationbetween religionandpoliticswherever,asinradicalCalvinism,itrepresentedasGod's willthe rulershipoverthesinfulworld,forthepurposeofcontrollingit,byreligiousvirtuosi belongingtothepurechurch.ThisviewwasfundamentalinthetheocracyofNew England,inpracticeifnotexplicitly,thoughnaturallyitbecameinvolvedwith compromisesofvariouskinds. Anotherinstanceoftheabsenceofanyconflictbetweenreligionandpoliticsistobe foundintheintellectualisticsalvationdoctrinesofIndia,suchasBuddhismandJainism, inwhicheveryrelationshiptotheworldandtoactionwithintheworldisbrokenoff,and inwhichthepersonalexerciseofviolenceaswellasresistancetoviolenceisabsolutely prohibitedandisindeedwithoutanyobjection. Mereconflictbetweenconcretedemandsofastateandconcretereligiouscommandments ariseswhenareligionisthepariahfaithofagroupwhoisexcludedfrompolitical equalitybutstillbelievesinthereligiouspromiseofadivinerestorationofitspolitical rulingright.ThiswasthecaseinJudaism,whichneverintheoryrejectedthestateandits coercionbut,onthecontrary,expectedintheMessiahtheirownmasterfulpoliticalruler, anexpectationthatwassustainedatleastuntilthetimeofthedestructionoftheTemple byHadrian(117138AD). (J.3.b.2)QuakerExperiment

Wherevercommunalreligionshaverejectedallemploymentofforceasanabomination togodandhavesoughttorequiretheirmembers' avoidanceofallviolence,without howeverreachingtheconsistentconclusionofabsoluteflightfromtheworld,theconflict betweenreligionandpoliticshasledeithertomartyrdomortopassiveantipolitical rejectionofthecoerciverulership.Historyshowsthatreligiousanarchismhashitherto beenonlyashortlivedphenomenon,becausetheintensityoffaithwhichmakesit possibleisinonlyatemporalcharisma.Yettherehavebeenindependentpolitical organizationswhichwerebased,notonapurelyanarchisticfoundation,butonaprinciple ofpacifism.ThemostimportantofthesewastheQuakerstateofPennsylvania(1686 1776),whichfortwogenerationsactuallysucceeded,incontrasttoalltheneighboring colonies,inexistingsidebysidewiththeIndians,andindeedprospering,without recoursetoviolence.Suchsituationscontinueduntiltheconflictsofthegreatcolonial powersmadepacifismafiction.Finally,theAmericanWarofIndependence(1776), whichwaswagedinthenameofbasicprinciplesofQuakerism(thoughtheorthodox Quakersdidnotparticipatebecauseoftheirprincipleofnonresistance),ledtothe discreditingofthisprincipleeveninwardly.Moreover,thecorrespondingpolicyofthe tolerantadmissionofreligiousdissidentsintoPennsylvaniabroughteventheQuakers theretoapolicyofgerrymanderingpoliticalwards,whichcausedthemincreasing uneasinessandultimatelyledthemtowithdrawfromresponsibilityforthegovernment. (J.3.b.3)PoliticalIndifference Typicalexamplesofcompletelypassiveindifferencetopolitics,fromavarietyof motives,arefoundinsuchgroupsasthegenuineMennonites,inmostBaptist communities,andinnumerousothersectsinvariousplaces,especiallyRussia.The absoluterenunciationoftheuseofforcebythesegroupsledthemintoacuteconflicts withthepoliticalauthoritiesonlywheremilitaryservicewasdemandedoftheindividuals concerned.Indeed,attitudestowardwar,evenofreligiousdenominationsthatdidnot teachanabsolutelyantipoliticalattitude,havevariedinparticularcases,dependingupon whetherthewarsinquestionwerefoughtforthefreedomofreligiousbelieffromthe interferenceofpoliticalpowerorfoughtforpurelypoliticalpurposes.Forthesetwotypes attitudetowardwar,twooppositemaximsstood.Ontheonestandpoint,therewasthe purelypassiveresistanceofpoliticalpowerandthewithdrawalfromanypersonal participationintheexerciseofviolence,climaxinginpersonalmartyrdom.Thiswasof coursethestandpointofapoliticalmysticism,withitsabsoluteindifferencetotheworld, aswellasthepacifisttypeofinnerworldlyasceticism.Butevenapurelypersonal religionoffaithfrequentlybroughtaboutpoliticalindifferenceandreligiousmartyrdom, inasmuchasitrecognizedneitherarationalorderoftheouterworldpleasingtoGod,nor arationalrulershipoftheworlddesiredbyGod.Thus,Luthercompletelyrejected religiousrevolutionsaswellasreligiouswars.

(J.3.b.4)JustificationsofViolence Theotherstandpointwasthatofviolentresistance,atleasttotheemploymentofforce againstreligiousfaith.Theconceptofareligiousrevolutionwasconsistentmostwith innerworldlyasceticrationalismwhichorientedtotheholyordersofGod' commandmentswithintheworld.WithinChristianitythiswastrueinCalvinism,which madeitareligiousobligationtodefendthefaithagainsttyrannybytheuseofforce.It shouldbeadded,however,thatCalvintaughtthatthisdefensemightbeundertakenonly attheinitiativeofthestatusauthorities,correspondingwiththecharacterofan institutionalchurch.Thedutyofreligiousrevolutionforthecauseoffaithwasnaturally taughtbythereligionsthatengagedinwarsofmissionaryenterpriseandbytheir derivativesects,liketheMahdistsandothersectsinIslam,includingtheSikhsaHindu sectthatwasoriginallypacifistbutpassedundertheinfluenceofIslamandbecame eclectic. Therepresentativesofthetwoopposedviewpointsjustdescribedsometimestook virtuallyreversepositionstowardapoliticalwarthathadnoreligiousmotivation. Religionsthatdemandsethicallyrationalizedorderofthepoliticalcosmoshad necessarilytotakeamorefundamentallynegativeattitudetowardpurelypoliticalwars thanthosereligionsthatacceptedtheordersoftheworldas"given"andrelatively indifferentinvalue.TheunconquerableCromwellianarmypetitionedParliamentforthe abolitionofcompulsoryconscription,onthegroundthataChristianshouldparticipate onlyinthosewarsthejusticeofwhichcouldbeaffirmedbyhisownconscience.From thisstandpoint,themercenaryarmymightberegardedasarelativelyethicalinstitution, inasmuchasthemercenarywouldhavetosettlewithGodandhisconscienceasto whetherhewouldtakeupthiscalling.Theemploymentofforcebythestatecanhave moralsanctiononlywhentheforceisusedforthecontrolofsins,forthegloryofGod, andforcombatingreligiousinjusticeinshort,onlyforreligiouspurposes.Ontheother handtheviewofLuther,whoabsolutelyrejectedreligiouswarsandrevolutionsaswell asanyactiveresistance,wasthatonlythesecularauthority,whosedomainisuntouched bytherationalpostulatesofreligion,hastheresponsibilityofdeterminingwhether politicalwarsarejustorunjust.Hence,theindividualsubjecthasnoreasontoburdenhis ownconsciencewiththismatterifonlyhegivesactiveobediencetothepolitical authorityinthisandinallothermatterswhichdonotdestroyhisrelationshiptoGod. (J.3.c)StateandChristiantiy (J.3.c.1)EarlyChristianity

ThepositionofancientandmedievalChristianityinrelationtothestateasawhole swungor,morecorrectly,shifteditscenterofgravityfromonetoanotherofseveral distinctpointsofview.AtfirsttherewasacompleteabominationoftheexistingRoman empire,whoseexistenceuntiltheveryendoftimewastakenforgrantedinAntiquityby everyone,evenChristians.TheempirewasregardedasthedominionofAntiChrist.A secondviewwascompleteindifferencetothestate,andhencepassivesufferingfromthe useofforce,whichwasdeemedtobeunrighteousineverycase.This,however,entailed fulfillmentofallthecompulsoryobligationsimposedbythestate,forexamplethe paymentoftaxes,whichdidnotdirectlyendangerreligioussalvation.Forthetrueintent oftheNewTestamentverse:"rendertoCaesarthethingswhichareCaesar's "[144]isnot themeaningdeducedbymodernharmonizinginterpretations,namelyapositive recognitionoftheobligationtopaytaxes,butratherthereverse:anabsoluteindifference toalltheaffairsofthisworld. Thethirdstandpointentailedwithdrawalfromconcreteactivitiesofthepolitical community,suchasthecultoftheemperors,becauseandinsofarassuchparticipation necessarilyledtosin.Nevertheless,thestate' sauthoritywasaccordedpositive recognitionasbeingsomehowordainedbyGod,evenwhenexercisedbyunbelieversand eventhoughinherentlysinful.Itwastaughtthatthestate' sauthority,likealltheordersof thisworld,isanordainedpunishmentforthesinbroughtuponhumanbyAdam'sfa ll, whichtheChristianmustobedientlytakeuponone' sownself.Finally,theauthorityof thestate,evenwhenexercisedbyunbelievers,mightbeevaluatedpositively,duetoour conditionofsin,asanindispensableinstrument,baseduponthedivinelyimplanted naturalknowledgeofreligiouslyunilluminatedheathens,forthesocialcontrolof reprehensiblesinsandasageneralconditionforallearthlyexistencepleasingtoGod. (J.3.c.2)MedievalChristianity Ofthesefourpointsofview,thefirsttwomentionedbelongprimarilytotheperiodof adventexpectation,butoccasionallytheycometotheforeeveninalaterperiod.Asfaras thelastofthefourisconcerned,ancientChristianitydidnotreallygobeyonditin principle,evenafterithadbeenrecognizedasthestatereligion.Rather,thegreatchange intheattitudeofChristianitytowardthestatetookplaceinthemedievalchurch.[145] ButtheprobleminwhichChristianityfounditselfinvolvedasaresult,whilenotlimited tothisreligion,neverthelessgeneratedawholecomplexofdifficultiespeculiarto Christianityalone,partlyfrominternalreligiouscausesandpartlyfromtheconditionsof nonreligiousmotives.Thiscriticalproblemswasdealtfromthestandpointofsocalled "naturallaw"toreligiousrevelationontheonehand,andthepositiverelationshipto politicalbandsandtheiractivitiesontheother.Weshalldiscussagaintothismatter briefly,bothinconnectionwiththetypesofreligiouscommunitiesandthetypesof rulership.[146]Butthefollowingpointmaybemadehereregardingthetheoretical

solutionoftheseproblemsasitaffectspersonalethics:thegeneralschemaaccordingto whichreligioncustomarilysolvestheproblemofthetensionbetweenreligiousethicsand thenonethicalorunethicalrequirementsoflifeinthepoliticalandeconomicorderof powerwithintheworldistorelativizeanddifferentiateethicsinto"organic"(as contrastedto"ascetic")ethicsofvocation.Thisholdstruewheneverareligionis dominantwithinapoliticalbandoroccupiesaprivilegedstatus,andparticularlywhenit becomesainstitutionofgrace. (J.3.d)SolutionbyOrganicEthic (J.3.d.1)CatholicOrganicEthic Catholicdoctrine,asformulatedbyAquinasforexample,tosomedegreeassumedthe view,alreadycommoninanimisticbeliefsregardingsoulsandtheworldbeyond,that therearepurelynaturaldifferencesamonghumans,completelyindependentofany effectsofsin,andthatthesenaturaldifferencesdeterminethediversityofstatusdestinies inthisworldandbeyond.ThisformulationofCatholicdoctrinediffersfromtheview foundinStoicismandearliestChristianityofablissfulstateofequalityofallhuman beingsintheoriginalgoldenage.[147] Atthesametime,however,Aquinasinterpretedthepowerrelationshipsofthisworld metaphysically.Humanbeingsarecondemnedwhetherasaresultoforiginalsin,ofan individualcausalityofkarmaorofthecorruptionofthedualisticworldtosuffer violence,toil,pain,hate,andabovealldifferencesinclassandstatuspositionwithinthe world.Thevariousvocationsorcasteshavebeenprovidentiallyordained,andeachof themhasbeenassignedsomespecific,indispensabletaskdesiredbygodordetermined bytheimpersonalworldorder,sothatdifferentethicalobligationsdevolveuponeach. Thediverseoccupationsandcastesarecomparedtotheconstituentportionsofan organisminthistypeoftheory.Thevariousrelationshipsofpowerwhichemergeinthis mannermustthereforeberegardedasdivinelyordainedrelationshipsofauthority. Accordingly,anyrevoltorrebellionagainstthem,oreventheraisingofvitalclaimsother thanthosecorrespondingtoone' sstatusinsociety,isreprehensibletogodbecausethey aredestructiveofsacredtraditionandareexpressionsofcreaturelyselfarroganceand pride.Thereligiousvirtuosi,betheyofanasceticorcontemplativetype,arealso assignedtheirspecifictaskwithinsuchanorganicorder,justasspecificfunctionshave beenallocatedtoprinces,warriors,judgescraftspersons,andpeasants.Thisvocationto religiousvirtuosiisintendedtoproduceatreasureofexternalgoodworkswhichthe institutionofgracemaythereupondistribute.Bysubmittingoneselftotherevealedtruth andtothecorrectsentimentoflove,theindividualwillachieve,andthatwithinthe

establishedinstitutionsoftheworld,happinessinthisworldandrewardinthelifeto come. (J.3.d.2)IslamicViewpoint ForIslam,thisorganicconceptionanditsentirerelatedproblemsweremuchmore remote,sinceIslamrejecteduniversalism,regardingtheidealstatusrulershipoftheworld andtheunbelievers.Accordingly,Islamleftthegovernedpeoplesentirelytothemselves inallmatterswhichwereofindifferencetotheIslamicregulation.Itistruethatthe mysticalquestforsalvationandasceticvirtuosoreligiondidconflictwithinstitutional orthodoxyintheMuslimreligion.ItisalsotruethatIslamdidexperienceconflicts betweenreligiousandsecularlaw,whichalwaysarisewhenpositivesacrednormsofthe lawhavedeveloped.Finally,Islamdidhavetofacecertainquestionsoforthodoxyinthe theocraticconstitution.ButIslamdidnotconfronttheultimateproblemofthe relationshipbetweenreligiousethicsandsecularorders,whichisaproblemofreligion andnaturallaw. (J.3.d.3)IndianOrganicEthic Ontheotherhand,theHindubooksoflawpromulgatedanorganic,traditionalisticethic ofvocation,similarinstructuretomedievalCatholicism,onlymoreconsistent,and certainlymoreconsistentthantheratherpoorLutherandoctrineregardingthechurchly, political,andeconomicstatus.Aswehavealreadyseen,[148]thestatusorderinIndia actuallycombinedacasteethicwithadistinctivedoctrineofsalvation.Thatis,itheld thatanindividual' schancesofaneverhigherstatusinfutureincarnationsuponearth dependonhavingfulfilledthedutyofone's owncaste,betheyeversodiscriminated socially.Thisbeliefhadtheeffectontheaffirmationofthesocialorder,inthemost radicalsense,especiallyamongthelowestcastes,whichwouldhavemosttogaininany transmigrationofsouls. Ontheotherhand,theHindutheodicywouldhaveregardedasabsurdthemedieval Christiandoctrinethatthestatusdifferencesduringone' sbriefspanofearthlylifewillbe perpetuatedinto"eternal"existenceintheworldbeyond,assetforthforexampleby BeatriceintheDivineComedyofDante.Indeed,suchaviewwouldhavedeprivedthe stricttraditionalismoftheHinduorganicethicofvocationsinceallthehopethatthe piousHindubelieveddependsonthetransmigrationofsoulsintheinfinitecyclesofthe futureandonthepossibilityofanevermoreelevatedformoflifeuponthisearth.Hence, evenfromthepurelyreligiouspointofview,themedievaldoctrineoftheperpetuationof statusdistinctionsintothenextworldhad,amuchlessdegree,theeffectonthe

foundationforthetraditionalstratificationofvocationsthandidthesteellikeanchorage ofcastetothealtogetherdifferentreligiouspromisescontainedinthedoctrineof transmigrationofsoul. (J.3.d.4)MedievalTraditionalismofVocation ThemedievalandtheLutherantraditionalisticethicsofvocation,however,restedon increasinglydiminishinggeneralpresupposition(whichbothsharewiththeConfucian ethic)thatpowerrelationshipsinboththeeconomicandpoliticalspheresareapurely personalcharacter.Inthesespheresoftheexecutionofjusticeandparticularlyinpolitical administration,awholecosmosofpersonalrelationsofsubordinationisdominatedby arbitrarinessandgrace,angerandlove,andmostofallbythepietyrelationshipbetween mastersandsubjects,afterthemodeofthefamily.Thus,thesecharactersofpower relationshipswereappliedtotherealmofethicalpostulateaswellaseveryotherpurely personalrelationship. Yetasweshallseelater,itisquitecertainthatthe"masterlessslavery"ofthemodern propertylesspeople,andaboveallthewholerealmoftherationalinstitutionofthestate "thestateofdevil"soasabominatedbyromanticismnolongerpossessthis personalisticcharacter.[149]Inapersonalisticstatusorderitisquiteclearthatonemust actdifferentlytowardpersonsofdifferentstatus.Theonlyproblemthatmayariseon occasion,evenforThomasAquinas,ishowthisistobeaccordwiththebiblical commandmentthat"notlookingtothefaceofpersons"(sineiraetstudio).[150]Today, however,thepoliticalperson(homopoliticus),aswellastheeconomicperson(homo economicus),performsone's dutybestwhentheoneactswithoutregardtothepersonin question,withouthateandwithoutlove,withoutpersonalfavorandthereforewithout grace,bututterlyinaccordancewiththeimpersonaldutyofone's vocation,andnotasa resultofanyconcretepersonalrelationship.Thepersonofvocationcanfulfillone's responsibilitybestifs/heactsascloselyaspossibleinaccordancewiththerational regulationsofthemodernorders.Modernproceduresofjusticeimposecapital punishmentuponthemalefactor,notoutofpersonalindignationortheneedfor vengeance,butwithcompletedetachmentandforthesakeofobjectivenormsandends, simplyfortheworkingoutoftherationalautonomouslawfulnessinherentinjustice.This iscomparabletotheimpersonalretributionofkarma,incontrasttoYahweh' sfervent questforvengeance.[151] (J.3.e)ModerStateandReligion

Thepoliticalpowerstrugglehasincreasinglybecomeobjectifiedtotheorderofthelegal state.Butfromthepointofviewofreligion,thisismerelythemosteffectivecamouflage ofbrutality,forallpoliticsisorientedtothereasonofstate,thepragmaticandself purposivesustenanceoftheexternalandinternaldistributionofpower.Thesegoalsmust necessarilyseemcompletelymeaninglessfromthereligiouspointofview.Yetonlyin thiswaydoestherealmofpoliticsacquireapeculiarlyrationalpowerofitsown,once formulatedbyNapoleon,whichappearsasthoroughlyalientoeveryethicof brotherlinessasdotherationalizedeconomicorders. Theaccommodationthatcontemporarychurchlyethicsismakingtothissituationneed notbediscussedindetailhere.Ingeneralthecompromisetakesformthroughreactionto eachconcretesituationasitarises.Aboveall,andparticularlyinthecaseofCatholicism, theaccommodationinvolvesthesalvagingofchurchlypowerinterests,whichhave increasinglybecomeobjectifiedintothereasonofchurch,bytheemploymentofthesame moderninstrumentsofpoweremployedbysecularinstitutions. Theobjectificationofthepowerstructure,withthecomplexofproblemsproducedbyits rationalizedethicalconditions,hasbutonepsychologicalequivalent:thevocationalethic ofinnerworldlyasceticism.Anincreasedtendencytowardescapeintotheirrationalities ofapoliticalsentimentindifferentdegreesandforms,isoneoftheactualconsequences oftherationalizationofcoercion,manifestingitselfwherevertheexerciseofpowerhas developedawayfromthepersonalisticorientationofheroesandwherevertheentire societyinquestionhasdevelopedinthedirectionofarational"state."Suchapolitical sentimentmaytaketheformofaflightintomysticismandanacosmisticethicof absolutegoodnessorintotheirrationalitiesofnonreligiousemotionalism,aboveall eroticism.However,thesphereoferoticismalsoentersintostrongtensionswithreligions ofsalvation.Thisisparticularlytrueofthemostpowerfulcomponentoferoticism, namelysexuallove.Forsexuallove,alongwiththe"true"oreconomicinterest,andthe socialandpowerprestige,isamongthemostfundamentalanduniversalcomponentsof theactualcourseofinterpersonalsocialaction. (J.4)ReligiousEthicsAndSexuality Therelationshipofreligiontosexualityisextraordinarilyintimate,thoughitispartly consciousandpartlyunconscious,andthoughitmaybeindirectaswellasdirect.We shallfocusonafewtraitsofthisrelationshipthathavesociologicalrelevance,leavingout ofaccountasbeingratherunimportantforourpurposestheinnumerablerelationshipsof sexualitytomagicalnotions,animisticnotions,andsymbols.

(J.4.a)SexualOrgy Inthefirstplace,sexualintoxicationisatypicalcomponentoftheorgy,aprimitive religiousactionofthelaity.Thefunctionofsexualintoxicationmayberetainedevenin relativelysystematizedreligions,insomecasesquitedirectlyandbycalculation.Thisis thecaseintheShaktireligionofIndia,afterthemodeoftheancientphalliccultsandrites ofthevariousfunctionalgodswhocontrolreproduction,whetherofhuman,beast,cattle, orgrainsofseed.Morefrequently,however,theeroticorgyappearsasanunintentional consequenceofecstasyproducedbyotherorgiasticmeans,particularlythedance.Among modernsects,thiswasstillthecaseinthedanceorgyoftheKhlysty,whichoccasioned thecounterformationoftheSkoptsysect.Aswehaveseen,[152]thentheSkoptsysect soughttoeliminatethiseroticbyproductsohostiletoasceticism.Variousinstitutions whichhaveoftenbeenmisinterpreted,asforexampletempleprostitution,arerelatedto orgiasticcults.[153]Inpractice,templeprostitutionfrequentlyfulfilledthefunctionofa brothelfortravelingtraderswhoenjoyedtheprotectionofthesanctuary.[154]The intoxicationofthesexualorgycan,aswehaveseen,[155]besublimatedexplicitlyor implicitlyintoeroticloveforagodorsavior.Butthenotionthatsexuallovehasa religiousworthinessmayalsoemergefromthesexualorgy,fromtempleprostitution,or fromothermagicalpractices.Herewearenotinterestedinthisaspectofthematter.Yet therecanbenodoubtthataconsiderableportionofthespecificallyantieroticreligiosity, bothmysticalandascetic,dischargessexuallyconditionedphysiologicalneedswithsome formofsubstitution. (J.4.b)ReligiousHostilitytoSexuality Whatconcernsusinthisreligioushostilitytosexualityisnottheneurological relationships,whicharestillcontroversialinimportantaspects,butratherthe "meaningful"contextsofthisrelationship.Forthis"meaning"whichunderliesreligious antipathytosexinagivencasemayproducequitediverseresultsinactualconduct,even iftheneurologicalfactorremainsconstant.Eventheseconsequencesforactionareof onlypartialinteresthere.Themostlimitedmanifestationofthereligiousantipathyto sexualityisculticchastity,atemporaryabstinencefromsexualactivitybythepriestsor participantsinthecultpriortotheadministrationofsacraments.Aprimaryreasonfor suchtemporaryabstinenceisusuallyregardforthenormsoftaboowhichforvarious magicalanddemonicreasonscontrolthesexualsphere.Thedetailsofthismatterdonot concernushere. Ontheotherhand,theenduringabstinenceofcharismaticpriestsandreligiousvirtuosi derivesprimarilyfromtheviewthatchastity,asahighlyextraordinarytypeofbehavior, isasymptomofcharismaticqualitiesandasourceofvaluableecstaticabilities,which

maybeusedfortheforthemagicalcoercionofthegod.Lateron,especiallyin OccidentalChristianity,amajorreasonforpriestlycelibacywasthenecessitythatthe ethicalachievementofthepriestlyincumbentsofchurchlyofficenotlagbehindthatof theasceticvirtuosi,themonks.Anothermajorreasonforthecelibacyoftheclergywas thechurch's interestinpreventingtheinheritanceofitsbeneficesbytheheirsofpriests. Inethicalreligion,twoothermeaningfulrelationshipsofantipathytosexualitydeveloped inplaceofthevarioustypesofmagicalmotivation.Onewastheconceptionofmysticism thatsexualabstinenceisthecentralandindispensablemeansofthequestforsalvation throughcontemplativewithdrawalfromtheworld.Forthemystic,thedriveofsexuality constitutesthemostpowerfultemptation,whichmostfirmlybindsthemystictothe animalityofhumans.Theothermeaningfulrelationshipwasthatofasceticism.Rational asceticalertness,selfcontrol,andmethodicallifearethreatenedthemostbythespecial irrationalityofthesexuality,whichisultimatelyanduniquelyinsusceptibletorational formationoflife.Thesetwomotivationshavefrequentlyoperatedtogethertoproduce hostilitytowardsexualityinparticularreligions.Allgenuinereligiouspropheciesandall nonpropheticpriestlysystematistswithoutexceptionconcernthemselveswithhostility towardsexualityfromsuchmotivesaswehavejustdiscussed. (J.4.c)ReligiousRegulationofSexuality Systematicpriestsattempttoeliminatethesexualorgy(the"whoredom"denouncedby theJewishpriests),whileprophetsdemonstrategeneralhostilitytowardorgies,whichwe havedescribedalready.[156]Butanadditionaleffortismadebythemtoeliminateall freesexualrelationshipsintheinterestofthereligiousregulationandlegitimationof "marriage."SuchaneffortwasevenmadebyMuhammad,althoughinhispersonallife andinhisreligiouspreachmentsregardingtheworldbeyondhepermittedunlimited sexualfreedomtothewarriorofthefaith.Itwillberecalledthatinachapter(suras)of Koranheordainedaspecialdispensationregardingthemaximumnumberofwives permitted.[157]Asathoroughgoingresultofthissexualregulation,thelegalformsof extramartialloveandprostitutionarescarcelyfoundinorthodoxIslamuntilnow. OuterworldlyasceticismoftheChristianandHindutypeswouldobviouslyhavebeen presupposedtherejectionofsexualorgyassuch.ThemysticalHindupropheciesof absoluteandcontemplativeworldflightnaturallymadetherejectionofallsexual relationsaprerequisiteforcompletesalvation.ButeventheConfucianethicofabsolute accommodationtotheworldviewedirregulareroticismasaninferiorirrationality,since itdisturbedtheinnerbalanceofagentlemanandsincewomanwasviewedasan irrationalbeingdifficulttocontrol.AdulterywasprohibitedintheMosaicTen Commandments,intheHindusacredlaw,andevenintherelativisticlayethicsofthe

Hindumonasticprophecies.TheprophecyofJesus,withitsdemandofabsoluteand indissolublemonogamy,wentbeyondallotherreligionsinthelimitationsimposedupon permissibleandlegitimatesexuality.[158]IntheearliestperiodofChristianity,adultery andwhoredomwerealmostregardedastheonlyabsolutemortalsins.Themonogamy wasregardedasthehallmarkoftheChristiancommunityintheMediterraneancostal area,whichhadbeeneducatedbytheGreeksandtheRomansasacustombutwithfree divorce. (J.4.d)WomanandReligion Naturally,thevariousprophetsdifferedwidelyintheirpersonalattitudestowardwoman andherplaceinthecommunity,dependingonthecharacteroftheirprophecy,especially ontheextenttowhichitcorrespondstothedistinctivelyfeminineemotionality.Thefact thataprophetsuchastheBuddhawasgladtoseespiritualwomensittingathisfeet[159] andthefactthatheemployedthemaspropagandistsandmissionaries,[160]asdid Pythagoras,didnotnecessarilycarryoverintoanevaluationofwholesexuality.A womanmightbe"sacred,"yetentiresexualitywouldstillbeconsideredvesselsofsin. Yet,practicallyallorgiasticandmysticcultistreligiouspropaganda,includingthatofthe cultofDionysos,effecteduponatleastatemporaryandrelativeemancipationofwomen, unlesssuchliberationwasblockedbyotherreligioustendenciesorbytherejectionof hystericalpropheticwomen,asoccurredamongthedisciplesoftheBuddhaandin ancientChristianityasearlyasPaul.[161]Theadmissionofwomentoamonasterywas alsoresistedduetosexualtemptation,whichassumedextremeformsinsuchsexual castrationasAlfonsusLiguori(16961787).Womenareaccordedthegreatestimportance insectarianspiritualistcults,betheyhystericalorsacramental,ofwhichthereare numerousinstancesinChina.Wherewomenplayednoroleinthemissionaryofa religion,aswasthecaseinZoroastrianismandJudaism,thesituationwasdifferentfrom theverystart. (J.4.e)Marriage Legallyregulatedmarriageitselfwasregardedbybothpropheticandpriestlyethics,not asaneroticvalue,butinkeepingwiththesoberviewofthesocalled"primitivepeoples," simplyasaneconomicinstitutionfortheproductionandrearingofchildrenasalabor forceandsubsequentlyascarriersofthecultofthedead.Thiswasalsotheviewofthe GreekandRomanethics,andindeedofallethicstheworldoverwhichhavegiven thoughttothematter.TheviewexpressedintheancientHebrewscripturesthattheyoung bridegroomwastobefreeofpoliticalandmilitaryobligationsforawhilesothathe mighthavethejoyofhisyounglovewasaveryrareview.Indeed,notevenJudaism madeanyconcessionstosophisticatederoticexpressionestrangedfromsexuality's

naturalconsequenceofreproduction,asweseeintheOldTestamentcurseupon masturbation,thesinofOnan.[162]RomanCatholicismadoptedthesamerigorous attitudetowardsexualitybyrejectingbirthcontrolasamortalsin(coitusinterruptus).Of courseeveryinnerworldlyasceticism,aboveallPuritanism,limitsthelegitimationof sexuallifetotherationalpurposeofreproduction.Inmysticism,ontheotherhand,the anomicandsemiorgiasticconsequences,whichwerecausedbytheiracosmistic sentimentoflove,areonlyoccasionaldeviationsfromthecentralhostilitytoward sexuality. Finally,thevalueofnormalandlegitimatesexualintercourse,andthustheultimate relationshipbetweenreligionandbiologicalnature,bypropheticethicsandevenpriestly rationalethicsisstillnotuniform.AncientJudaismandConfucianismgenerallytaught thatoffspringwereimportant.Thisview,alsofoundinVedicandHinduethics,was basedinpartonanimisticnotionsandinpartonlaterideas.Allsuchnotionsculminated inthedirectreligiousobligationtobegetchildren.InTalmudicJudaismandinIslam,on theotherhand,themotivationofthecomparableinjunctiontomarryseemstohavebeen based,inpartatleast,liketheexclusionofunmarriedordainedclergyfromthepriestly beneficesintheEasternchurches,ontheviewthatsexualdrivesareabsolutelyirresistible fortheaverageperson,forwhomitisbetterthatalegallyregulatedchannelofsexuality bemadeavailable. Thesestandpointintheinevitabilityofsexualitycorrespondstonotonlytherelativityof layethicsintheHinducontemplativereligionsofsalvation,whichproscribeadulteryfor thelaybeliever(upasakas),butalsotheethicofPaul.Frommysticalmotivationswhich weneednotdescribehere,Paulviewedabsoluteabstinenceasthepurelypersonal charismaofreligiousvirtuosi.ThelayethicofCatholicismalsofollowedthispointof view.Further,thiswastheattitudeofLuther,whoregardedsexualitywithinmarriage simplyasalesserevilfortheavoidanceofwhoredom.Lutherinterpretedmarriageasa legitimatesinwhichGodwasconstrainednottonotice,sotospeak,andwhichwasa consequenceoftheinevitablelustresultingfromoriginalsin.Thisnotion,similarto Muhammad's notion,partlyaccountsforLuther' srelativelyweakoppositionto monasticismatfirst.TherewastobenosexualityinJesus'Na tionofGod,[163]thatis, thefuturenationoftheearth,andallofficialChristiantheorystronglyrejectedtheinner emotionalvalueofsexualityasconstituting"lust,"theresultoforiginalsin. (J.4.f)RiseofEroticism Despitethewidespreadbeliefthathostilitytowardsexualityisaspecialviewof Christianity,itmustbeemphasizedthatnodistinctivereligionofsalvationhadin principleanyotherview.Thereareanumberofreasonsforthis.Thefirstisbasedonthe

typeofsocialdevelopment,inwhichsexualityitselfincreasinglyunderwentinactuallife, asaresultoftherationalizationoftheconditionsoflife.Attheeraofthepeasant,the sexualactisaneverydayoccurrence;primitivepeoplemayindeedenactitbeforethe eyesofonlookingtravelerswithouttheslightestfeelingofshame.Theydonotregard sexualactashavinganysignificancebeyondtheeverydayliving.Thedecisive development,fromtheviewpointofourproblems,isthesublimationofsexualityinto "eroticism"onthebasisofspecialsensations,hencegeneratesitsownuniquevaluesand extraordinariness.Therestrictionstosexualintercoursethatareincreasinglyinstalledby theeconomicinterestsofclansandbystatusconventionsarethemostimportantfactors ofthissublimation.Tobesure,sexualrelationswereneverfreeofreligiousoreconomic regulationsatanyknownstageofsocialdevelopment,butoriginallytheywerefarless surroundedbybondsofconvention,whichgraduallyattachthemselvestotheeconomic restrictionsuntiltheysubsequentlybecomemajorrestrictionsonsexuality. Theattributionthattheoriginof"prostitution"wasthemodernethicalrestrictionupon sexualrelations,isalmostalwaysfalseinterpretation.Professionalprostitutionofboth theheterosexualandhomosexualtypes(notethetrainingoflesbian)isfoundevenatthe mostprimitivelevelsofculture,andeverywherethereissomereligious,military,or economicrestrictionuponprostitution.However,theabsoluteprohibitionofprostitution datesonlyfromtheendofthefifteenthcentury.Asculturebecomesmorecomplex,there isaconstantlyincreasingrestrictionofsexualliferequiredbythekinshipinregardto providingsecurityforthechildrenofafemalemember,andalsointhelivingstandardsof youngmarriedcouples.Therebyanotherdevelopmentalfactorbecomesmoreimportant. Thatistheriseofincreasinglyrationalizedtotalexistenceofhumanlife,whichdepart fromsimpleorganiccycleofpenaltyexistence.Thisrationalizedlifehasafarstrong effectontherelationofethic,thoughitisleastnoticed. (J.5)ReligiousEthicAndArt (J.5.a)InitialIntimacybetweenReligionandArt Justasethicalreligion,especiallyofbrotherlylove,entersintothedeepestinnertensions withthestrongestirrationalpowerofpersonallife,namelysexuality,soalsodoesethical religionenterintoastrongtensionwiththesphereofart.Religionandartaremost intimateinthebeginning.Thatreligionhasbeenaninexhaustiblespringforartistic creationisevidentfromtheexistenceofidolsandiconsofeveryvariety,andfromthe existenceofmusicasameansofecstasyorofexorcismandapotropaicculticactions. Religionhasstimulatedtheartisticactivitiesofmagiciansandsacredbards,aswellasthe constructionoftemplesandchurches(thegreatestofartisticproductions),togetherwith thecreationofreligiousgarmentsandchurchvesselsofallsorts,thechiefobjectsofthe

artsandcrafts.Butthemoreartbecomesanautonomoussphere,whichhappensasa resultoflayeducation,themorearttendstoacquireitsownsetofconstitutivevalues, whicharequitedifferentfromethicalreligiousvalues (J.5.b)RiseofEstheticIntellectualism Everyunreflectivelyreceptiveapproachtoartstartsfromthesignificanceoftheartistic contentthatmayinduceformationofacommunity.Buttheconscioussearchfor uniquelyestheticvaluesbecomesdominantinanintellectualistcivilization.This developmentdiminishesthoseelementsinartwhichareconducivetocommunity formationandarecompatibletothequestforreligioussalvation.However,fromthe viewpointofreligioussalvation,anyartwhichclamstobringestheticsalvationinthis worldisantigod.Theseartisticandantiethicalsalvationisreprehensiveforethical religionaswellastruemysticreligion.Thisconflictbetweenartandreligionreaches climaxingenuineasceticismwhichviewsanysurrendertoestheticvaluesasaserious breachintherationalsystematizationoftheconductoflife.Furthermorethistension increaseswiththeadvanceofintellectualism,whichswitchesethicalconductintoesthetic behavior.Therejectionofresponsibilityforethicaljudgmentandtheescapefrom traditionalbound,whichcometodominantinintellectualistperiods,shiftjudgments whoseintentionwasoriginallyethicalintoanestheticsense.Typicalistheshiftfromthe judgment"reprehensible"tothejudgment"inpoortaste."Butthisunappealable subjectivityofallestheticjudgmentsabouthumanrelationshipsinthecultofestheticism, maywellberegardedbygenuinereligionasoneofthemostserioustypeoflovelessness conjoinedwithcowardice.Clearlythereisasharpcontrastbetweentheestheticattitude andreligioethicalnorms,sinceevenwhentheindividualrejectsethicalnormss/he neverthelessexperiencesthemhumanlyinone' sowncreatureliness.S/heassumessome suchnormtobebasicforone' sownconductaswellasanother's conductintheparticular casewhichs/heisjudging.Moreover,itisassumedinprinciplethatthejustificationand consequencesofareligioethicalnormremainsubjecttodiscussion.Atallevents,the estheticattitudeoffersnosupporttoaconsistentethicofbrotherliness,whichinitsturn hasaclearlyantiestheticorientation. (J.5.c)PropheticAntipathyofArt Thereligiousdevaluationofart,whichusuallyparallelsthereligiousdevaluationof magical,orgiastic,ecstatic,andritualisticelementsinfavorofascetic,spiritualistic,and mysticalvirtues,isintensifiedbytherationalandliterarycharacterofbothpriestlyand layeducationinscripturalreligions.Butaboveallgenuineprophecyexertsaninfluence hostiletoartintwodirections.First,prophecyobviouslyrejectsorgiasticpracticesand usuallyrejectsmagic.Thus,theprimalJewishfearof"imagesandlikenesses,"which

originallyhadamagicalbasis,wasgivenaspiritualisticinterpretationbyHebrew prophecyandtransformedinrelationtoaconceptofanabsoluteandtranscendentalgod. Second,thetensionbetweentheethicalprophecyandartliessomewherethelineofthe propheticviewthat"theworkofhumanhandisonlyanillusionaryofsalvation.The morethegodproclaimedbytheprophetswasconceivedastranscendentalandsacred,the moreinsolubleandirreconcilablebecamethistensionbetweenreligionandart. (J.5.d)ReligiousInterestsinArt Ontheotherhand,religioniscontinuallybroughttorecognizetheundeniable"divinity" ofartisticachievement.Massreligioninparticularisfrequentlyanddirectlydependent on"artistic"devicesforitsdrasticeffects,anditisinclinedtomakeconcessionstothe needsofthemasses,whicheverywhereisfilledwithmagicandidolatry.Apartfromthis, organizedmassreligionshavefrequentlyhadconnectionswithartresultingfrom economicinterests,as,forinstance,inthecaseofthecommerceoficonsbythe Byzantinemonks,themostdecisiveopponentofthecaesaropapistImperialpowerwhich wassupportedbyanarmythatwasiconoclasticbecauseitwasrecruitedfromthe marginalprovincesofIslam,stillstronglyspiritualisticatthattime.Theimperialpower, inturn,attemptedtocutoffthemonksfromthissourceofincome,hopingthustodestroy theeconomicstrengthofthismostdangerousopponenttoitsrulershipoverthechurch. Subjectivelytoo,thereisaneasywaybacktoartfromeveryorgiasticorritualistic religionofmood,aswellasfromeverymysticreligionoflovethatspringsfrom acosmisticsentiment,despitetheheterogeneityoftheultimatemeaningsinvolved. Orgiasticreligionleadsmostreadilytosongandmusic;ritualisticreligioninclines towardthepictorialarts;mysticreligionsoflovefavorpoetryandmusic.Allexperience overtheworldhistoryshowsthisrelationship:Hinduliteratureandart,thejoyous lyricismoftheSufis,soutterlyreceptivetotheworld;thecanticlesofFrancisofAssisi; andtheimmeasurableinfluencesofreligioussymbolism,particularlyinmystically conditionedmood.Yetparticularempiricalreligionsholdbasicallydifferentattitudes towardart,andevenwithinanyonereligiondiverseattitudestowardartaremanifested bydifferentstrata,carriers,andstructuralforms.Intheirattitudestowardart,prophets differfrommysterycultistsandpriests,monksfrompiouslaypersons,andmassreligions fromsectsofvirtuosi.Sectsofasceticvirtuosiarenaturallymorehostiletoartin principlethanaresectsofmysticalvirtuosi.Butthesemattersarenotourmajorconcern here.Atallevents,anyrealinnercompromisebetweenthereligiousandtheesthetic attitudesinrespecttotheirultimate(subjectivelyintended)meaningisrendered increasinglydifficultoncethestagesofmagicandpureritualismhavebeenleftbehind. (J.5.e)RationalReligion' sRejectionofArt

Inallthis,theoneimportantfactforusisthesignificanceofthemarkedrejectionofall distinctivelyestheticmeansbythosereligionswhicharerational,inourspecialsense. ThesearesynagogueJudaism,ancientChristianity,andlateronasceticProtestantism. Theirrejectionofartsiseitherasymptomoradeviceofreligion's increasinglyrational influenceupontheconductoflife.Itisperhapsgoingtoofartoassertthatthesecond commandmentoftheTenCommandmentsisthedecisivefoundationofactualJewish rationalism,assomerepresentativesofinfluentialJewishreformmovementshave assumed.Buttherecanbenoquestionatallthatthesystematicprohibitionindevout JewishandPuritancirclesofunrestraineddevotiontothedistinctivevaluesofartform haseffectivelybaredtheartisticproductivityinthesecircles,andhasturnedtheeffecton theintellectualproductivityandthedevelopmentofrationalmethodicalconductoflife. (K)RELIGIONSANDTHEWORLD (K.1)Judaism:Worldaccommodated Judaism,initspostexilicandparticularlyitsTalmudicform,belongsamongthose religionsthatareinsomesense"accommodated"totheworld.Judaismisatleastoriented totheworldinthesensethatitdoesnot"rejecttheworld"assuchbutonlyrejectsthe dominationsocialrankorderintheworld. (K.1.a)AbsenceofAsceticism Wehavealreadymadesomeobservationsconcerningthetotalsociologicalcharacteristic ofJudaism.[164]Itsreligiouspromises,intheintendedmeaningoftheword,areofthis world,andanynotionsofcontemplativeorasceticworldflightareasrareinJudaismas inChinesereligionandinProtestantism.JudaismdiffersfromPuritanismmainlyinthe relative(asalways)absenceofsystematicasceticism.Theasceticelementsoftheearly ChristianreligiondidnotderivefromJudaism,butemergedprimarilyintheheathen ChristiancommunitiesofthePaulinemission.TheobservanceoftheJewish"law"hasas littletodowith"asceticism"asthefulfillmentofanyritualortabooisticnorms. Moreover,therelationshipoftheJewishreligiontobothwealthandsexuallifeisnotin theleastascetic,butratherhighlynaturalistic.ForwealthwasregardedasagiftofGod, andthesatisfactionofthesexualimpulsionnaturallyintheprescribedlegalformwas thoughttobesoimperativethattheTalmudactuallyregardedapersonwhohadremained unmarriedafteracertainageasmorallysuspect.Theinterpretationofmarriageasan economicinstitutionfortheproductionandrearingofchildrenisuniversalandhas

nothingspecificallyJewishaboutit.Judaism's strictprohibitionofillegitimatesexual intercourse,aprohibitionthatwashighlyeffectiveamongthepious,wasalsofoundin Islamandallotherpropheticreligions,aswellasinHinduism.Moreover,themajorityof ritualisticreligionssharedwithJudaismtheperiodsofabstentionfromsexualrelations forpurposesofpurification.Forthesereasons,itisnotpossibletospeakofaspecific meaningofsexualasceticisminJudaism.Thesexualregulationsdonotgoasfarasthe Catholiccasuistryoftheseventeenthcenturyandinanycasehaveanalogiesinmany othercasuisticsystemsoftaboo.[165]NordidJudaismforbidtheunrestrained enjoymentoflifeorevenofluxuryassuch,providedthatthepositiveprohibitionsand taboosofthe"law"wereobserved.Thedenunciationofwealthinthepropheticbooks, thePsalms,theWisdomliterature,andsubsequentwritingswasevokedbythesocial injusticeswhichweresofrequentlyperpetratedagainstfellowJewsinconnectionwith theacquisitionofwealthandinviolationofthespiritoftheMosaiclaw.Wealthwasalso condemnedinresponsetoarrogantdisregardofthecommandmentsandpromisesofGod andinresponsetotheriseoftemptationstolaxityinreligiousobservance.Toescapethe temptationsofwealthisnoteasy,butisforthisreasonallthemoreadmirable:"Hailto thepersonofwealthwhohasbeenfoundtobeblameless."Moreover,sinceJudaism possessednodoctrineofpredestinationandnocomparableideaproducingthesame ethicaleffects,incessantlaborandsuccessinbusinesslifecouldnotberegardedor interpretedinthesenseof"proving,"whichappearsmoststronglyamongtheCalvinist PuritansandwhichisfoundtosomeextentinallasceticProtestantreligions,asshownin JohnWesley's remarkonthispoint.[166]Ofcourseacertaintendencytoregardsuccess inone'se conomicactivityasasignofGod' sgraceforobedienceisselfevidentinthe religionoftheJews,asinthereligionsoftheChineseandthelayBuddhistsandgenerally ineveryreligionthatisnotthereligiosityofworldrejection.Thisviewwasespecially likelytobemanifestedbyareligionlikeJudaism,whichhadbeforeitveryspecific promisesofatranscendentalGodtogetherwithveryvisiblesignsofthisGod' s indignationagainstthepeoplehehadchosen.Itisclearthatanysuccessachievedinone's economicactivitieswhilekeepingthecommandmentsofGodcouldbe,andindeedhadto be,interpretedasasignthatonewaspersonallypleasedbyGod.Thisactuallyoccurred againandagain. (K.1.b)JewishEconomicEthos ButthesituationofthepiousJewengagedinbusinesswasaltogetherdifferentfromthat ofthePuritan,andthisdifferenceremainedofpracticalsignificancefortheroleof Judaisminthehistoryoftheeconomy.Letusnowconsiderwhatwerethedistinctive economicachievementsofJudaismintheMiddleAgesandinmodemtimes?[167]We caneasilylist:moneylending,frompawnbrokingtothefinancingofgreatstates;certain typesofcommoditybusiness,particularlyretailing,peddling,andproducetradeofa distinctivelyruraltype,certainbranchesofwholesalebusiness:andtradinginsecurities, aboveallthebrokerageofstocks.TothislistofJewisheconomicachievementsshouldbe

added:moneychanging;moneyforwardingorcheckcashing,whichnormally accompaniesmoneychanging;thefinancingofstateagencies,wars,andthe establishmentofcolonialenterprises;taxfarming(naturallyexcludingthecollectionof prohibitedtaxessuchasthosedirectedtotheRomans);banking;credit;andthefloating ofbondissues.Butofallthesebusinessesonlyafew,thoughsomeveryimportantones, displaytheforms,bothlegalandeconomic,characteristicofmodernOccidental capitalism(ascontrastedtothecapitalismofancienttimes,theMiddleAges,andthe earlierperiodinEasternAsia).Thedistinctivelymodernlegalformsincludesecurities andcapitalistassociations,butthesearenotofspecificallyJewishprovenience.TheJews introducedsomeoftheseformsintotheOccident,buttheformsthemselveshaveperhaps acommonOriental(probablyBabylonian)origin,andtheirinfluenceontheOccident wasmediatedthroughHellenisticandByzantinesources.Inanyeventtheywerecommon toboththeJewsandtheArabs.Itiseventruethatthespecificallymodernformsofthese institutionswereinpartOccidentalandmedievalcreations,withsomespecifically Germanicinfusionsofinfluence.Toadducedetailedproofofthisherewouldtakeustoo farafield.However,itcanbesaidbywayofexamplethattheExchange,asa"marketof tradesmen,"wascreatednotbyJewsbutbyChristianmerchants.Again,theparticular mannerinwhichmedievallegalconceptswereadaptedtothepurposesofrationalized economicenterprise,namely,thewayinwhichthelimitedpartnerships(encommandite), privilegedcompaniesofallkindsandfinallyjointstockcorporationswerecreated,[168] wasnotatalldependentonspecificallyJewishinfluences,nomatterhowlargeapart Jewslaterplayedintheformationofsuchrationalizedeconomicenterprises.Finally,it mustbenotedthatthecharacteristicallymodernprinciplesofsatisfyingpublicand privatecreditneedsfirstaroseonthesoilofthemedievalcity.Thesemedievallegal formsoffinance,whichwerequitenonJewishincertainrespects,werelateradaptedto theeconomicneedsofmodernstatesandothermodernrecipientsofcredit. Aboveall,oneelementparticularlycharacteristicofmoderncapitalismwasstrikingly thoughnotcompletelymissingfromtheextensivelistofJewisheconomicactivities. Thiswastheorganizationofproductionallaborindomesticindustryandinthefactory system.HowdoesoneexplainthefactthatnopiousJewthoughtofestablishingan industryemployingpiousJewishworkersoftheghetto(assomanypiousPuritan entrepreneurshaddonewithdevoutChristianworkersandcraftspersons)attimeswhen numerousproletarianswerepresentintheghettos,princelypatentsandprivilegesforthe establishmentofanysortofindustrywereavailableforafinancialcompensation,and areasofindustrialactivityuncontrolledbyguildmonopolywereopen?Again,howdoes oneexplainthefactthatnomodernanddistinctivelyindustrialandpropertiedcitizenof anysignificanceemergedamongtheJewstoemploytheJewishworkersavailablefor homeindustry,despitethepresenceofnumerousimpecuniouscraftspersongroupsat almostthethresholdofthemodernperiod?

Allovertheworld,forseveralmillennia,thecharacteristicformsofthepremodern capitalistenterpriseofwealthhavebeenstateprovisioning,taxfarming,thefinancingof colonies,theestablishmentofgreatplantations,trade,andmoneylending.OnefindsJews involvedinjusttheseactivities,foundatalltimesandplacesbutespeciallycharacteristic ofAntiquity,justasJewsareinvolvedinthoselegalandentrepreneurialformscreatedby theMiddleAgesbutnotbythem.Ontheotherhand,theJewswerealtogetherabsent fromthenewanddistinctiveformsofmoderncapitalism,therationalorganizationof labor,especiallyinproductionandindustrial"enterprise."TheJewsevincedtheancient andmedievalbusinessethoswhichhadbeenandremainedtypicalofallgenuinetraders, whethersmallbusinessmenorlargescalemoneylenders,inAntiquity,theFarEast,India, theMediterraneancostalarea,andtheOccidentoftheMiddleAgesthewillandthewit toemploymercilesslyeverychanceofprofit,"forthesakeofprofittoridethroughHell evenifitsingesthesails."Butthisethosisfarfromdistinctiveofmoderncapitalism,as distinguishedfromthecapitalismofothereras.Preciselythereverseistrue.Hence, neitherthatwhichisnewinthemoderneconomicsystemnorthatwhichisdistinctiveof themoderneconomicethosisspecificallyJewishinorigin. (K.1.c)DoubleStandardsofMorals Theultimateprinciplereasonsforthisfactthatthedistinctiveelementsofmodern capitalismoriginatedanddevelopedquiteapartfromtheJews,aretobefoundinthe peculiarcharacteroftheJewsasapariahpeopleanditsreligiosity.Theirreligiosity presentedpurelyexternaldifficultiesimpedingtheirparticipationintheorganizationof industriallabor.ThelegallyandfactuallyprecariouspositionoftheJewshardly permittedcontinuousandrationalizedindustrialenterprisewithfixedcapital,butonly tradeandabovealldealinginmoney.Alsooffundamentalimportancewastheinner ethicalsituationoftheJews.Asapariahpeople,theyretainedthedoublestandardof moralswhichischaracteristicofprimordialeconomicpracticeinallcommunities:what isprohibitedto"one' sbrothers"ispermittedinrelationtostrangers.Itisunquestionable thattheJewishethicwasthoroughlytraditionalisticindemandingofJewsanattitudeof "sustenance"towardfellowJews.Althoughtherabbismadeconcessionsinthesematters eveninregardtobusinesstransactionswithfellowJews,[169]thisamountedmerelyto concessionstolaxity,wherebythosewhotookadvantageofthemremainedfarbehindthe higheststandardsofJewishbusinessethics.Inanycase,itiscertainthatsuchbehavior wasnottherealminwhichaJewhadto"demonstrate"hisreligiousqualification. However,fortheJewstheeconomicrelationswithstrangers,particularlyeconomic relationsprohibitedinregardtofellowJews,wasanareaofethicalindifference.Thisis ofcoursetheprimordialeconomicethicofallpeopleseverywhere.Thatthishave remainedtheJewisheconomicethicwasaselfevidentfactthatinAntiquitythestranger encounteredtheJewalmostalwaysasan"enemy."Allthewellknownadmonitionsof

therabbisenjoiningfairnessespeciallytowardGentilescouldnotchangethefactthatthe religiouslawprohibitedtakingusuryfromfellowJewsbutpermitteditintransactions withnonJews.Norcouldtherabbinicalcounselsalterthefactthatalesserdegreeof exemplarylegalitywasrequiredbythelawindealingwithastranger,namely,anenemy, thanindealingwithanotherJew,insuchamatterastakingadvantageofanerrormade bytheotherparty.[170]Infine,noproofisrequiredtoestablishthatthepariahcondition oftheJews,whichwehaveseenresultedfromthepromisesofYahweh,andtheresulting incessanthumiliationoftheJewsbyGentilesnecessarilyledtotheJewishpeople's retainingadifferenteconomicmoralityforitsrelationswithstrangersthanwithfellow Jews. (K.1.d)Jew,Catholic,andPuritan LetussummarizethecontrastsamongCatholics,Jews,andProtestantsinregardto economicacquisition. ThedevoutCatholicdisregardsorrestrictseconomicacquisitionsinceitviolatespapal injunctions;economicacquisitioncouldbeignoredintheconfessionalonlyonthe principleof"thingsstandingunchanged,"anditcouldbepermissibleonlyonthebasisof alax,probabilisticmorality.Toacertainextent,therefore,thebusinesslifeitselfhadto beregardedasreprehensibleor,atbest,asnotpositivelypleasingtoGod. Ontheotherhad,piousJewsconductedeconomicactivitiesamongChristiansinthe inevitablesituationsandconditionswhichifperformedamongJewswouldhavebeen regardedbytheJewishcommunityasunequivocallycontrarytothelaworatleastas suspecttotheJewishtradition.Atbesteconomicacquisitionwaspermissibleonthebasis ofalaxinterpretationoftheJudaicreligiouslaw,andthenonlyinrelationtostrangers. Neverweretheyinfusedwithpositiveethicalvalue.Thus,theJew' seconomicconduct appearedtobepermittedbyGod,intheabsenceofanyformalcontradictionwiththe religiouslawoftheJews,butethicallyindifferent,inviewofsuchconduct' s correspondencewiththeaverageevilsinthesociety' seconomy.Thisisthebasisof whateverfactualtruththerewasintheobservationsconcerningtheinferiorstandardof economiclegalityamongJews.ThatGodcrownedsucheconomicactivitywithsuccess couldbeasigntotheJewishbusinessmanthathehaddonenothingclearlyobjectionable orprohibitedinthisareaandthatindeedhehadheldfasttoGod' scommandmentsin otherareas.ButitwouldstillhavebeendifficultfortheJewtodemonstratehisethical qualificationbycharacteristicallymoderneconomicacquisition.

ButthiswaspreciselythecasewiththepiousPuritanwhoengagedeconomicprofit makingnotthroughanylaxinterpretationsofreligiousethicorstandardsofdouble moralities,northroughthemannerofethicalindifference.Onthecontrary,thePuritan hadtoengageeconomicactivitieswiththebestpossibleconscience,sincethroughone's rationalisticandlegalactioninbusiness"enterprise"theonewasfactuallyobjectifying therationalmethodologyoftotalconductoflife.ThePuritanlegitimatedone' sethical behaviorinone' sowneyes,andindeedwithinthecircleofone's religiousassociates,by theextenttowhichtheabsolutenotrelativizedproofofone'se conomicconduct remainedbeyondquestion.NopiousPuritanandthisisthecrucialpointcouldhave regardedaspleasingtoGodanyprofitderivedfromusury,exploitationofanother' s mistake(whichwaspermissibletotheJew),hagglingandsharpdealing,orparticipation inpoliticalorcolonialexploitation.QuakersandBaptistsbelievedtheirreligious qualificationtobedemonstratedbeforeallhumankindbysuchpracticesastheirfixed pricesandtheirabsolutelyreliablebusinessrelationshipswitheveryone,unconditionally legalandnothingofgreediness.Preciselysuchpracticespromotedtheirreligioustotrade withPuritansratherthanwiththeirownkind,andtoentrusttheirmoneytothetrust companiesorlimitedliabilityenterprisesofthePuritansratherthanthoseoftheirown peopleallofwhichmadethePuritanswealthy,evenastheirbusinesspracticesmay provetheirreligiousqualificationbeforetheirGod. (K.1.e)JewishIntellectualism (K.1.e.1)JewishIdeal Bycontrast,theJewishlawconcerningtostrangers,whichinpracticewasthepariahlaw oftheJews,enabledthem,notwithstandinginnumerablereservations,toengagelax businesspracticewithnonJewswhichthePuritansrejectedpatheticallyasthegreediness ofthetrader.YetthepiousJewcouldcombinesuchanattitudewithstrictlegality,with completefulfillmentofthelaw,withalltheinwardnessofhisreligion,withthemost sacrificialloveforhisfamilyandcommunity,andindeedwithpityandmercytowardall God'sc reatures.Forinviewofthelawsregardingstrangers,Jewishpietyneverinactual practiceregardedtherealmofpermittedeconomicbehaviorasoneinwhichthe genuinenessofaperson' sobediencetoGod'sc ommandmentscouldbedemonstrated.The piousJewnevergaugedhisinnerethicalstandardsbywhatheregardedaspermissiblein theeconomiccontext.JustastheConfucianidealoflifewasthegentlemanwhohad undergoneacomprehensiveeducationinceremonialestheticsandliteratureandwho devotedlifelongstudytotheclassics,sotheJewsetupastheidealoflifethescholar learnedinthelawanditscasuistry,the"intellectual"whocontinuouslystudiedthesacred Scriptureandcommentariesattheexpenseofone'sbus iness,whichwasveryfrequently lefttothemanagementofhiswife.

(K.1.e.2)Jesus'Oppos ition ItwasthisintellectualistandliteralcharacterofauthenticlateJudaismthatJesusopposed against.[171]Hisoppositionwasnotmotivatedby"proletarian"instincts,whichsome haveattributedtohim,butratherbyhistypeofpietyandhiswayofobservingthelaw, bothofwhichwerecharacteristictotheruralcraftspersonortheinhabitantofasmall town,andconstitutedhisbasicoppositiontothevirtuosioflegalisticknowledgewhohad grownuponthesoilofthecitystateofJerusalem.Membersofsuchurbanlegalistic circlesasked:"WhatgoodcancomeoutofNazareth?"[172]Thekindofquestionthat mighthavebeenposedbyanydwellerofametropolisintheclassicalworld.Jesus' knowledgeofthelawandhisobservanceofitwasrepresentativeofthataveragelawful menofpracticalwork,whocouldnothelpbutlettheirsheeplieinwellsontheSabbath. [173] (K.1.e.3)UrbanJudaism Ontheotherhand,thegenuinepiousJews'knowledge ofthelawaswellastheir legalisticeducationoftheyoungsurpassedbothquantitativelyandqualitativelythe familiaritywiththeBiblecharacteristicofthePuritans.Thescopeofreligiouslawof whichknowledgewasobligatoryforthepiousJewmaybecomparedonlywiththescope ofrituallawsamongtheHindusandPersians,buttheJewishlawfarexceededtheseinits inclusionofethicalprescriptionsbeyondmerelyritualandtabooisticnorms. TheeconomicbehavioroftheJewssimplymovedinthedirectionofleastresistance whichwaspermittedthembytheselegalisticethicalnorms.Thismeantinpracticethat the"desireofacquisition,"whichisfoundinvaryingdegreesinallgroupsandnations, washeredirectedprimarilytotradewithstrangers,whowereusuallyregardedas enemies. EvenatthetimeofJosiahandcertainlyinthepostexilicperiod(500100BC),thepious Jewwasanurbandweller,andtheentireJewishlawwasorientedtothisurbanstatus. SincetheorthodoxJewrequiredtheservicesofaritualslaughterer,hehadnecessarilyto liveinacommunityratherthaninisolation.Eventodayresidentialgatheringis characteristicoforthodoxJewswhentheyarecontrastedwithreformedJews,asfor exampleintheUnitedStates.Similarly,theSabbaticalyear,whichinitspresentformis probablyaproductofpostexilicurbanscholarslearnedinthelaw,madeitimpossiblefor Jewstocarryonsystematicintensivecultivationoftheland.Evenatthepresenttime (1915),GermanrabbisendeavortoapplytheprescriptionoftheSabbaticalyeartoZionist colonizationinPalestine,whichwouldberuinedthereby.IntheageofthePhariseesa

"rural"Jewwasofsecondrank,sincehedidnotandcouldnotobservethelawstrictly. JewishlawalsoprohibitedtheparticipationofJewsinthebanquetsoftheguilds,infact, alltablecommunitywithnonJews;inAntiquityaswellasintheMiddleAgestable communitywastheindispensablefoundationforanykindofcivicintegrationinthe surroundingworld.Ontheotherhand,theJewishinstitutionofthe"dowry,"commonto theOrientandbasedoriginallyontheexclusionofdaughtersfrominheritance,favored theestablishingoftheJewishgroomatmarriageasasmallshopkeeper.Tracesofthis phenomenonarestillapparentintherelativelyundeveloped"classconsciousness"of Jewishshopclerks. Inalldealingswithforeigners,aswellasfellowfolkswehavejustdiscussed,theJew likethepiousHinduwasregulatedbyscruplesconcerningtheLaw.Genuinestudyof theLawcouldbecombinedmosteasilywiththeoccupationofmoneylendingwhich requiresrelativelylittlecontinuouslabor.[174]Jewishlegalismandintellectualist educationofthelawwastheoutcomeoftheJew's methodologyoflifeandits "rationalism."ItisaprescriptionoftheTalmudthat"amanmustneverchangea practice."Onlyintherealmofeconomicrelationshipswithstrangers,andinnootherarea oflife,didtraditionleaveasphereofbehaviorthatwasrelativelyindifferentethically. Indeed,theentiredomainofthingsrelevantbeforeGodwasdeterminedbytraditionand thesystematiccasuistryconcernedwithitsinterpretation,ratherthandeterminedby rationalpurposesderivedfrom"naturallaw"andorientedwithoutfurtherpresupposition tomethodicalaction.The"rationalizing"effectoftheJewishfearofGod' sLawis thoroughlypervasivebutentirelyindirect. (K.1.f)Selfcontrol Selfcontrolusuallyaccompaniedby"watchfulness,"steadiness,andcalmnesswas foundamongConfucians,Puritans,Buddhistandothertypesofmonks,Arableader (sheiks),andRomansenators,aswellasamongJews.Butthebasisandsignificanceof selfcontrolweredifferentineachcase.ThewatchfulselfcontrolofthePuritanflowed fromthenecessityofovercomingallcreaturelystimulitoarationalandmethodical conductoflifefortheinterestofthecertaintyofsalvation.Theselfcontrolofthe Confucianwasmotivatedbythenecessitytomaintainclassicallyeducatedgentlemen's proprietyandsenseofdignity,disesteemingcommoner'sirr ationality.Ontheotherhand, theselfcontrolofthedevoutJewofancienttimeswasaconsequenceofthe preoccupationwiththeLawinwhichone's wayofthinkinghadbeenschooled,andofthe necessityofone's continuousconcernwiththeLaw' sprecisefulfillment.ThepiousJew' s selfcontrolwasformedinaconsciouscoloringandeffectuponfollowingtenets:onlythe Jewpossessedthislaw,forwhichreasontheworldpersecutedthemandimposed degradationuponthem;yetthislawwasbindingtoallotherpeopleaswell;andoneday, byanactthatmightcomesuddenlyatanytimebutthatnoonecouldaccelerate,God

wouldtransformthesocialstructureoftheworld,creatingamessianicrealmforthose whohadremainedfaithfultoHislaw.ThepiousJewknewthatinnumerablegenerations hadawaitedthismessianicevent,despiteallmockery,andwerecontinuingtoawaitit. ThisproducedinthepiousJewacertain"overwakefulness."Butsinceitremained necessaryfortheJewtocontinuewaitinginvain,s/henurturedone' ssenseofselfesteem byameticulousobservanceofthelawforitsownsake.Lastbutnotleast,thepiousJew hadalwaystostayonguard,neverpermittingone's selfthefreeexpressionofemotions againstpowerfulandmercilessenemies.Thisrepressionwasinevitablycombinedwith theaforementioned[175]inevitableeffectofthesentimentof"resentment"whichderived fromYahweh' spromisesandtheresultingunparalleledsufferingsofthispeople. (K.1.g)JewishRationalism ThesecircumstancesbasicallydeterminedtherationalismofJudaism,butthisisnot "asceticism"inoursense.Tobesure,thereare"ascetic"traitsinJudaism,buttheyarenot central.Rather,theyarebyproductsofthelaworproductsofthepeculiartensionsof Jewishpiety.Inanycase,ascetictraitsareofsecondaryimportanceinJudaism,asare anymysticaltraitsdevelopedwithinthisreligion.Weneedsaynothingmorehereabout Jewishmysticism,sinceneitherKabalaism,Hasidismnoranyofitsotherforms whateversymptomaticimportancetheyheldforJewsproducedanysignificant motivationstowardpracticalbehaviorintheeconomicsphere. TheJew' s"ascetic"aversionofeverythingestheticwasoriginallybasedonthesecond commandmentoftheTenCommandments,whichactuallypreventedtheoncewell developedangelologyoftheJewsfromassumingartisticform.Butanotherimportant causeofaversiontothingsestheticisthepurelyeducationalandliteralcharacterofthe worshipinthesynagogue,evenasitwaspracticedintheDiaspora,longbeforethe destructionoftheTemplecultinthe6thcenturyBC.Evenatthattime,Hebrewprophecy hadvirtuallyremovedartisticelementsfromthecult,effectivelyexterminatingorgiastic, orchestral,anddancingactivities.ItisofinterestthatRomanreligionandPuritanism pursuedsimilarpathsinregardtoestheticelements,thoughforreasonsquitedifferent fromtheJewishreasons.Thus,amongtheJewstheplasticarts,painting,anddrama lackedthosepointsofdevelopmentwithreligionwhichwereelsewherequitenormal. Thisisthereasonforthemarkeddecreaseofsecularpoetryandespeciallyoftheerotic sublimationofsexuality,whencontrastedwiththemarkedsensualityoftheearlierSong ofSolomon.ThebasisofallthisistobefoundinthenaturalismoftheJewishethical treatmentofsexuality. AllthesetraitsofJudaismarecharacterizedbyoneoveralltheme:thatthesilent,faithful, andlongingexpectationofaredemptionfromthehellishexistenceofthelifeburdened

uponthechosenpeopleofGod(anddefinitelychosen,despitetheirpresentstatus)was againandagainfocusedupontheancientpromisesandlawsoftheGod.Conversely,it washeldtherearecorrespondingtraditionsoftherabbisonthispointthatany unrestrainedsurrendertotheartisticorpoeticglorificationofthisworldiscompletely vainandapttodiverttheJewsfromthewaysandpurposesofGod.Eventhepurposeof thecreationofthisworldhadalreadyonoccasionbeenproblematicaltotheJewsofthe laterMaccabeanperiod. (K.1.h)LackofAsceticism Aboveall,whatwaslackinginJudaismwasthedecisivehallmarkof"innerworldly asceticism":anintegratedrelationshiptothe"world"fromthecenterpointofthe individual' scertaintyofsalvation,whichnurturesallelse.Againinthisimportantmatter, whatwasultimatelydecisiveforJudaismwasthepariahcharacterofthereligionandthe promisesofYahweh.Anasceticcontrolofthisworld,suchasthatcharacteristicof Calvinism,wastheverylastthingofwhichatraditionallypiousJewwouldhavethought. Hecouldnotthinkofmethodicallycontrollingthepresentworld,whichwassochaotic becauseofIsrael's sins,andwhichcouldnotbesetrightbyanyhumanactionbutonlyby somefreemiracleofGodthatcouldnotbehastened.TheJewcouldnottakeasone' s "mission,"asthesphereofreligious"vocation,"thebringingofthisworldanditsvery sinsundertherationalnormsoftherevealeddivinewill,forthegloryofGodandasan identifyingmarkofone' sown"election."ThepiousJewhadafarmoredifficultdestiny toovercomethandidthePuritan,whocouldbecertainofone's electiontotheworld beyond.TheindividualJewhadtobecontentwiththefactthattheworldwouldremain absurdtothepromisesofGodaslongasGodpermittedtheworldtostandasitis.The JewhadtofindcontentmentifGodsenthim/hergraceandsuccessinhis/herdealings withtheenemiesofhis/herpeople,towardwhoms/hemustactsoberlyandlegalistically, infulfillmentoftheinjunctionsoftherabbis.ThismeantactingtowardnonJewsinan "objective"manner,withoutloveandwithouthate,solelyinaccordancewithwhatwas permissible. ThefrequentassertionthatJudaismrequiredonlyanexternalobservanceoftheLawis incorrect.Naturally,thatistheaveragebehavior;buttherequirementsforgenuine religiouspietystoodonamuchhigherplane.Inanycase,Judaiclawfosteredinits adherentsatendencytocompareindividualactionswitheachotherandtocomputethe netresultofthemall.Thisconceptionofhuman's relationshiptoGodasabookkeeping operationofsinglegoodandevilactswithanuncertaintotal(aconceptionwhichmay occasionallybefoundamongthePuritansaswell)maynothavebeenthedominant officialviewofJudaism.Yetitwassufficient,togetherwiththedoublestandardmorality ofJudaism,topreventthedevelopmentwithinJudaismofamethodicalandascetic orientationtotheconductoflifeonthescalethatsuchanorientationdevelopedin

Puritanism.ItisalsoimportantthatinJudaism,asinCatholicism,theindividual' s activitiesinfulfillingparticularreligiousinjunctionswereindispensabletoone' s assuranceofchancesofsalvation.However,inbothJudaismandCatholicism,God's gracewasneededtosupplementhumaninadequacy,althoughthisdependenceupon God'sgra cewasnotasuniversallyrecognizedinJudaismasinCatholicism. ThechurchlydispensationofgracewasmuchlessdevelopedinJudaism,afterthedecline oftheolderPalestinianconfessional,theDaysofPenitence(teshuva),thanin Catholicism.Inpractice,thisresultedintheJew's havingagreaterreligiousresponsibility foroneself.Thisresponsibilityforoneselfandtheabsenceofanymediatingreligious agencynecessarilymadetheJewishconductoflifemoresystematicandmethodicalthan thecorrespondingCatholicconductoflife.Still,themethodicalcontroloflifewas limitedinJudaismbytheabsenceofthedistinctivelyasceticmotivationcharacteristicof PuritansandbythecontinuedpresenceofJewishdoublestandardmoralityofunbroken traditionalism.Tobesure,therewerepresentinJudaismnumeroussinglestimulitoward practicesthatmightbecalledascetic,buttheunifyingforceofabasicallyascetic religiousmotivationwaslacking.ThehighestformofJewishpietyisofreligious"mood" andnotofactiveaction.HowcoulditbepossiblefortheJewstoinstallanewrational orderupontheworldsothattheywouldbecomethehumanexecutorofGod's will,when fortheJewsthisworldwasthoroughlycontradictory,hostile,andastheyhadknown sincethetimeofHadrian(117138AD)impossibletochangebyhumanaction?This mighthavebeenpossiblefortheJewishfreethinker,butnotforthepiousJew. PuritanismalwaysfeltitsinnersimilaritytoJudaism,butalsofeltthelimitsofthis similarity.ThesimilarityinprinciplebetweenChristianityandJudaism,despitealltheir differences,remainedthesameforthePuritansasithadbeenfortheChristianfollowers ofPaul. (K.1.i)Paul' sBreakthrough BoththePuritansandtheearlyChristiansalwayslookedupontheJewsasthechosen peopleofGod.ButtheunexampledactivitiesofPaulhadthefollowingsignificanteffects forearlyChristianity.Ontheonehand,PaulmadethesacredbookoftheJewsintooneof thesacredbooksoftheChristians,andatthebeginningtheonlyone.[176]Hethereby erectedastoutfenceagainstallintrusionsofGreek,especiallyGnostic,intellectualism. [177]Butontheotherhand,bytheaidoflogicalargumentthatonlyarabbicould possess,Paulhereandtherebrokethroughwhatwasmostdistinctiveandeffectiveinthe Jewishlaw,namelythetabooisticnormsandtheoverpoweringmessianicpromises.Since thesetaboosandpromisesgroundedthewholereligiousdignityoftheJewstotheir pariahposition,Paul' sbreakthroughwasfatefulinitseffect.Paulaccomplishedthis

breakthroughbyinterpretingthesepromisesashavingbeenpartlyfulfilledandpartly abolishedbythebirthofChrist.Hetriumphantlyemployedthehighlyimpressiveproof thatthepatriarchsofIsraelhadlivedinaccordancewithGod's willlongbeforethe issuanceoftheJewishtaboosandmessianicpromises,showingthattheyfound blessednessthroughfaith,whichwasthesuretyofGod' selection.[178] TheconsciousnessofhavingescapedthefateofpariahstatusprovidedPaulatremendous release.[179]AJewcouldhenceforthbeaGreekamongGreeksaswellasaJewamong Jews,andcouldachievethiswithintheparadoxoffaithratherthanthroughan enlightenedhostilitytofaith.ThispassionatesentimentofliberationbroughtPaula dynamicpowerbehindtheincomparablemissionarylabors.[180]Paulwasactuallyfree himselffromtheancientpromisesofhisGod,byplacinghisfaithinthenewsaviorwho hadbelievedhimselfabandoneduponthecrossbythatveryGod.[181]Immediate consequenceofPaul' sbreakthroughwastheintensehatredofPaulbytheJewsofthe Diaspora,sufficientlyauthenticatedasfact.Amongtheotherconsequencesmaybe mentionedtheconflictsandutteruncertaintyoftheearlyChristiancommunity;the attemptofJamesandthe"pillarapostles"toestablishan"ethicalminimum"ofthelaw whichwouldbevalidandbindingforall,inharmonywithJesus' ownlayman' s understandingofthelaw;andfinally,theopenhostilityoftheJewsagainstChristians. Theseconsequencesflowedfromtherendingofthesturdychainsthathadboundthe Jewsfirmlytotheirpariahposition.IneverylinethatPaulwrotewecanfeelhis overpoweringjoyathavingemergedfromthehopeless"slavelaw"intofreedom,through thebloodoftheMessiah.TheoverallconsequencewasthepossibilityofaChristian worldmission. (K.1.j)PuritanismandJudaism ThePuritans,likePaul,rejectedtheTalmudiclawandeventhecharacteristicrituallaws oftheOldTestament,whiletakingoverandconsideringasbindingforalltheir elasticityvariousotherexpressionsofGod'sw illwitnessedintheOldTestament.As thePuritanstooktheseover,theyalwaysconjoinednormsderivedfromtheNew Testament,eveninmattersofdetail.TheJewswhowereactuallywelcomedbyPuritan nations,especiallytheAmericans,werenotpiousorthodoxJewsbutratherReformed Jewswhohadabandonedorthodoxy,Jewssuchasthoseofthepresenttimewhohave beentrainedintheEducationalAlliance,andfinallybaptizedJews.ThesegroupsofJews wereatfirstwelcomedwithoutanydisturbancewhatsoeverandareevennowwelcomed fairlyreadily,sothattheyhavebeenabsorbedtothepointoftheabsolutelossofany traceofdifference.ThissituationinPuritancountriescontrastswiththesituationin Germany,wheretheJewsremainevenafterlonggenerations"assimilatedJews." ThesephenomenaclearlymanifesttheactualaffinityofPuritanismtoJudaism.Yet preciselythenonJewishelementinPuritanismenabledPuritanismtoplayitsspecialrole

inthecreationofthemoderneconomicethos,andalsotocarrythroughthe aforementionedabsorptionofJewishproselytes,whichwasnotaccomplishedbynations withotherthanPuritanorientations. (K.2)Islam:Thisworldliness (K.2.a)PoliticalReligion Islam,acomparativelylateproductofNearEasternmonotheism,inwhichOld TestamentandJewishChristianelementsplayedaveryimportantrole,"accommodated" itselftotheworldinasenseverydifferentfromJudaism.InthefirstMeccanperiodof Islam,theadventreligionofMuhammadinpietisticurbanconventicleswhichdisplayed atendencytowithdrawfromtheworld.ButsincethemoveinMedinaandinthe developmentoftheearlyIslamiccommunities,thereligionwastransformedintoa nationalArabicreligion,andaboveallintostatusorientedwarriorreligion.Those followerswhoseconversiontoIslammadepossiblethedecisivesuccessoftheProphet wereconsistentlymembersofpowerfulfamilies. Thereligiouscommandmentsoftheholywarwerenotdirectedinthefirstinstancetothe purposeofconversion.Rather,theprimarypurposewaswar"untilthey(thefollowersof alienreligionsofthebook)willhumblypaythepolltax(jizyah),"namely,untilIslam shouldrisetothetopofthisworld' ssocialprestige,byexactingtributefromother religions.ThisisnottheonlyfactorthatstampsIslamasthereligionofrulers.Military bootyisimportantintheorders,inthepromises,andaboveallintheexpectations characterizingparticularlythemostancientperiodofthereligion.Theultimateelements ofitseconomicethicwerepurelyfeudal.Themostpiousadherentsofthereligioninits firstgenerationbecamethewealthiest,ormorecorrectly,enrichedthemselveswith militarybootyinthewidestsensemorethandidothermembersofthefaith. Theroleplayedbywealthaccruingfromspoilsofwarandfrompoliticalconquestin IslamisthemostoppositetotheroleplayedbywealthinthePuritanreligion.The Muslimtraditiondepictswithpleasuretheluxuriousclothes,perfume,andmeticulous beardhairstyleofthepious.Accordingthetradition,Muhammadsaidtoarichmanwho appearedbeforehiminluxurystyle:"whengodblessesapersonwithprosperityhelikes toseethesignsthereofvisibleuponhim.".Thissayingwouldmean,inourlanguage,that awealthypersonisobligated"toliveinkeepingwithhisstatus."Itstandsinextreme oppositiontoanyPuritaneconomicethicandthoroughlycorrespondswithfeudal conceptionsofstatus.IntheKoran,Muhammadisrepresentedascompletelyrejecting everytypeofmonasticism,[182]thoughnotallasceticism,forhedidaccordrespectto

fasting,begging,andpenitentialmortification.Muhammad' sattitudeinoppositionto celibacymayhavesprungfrompersonalmotivationssimilartothoseapparentinLuther's famousremarkswhicharesoexpressiveofhisstronglysensualnature;namely,inthe conviction,alsofoundintheTalmud,thatwhoeverhasnotmarriedbyacertainagemust beasinner.Butwewouldhavetoregardasuniqueamongthesaintsofanethical "religionofsalvation"Muhammad' sdictumexpressingdoubtabouttheethicalcharacter ofapersonwhohasabstainedfromeatingmeatforfortydays;aswellasthereplyofa renownedpillarofancientIslam,celebratedbysomeasaMahdi,tothequestionwhyhe, unlikehisfatherAli,hadusedcosmeticsforhishair:"Inordertobemoresuccessfulwith women." (K.2.b)NoSalvation Islamwasneverreallyareligionofsalvation;theethicalconceptof"salvation"was actuallyalientoIslam.TheIslamicgodwasalordofunlimitedpower,althoughmerciful, thefulfillmentofwhosecommandmentswasnotbeyondhumanpower.Allthechief characterofIslamisfundamentallypolitical:theeliminationofprivatefeudsinthe interestofincreasingthegroup'ss trikingpoweragainstexternalfoes;theproscriptionof illegitimateformsofsexualbehaviorandtheregulationoflegitimatesexualrelations alongstronglypatriarchallines(actuallycreatingsexualprivilegesonlyforthewealthy, inviewofthefacilityofdivorceandthemaintenanceofconcubineswithfemaleslaves); theprohibitionof"usury";theprescriptionoftaxesforwar;andtheinjunctiontosupport thepoor.EquallypoliticalincharacteristhedistinctivereligiousobligationinIslam,its onlyrequireddogmatherecognitionofAllahastheonegodandofMuhammadashis prophet.Inaddition,thereweretheobligationstojourneytoMeccaonceduringa lifetime,tofastbydayduringthemonthoffasting,toattendservicesonceaweek,andto observetheobligationofdailyprayers.Finally,Islamimposedsuchrequirementsfor everydaylifeasthewearingofdistinctiveclothing(arequirementthateventodayhas importanteconomicconsequenceswhenevernakedtribesareconvertedtoIslam)andthe avoidanceofcertainuncleanfoods,ofwine,andofgambling.Therestrictionagainst gamblingobviouslyhadimportantconsequencesforthereligion's attitudetoward speculativebusinessenterprises.Therewasnoindividualquestforsalvationormysticism inancientIslam.Wealth,power,andhonorwerethepromisesofancientIslaminthis world,thepromisesforsoldiers,andeventhepromiseoftheworldbeyondwasa soldier'ss ensualparadise. (K.2.c)FeudalEthic Moreover,theancientIslamicconceptof"sin"wasfeudal.Thedepictionoftheprophet ofIslamas"sinless"isalatetheologicalconstruction,scarcelyconsistentwiththeactual

natureofMuhammad' sstrongsensualpassionsandhisexplosionsofwrathevenvery smallmatter.Indeed,suchapictureisstrangeeventotheKoran,justasafter Muhammad's movetoMedinahelackedanysortof"grievous"senseofsin.Theoriginal feudalconceptionofsinremaineddominantinorthodoxIslam,forwhichsinisa compositeofritualimpurity,ritualsacrilege(shirk,namely,polytheism),disobedienceto thepositivecommandmentsoftheprophet;andtheviolationofstatusdignityby violationsofconventionoretiquette.Islamdisplaysothercharacteristicsofadistinctively feudalspirit:theobviouslyunquestionedacceptanceofslavery,serfdom,andpolygamy; thedisesteemforandsubjectionofwomen;theessentiallyritualisticcharacterof religiousobligations;andfinally,thegreatsimplicityofreligiousrequirementsandthe evengreatersimplicityofthemodestethicalrequirements. (K.2.d)ContrasttoJudaismandChristianity IslamwasnotbroughtanyclosertoJudaismandtoChristianityindecisivemattersby suchIslamicdevelopmentsoftheologicalandjuristiccasuistry,theappearanceofboth pietisticandenlightenmentschoolsofphilosophy(followingtheintrusionofPersian Sufism,derivedfromIndia),andtheformationoftheorderofDervishes(stilltoday stronglyunderIndianinfluence).JudaismandChristianitywerespecificallycitizen religions,whereasforIslamthecityhadonlypoliticalimportance.Acertainsobrietyin theconductoflifemightalsobeproducedbythenatureoftheofficialcultinIslamand byitssexualandritualcommandments.Thepettycitizenstratumwaslargelythecarrier oftheDervishreligion,whichwasdisseminatedpracticallyeverywhereandgradually grewinpower,finallysurpassingtheofficialchurchlyreligion.Thistypeofreligion, withitsorgiasticandmysticalelements,withitsessentiallyirrationalandextraordinary character,andwithitsofficialandthoroughlytraditionalisticethicofeverydaylife, becameinfluentialinIslam' smissionaryenterprisebecauseofitsgreatsimplicity.It directedtheconductoflifeintopathswhoseeffectwasplainlyoppositetothemethodical conductoflifefoundamongPuritans,andindeed,foundineverytypeofasceticism orientedtowardthemethodicalcontroloftheworld. Islam,incontrasttoJudaism,lackedtherequirementofacomprehensiveknowledgeof thelawandlackedthatintellectualtrainingincasuistrywhichnurturedthe"rationalism" ofJudaism.TheidealpersonalityofIslamwasnotthescholar,butthewarrior.Moreover, IslamlackedallthosepromisesofamessianicrealmuponearthwhichinIsraelwere linkedwithmeticulousobservancesofthelaw,andwhichtogetherwiththepriestly doctrinesofhistory,election,sin,anddispersionoftheJewsdeterminedthefateful pariahcharacteroftheJewishreligion.

Tobesure,therewereasceticsectsamongtheMuslims.LargegroupsofancientIslamic warriorswerecharacterizedbyatrendtoward"simplicity";thispromptedthemfromthe outsettoopposetheruleoftheUmayyads.Thelatter's merryenjoymentoftheworld presentedthestrongestcontrasttotherigiddisciplineoftheencampmentfortressesin whichUmarhadconcentratedIslamicwarriorsintheconquereddomains;intheirstead therenowaroseafeudalaristocracy.Butthiswastheasceticismofamilitaryleague,ofa martialorderofknights,notofmonks.Certainlyitwasnotacitizenryascetic systematizationoftheconductoflife.Moreover,itwaseffectiveonlyperiodically,and eventhenittendedtomergeintofatalism.Wehavealreadyspokenofthequitedifferent effectwhichisengenderedinsuchcircumstancesbyabeliefinprovidence.[183]Islam wasdivertedcompletelyfromanygenuinemethodicalconductoflifebytheadventofthe cultofsaints,andfinallybymagic. (K.3)Buddhism:Worldrejection (K.3.a)GenuineReligionofSalvation Attheoppositeextremefromeconomicethicsofthisworldlyreligionstandstheultimate ethicofworldrejection,themysticalilluminativeconcentrationoforiginalancient Buddhism(naturallynotthecompletelytransformedBuddhismadoptedinTibetan, Chinese,andJapanesefolkreligions).Eventhismostworldrejectingethicis"rational," inthesensethatitproducesaconstantselfcontrolofallnaturalinstinctivedrives,though forpurposesentirelydifferentfromthoseofinnerworldlyasceticism.Salvationis sought,notfromsinandsufferingalone,butalsofromtransitorinessassuch;escapefrom the"wheel"ofkarmacausalityintoeternalrestisthegoalpursued.Thissearchis,and canonlybe,thehighlyindividualizedachievementofaparticularperson.Thereisno predestination,nodivinegrace,noprayer,andnoreligiousservice.Thekarmacausality ofthecosmicmechanismofcompensationautomaticallyrewardsorpunishesallsingle goodorevildeeds.Thisretributionisalwaysproportional,andhencealwayslimitedin time.Solongastheindividualisdriventoactionbythethirstforlife,hemustexperience infullmeasurethefruitsofhisbehaviorinevernewhumanexistences.Whetherhis momentarysituationisanimal,heavenly,orhellish,henecessarilycreatesnewchances forhimselfinthefuture.Themostnobleenthusiasmandthemostsordidsensualitylead equallyintonewexistenceinthischainofindividuation(itisquiteincorrecttotermthis process"transmigrationofsouls,"sinceBuddhistmetaphysicsknowsnothingofasoul). Thiscycleofindividuationcontinuesonaslongasthe"thirst"forlife,inthisworldorin theworldbeyond,isnotabsolutelyextinguished.Theprocessisbutperpetuatedbythe individual' spowerlessstruggleforhispersonalexistencewithallitsillusions,aboveall theillusionofanunifiedsoulor"personality."

Allendrationalactionandeveryconnectionwithworldlyinterestsleadsawayfrom salvation,excepttheinneractivityofconcentratedcontemplationwhichemptiesthesoul ofthethirstforlife.Theachievementofsalvationispossibleforonlyafew,evenof thosewhohaveresolvedtoliveinpropertyless,celibacy,andunemployment(forlaboris endorientedaction),andhenceinbegging.Thesechosenfewarerequiredtowander ceaselesslyexceptatthetimeoftheheavyrainsfreedfromallpersonaltiestofamily andworld,pursuingthegoalofmysticalilluminationbyfulfillingthecommandmentsof thecorrectpath(dharma).Whensuchsalvationisgained,thedeepjoyandtender, undifferentiatedlovecharacterizingsuchilluminationprovidesthehighestblessing possibleinthisexistence,shortofabsorptionintotheeternaldreamlesssleep(nirvana), theonlystateinwhichnochangeoccurs.Allotherhumanbeingsmayimprovetheir situationsinfutureexistencesbyapproximatingtheprescriptionsoftheruleoflifeand byavoidingmajorsinsinthisexistence.Suchfutureexistencesareinevitable,according tothekarmateachingofcausality,becausetheethicalaccounthasnotbeenstraightened out,thethirstforlifehasnotbeen"overcome,"sotospeak.Formostpeople,therefore, somenewindividuationisinevitablewhenthepresentlifehasended,andtrulyeternal salvationremainsinaccessible. Thereisnopathleadingfromthisonlyreallyconsistentpositionofworldflighttoany economicethicortoanyrationalsocialethic.Theuniversal"sentimentofempathy," extendingtoallcreatures,cannotbethecarrierofanyrationalbehaviorandinfactleads awayfromit.Thissentimentofempathyistherationalconsequenceofcontemplative mysticism'spos itionregardingthesolidarityofallliving,andhencetransitory,beings. Thissolidarityfollowsfromthecommonkarmacausalitywhichoverarchesallliving beings.InBuddhism,thepsychologicalbasisforthisuniversalempathyisthemystical, euphoric,anduniversallove. Buddhismisthemostconsistentdoctrineofsalvationproducedbytheintellectualismof noblelayeducatedIndianstrata.Itscoolandproudemancipationoftheindividualfrom lifeassuch,whichineffectstoodtheindividualonone' sownfeet,couldneverbecomea massreligionofsalvation.Buddhism'sinfl uencebeyondthecircleoftheeducatedwas duetothetremendousprestigetraditionallyenjoyedbythe"ascetic"(shramana),who possessedmagicalandidolatrouscharisma.AssoonasBuddhismbecameamissionizing "folkreligion,"itaccordinglytransformeditselfintoasaviorreligionbasedonkarma compensation,withhopesfortheworldbeyondguaranteedbydevotionaltechniques, culticandsacramentalgrace,anddeedsofmercy.Naturally,Buddhismalsotendedto acceptpurelymagicalnotions. (K.3.b)TransformationofBuddhism

InIndiaitself,Buddhismwastakenplace,amongtheupperstrata,byarenewed philosophyofsalvationbasedontheVedas;anditmetcompetitionfromHinduistic salvationreligions,especiallythevariousformsofVishnuism,fromTantristicmagic,and fromorgiasticmysteryreligions,notablythebhaktipiety(loveofgod).InTibet, Buddhismbecamethepurelymonasticreligionofatheocracywhichcontrolledthelaity bychurchlypowersofathoroughlymagicalcharacter.InEastAsia,originalBuddhism underwentstrikingtransformationasitcompetedandenteredintodiversecombinations withChineseTaoism,thus,whichwasspecificallyconcernedwiththisworldandthe ancestralcultandwhichbecomeatypicalmassreligionofgraceandsalvation. Atallevents,nomotivationtowardarationalsystemforthemethodicalcontroloflife flowedfromBuddhist,Taoist,orHindupiety.Hindupietyinparticular,aswehave alreadydiscussed,[184]maintainedthestrongestpossiblepoweroftradition,sincethe presuppositionsofHinduismconstitutedthemostconsistentreligioussolutioninthe "organic"viewofsociety.Theexistingorderoftheworldwasprovidedabsolutely unconditionaljustification,intermsofthemechanicaloperationofaproportional retributioninthedistributionofpowerandhappinesstoindividualsonthebasisoftheir meritsandfailuresintheirearlierexistences. AllthesefolkreligiosityofAsialeftroomforthe"acquisitivedrive"ofthetradesman, theinterestin"sustenance"ofthecraftsperson,andthetraditionalismofthepeasant. Thesereligiosityalsoleftundisturbedbothphilosophicalspeculationandthe conventionalstatusorientedlifestylesofprivilegedstrata.Thesestatusorientedlifestyle oftheprivilegeddisplayedfeudalcharacterinJapan;patrimonialbureaucratic,andhence stronglyutilitarianfeaturesinChina;andamixtureofknightly,patrimonial,and intellectualistictraitsinIndia.NoneofthesereligiosityofAsia,however,providedthe motivesororientationsforarationalandethicaltransformationofacreaturelyworldin accordancewithdivinecommandments.Rather,theyallacceptedthisworldaseternally given,andsothebestofallpossibleworlds.Theonlychoiceopentothesages,who possessedthehighesttypeofpiety,waswhethertoaccommodatethemselvestothe impersonalorderoftheworld(Tao)astheonlythingspecificallydivine,ortosave themselvesbyownachievementfromtheinexorablechainofcausalityandenterintothe onlyeternalbeingofthedreamlesssleep(Nirvana). (K.4)CapitalismAndReligion "Capitalism"existedamongallthesereligiosity,ofthesamekindasinOccidental Antiquityandthemedievalperiod.Buttherewasnodevelopmenttowardmodern capitalism,norevenanystirringsinthatdirection.Aboveall,theredevelopedno "capitalistspirit,"inthesensethatisdistinctiveofasceticProtestantism.Buttoassume

thattheHindu,Chinese,orMuslimmerchant,trader,craftsperson,orcooliehada weaker"acquisitivedrive"thantheasceticProtestantistoflyinthefaceofthefacts. Indeed,thereverseistrue,forwhatisdistinctiveofPuritanismistherationalandethical limitationofthe"makingprofit."Thereisnoproofwhateverthataweakernatural "endowment"fortechnicaleconomic"rationalism"wasresponsiblefortheactual differenceinthisrespect.Atthepresenttime,allthesepeopleimportthis"commodity" asthemostimportantOccidentalproduct,andwhateverimpedimentsexistresultfrom rigidtraditions,suchasexistedamongusintheMiddleAges,notfromanylackofability orwill.Suchimpedimentstorationaleconomicdevelopmentmustbesoughtprimarilyin thedomainofreligion,insofarastheymustnotbelocatedinthepurelypolitical conditions,theinnerstructuresofrulership,withwhichweshalldeallater.[185] OnlyasceticProtestantismcompletelyeliminatedmagicandtheouterworldlyquestfor salvation,ofwhichthehighestformwasintellectualist,contemplative"illumination."It alonecreatedthereligiousmotivationsforseekingsalvationprimarilythroughthe devotioninone'sw orldly"vocation."ThisProtestantconceptofthemethodically rationalizedfulfillmentofone'svocationwascontraryoppositetoHinduism'sst rongly traditionalisticconceptofvocations.ForthevariousfolkreligiosityofAsia,incontrastto asceticProtestantism,theworldremainedagreatmagicalgarden,inwhichthereverence andcoercionof"spirits"andthequestofsalvationinthisworldorthenextthroughritual, idolatrous,orsacramentalmeanswereinpracticeorientedandsecured.Nopathledtoa rational,methodicalconductoflifefromtheworldaccommodationofConfucianism, fromthemessianicexpectationsandeconomicpariahlawofJudaism,fromtheworld conquestofIslam,fromtheworldrejectionofBuddhism,orfromthemagicalreligiosity ofthenonintellectualstrataofAsia. (K.5)Jesus:Worldindifference (K.5.a)Jesus'sSe lfConsciousness Thesecondgreatreligionof"worldrejection,"inourspecialsenseoftheterm,wasearly Christianity,atthecradleofwhichmagicandbeliefindemonswerealsopresent.Its Saviorwasprimarilyamagicianwhosemagicalcharismawasanindispensablesourceof hisuniqueselfconsciousness.ThedistinctivecharacterofearlyChristianity,however, wasdecisivelyconditionedbytheabsolutelyuniquereligiouspromisesofJudaism.It willberecalledthatJesusappearedduringtheperiodofthemostintensivemessianic expectations.StillanotherfactorcontributingtothedistinctivemessageofChristianity wasitsreactiontothemosthighlydevelopededucationofscripturalintellectualismof Jewishpiety.TheChristianevangelaroseinoppositiontothisintellectualism,asanon intellectual's proclamationdirectedtononintellectuals,the"poorinspirit."[186]Jesus

understoodandinterpretedthe"law,"fromwhichhedidnotremoveevenaletter,[187] inamannercommontothelowlyandunlearnedpiouspeopleofthecountrysideandthe smalltowns.ThepiouspeopleofthecountrysideunderstoodtheLawintheirownway andinaccordancewiththeneedsoftheirownoccupations,incontrasttotheHellenized, wealthyandupperclasspeopleandtothescripturalscholarsandPhariseestrainedin casuistry.Jesus' interpretationoftheJewishlawwasmilderthantheirsinregardtoritual prescriptions,particularlyinregardtothekeepingoftheSabbath,[188]butstricterthan theirsinotherrespects,forexample,inregardtothegroundsfordivorce.[189]There alreadyappearstohavebeenananticipationofthePaulineviewthattherequirementsof theMosaiclawwereconditionedbythesinfulnessofthefalsepiety.[190]Therewere,in anycase,instancesinwhichJesussquarelyopposedspecificinjunctionsoftheancient tradition.[191] Jesus' distinctiveselfconsciousnessdidnotcomefromanythinglikea"proletarian instinct"butfromtheknowledgethathewasonenesswithGodandthewayofGodis throughhimalone.[192]Hisselfdignitywasgroundedinthefactthathe,thenon scholar,possessedboththecharismatocontroldemonsandapowerfulpreachingability, bothofwhichnoscholarorPhariseecancommand.[193]Jesusexperiencedthathis powertocastoutdemonswasoperativeonlyamongthepeoplewhobelievedinhim, eveniftheybeheathens,butnoneofthoseamonginhishometown,hisownfamily,the wealthyandnoblesoftheland,thescholars,andthePhariseesdidhefindthefaiththat gavehimhismagicalpowertoworkmiracles.[194]Hedidfindsuchafaithamongthe poorandtheoppressed,amongpublicansandsinners,andevenamongRomansoldiers. [195]ThesecharismaticpowersweretheabsolutelydecisivecomponentsinJesus' consciousnessconcerninghismessiahship.Anddisbeliefinthesepowerswerethe fundamentalissueinhis"denunciation"oftheGalileancitiesandinhisangrycurseupon thefruitlessfigtree.[196]Hisdignityabouthisownpowersalsoexplainswhythe electionofIsraelbecameevermoreproblematicaltohimandtheimportanceofthe Templeevermoredubious,whiletherejectionofthePhariseesandthescholarsbecame increasinglycertaintohim.[197] (K.5.b)SalvationalHeroism Jesusrecognizedtwoabsolutelymortalsins.Onewasthe"sinagainstthespirit" committedbythescripturalscholarwhodisregardedcharismaanditsbearers.[198]The otherwasunbrotherlyarrogance,suchasthearroganceoftheintellectualtowardthepoor inspirit,whentheintellectualthrowsathisbrothertheexclamation"Fool!"[199]This antiintellectualistrejectionofscholarlyarroganceandofHellenicandrabbinicwisdom istheonly"status"andmostdistinctiveelementofJesus'm essage.Ingeneral,Jesus' messageisfarfromforeveryoneandalltheweak.[200]Tobesure,theyokeislight, [201]butonlyforthosewhocanonceagainbecomeaslittlechildren.[202]Intruth,

Jesussetupthemosttremendousrequirementsforsalvation;histeachingisreally aristocratic.[203] NothingwasfarfromJesus't eachingthanthenotionoftheuniversalismofthegraceof God.Onthecontrary,hedirectedhiswholeteachingagainstthisnotion.Fewarechosen topassthroughthenarrowgate,torepentandtobelieveinJesus[204];otherswere hardenedbyGodHimself.[205]Itisnaturallytheproudandtherichwhoaremost overtakenbythisdestiny.Ofcoursethiselementisnotnew,sinceitcanbefoundinthe olderprophecies.[206]TheolderJewishprophetshadtaughtthat,inviewofthearrogant behaviorofthehighlyplaced,theMessiahwouldbeakingwhowouldenterJerusalem upontheassofburdenusedbythepoor.[207]Thisimpliesno"socialequalitarianism." Jesuslodgedwiththewealthy,whichwasrituallyreprehensibleintheeyesofthevirtuosi ofthelaw,[208]andheexpresslycommandedtotherichyoungmangiveawayhisall wealthifhewantedtobe"perfect,"namely,adisciple.[209]Thiscommandment certainlypresupposescompleteemancipationfromalltiesoftheworld,fromfamilyas wellaspossessions,suchaswefindintheteachingsoftheBuddhaandsimilarprophets. [210]Yet,althoughallthingsarepossibleforGod,continuedattachmentto"wealth" (Mammon)constitutesoneofthemostdifficultimpedimentstosalvationintotheNation ofGod.ForattachmenttoMammondivertstheindividualfromreligioussalvation,the mostimportantthingintheworld.[211] Jesusnowhereexplicitlystatesthatpreoccupationwithwealthleadstounbrotherliness, butthisnotionisattheheartofthematter,fortheprescribedcommandmentsdefinitely containtheprimordialethicofmutualhelpwhichischaracteristicofneighborhood communityofpoorerpeople.ThechiefdifferenceisthatinJesus'm essageactsofmutual helphavebeensystematizedintotheethicofheart,inparticular,ofbrotherlylove.[212] Thecommandmentofneighborhoodhelpwasalsointernallyrationalizedintouniversal loveforeveryone.[213]The"neighbor"istheonenearestathand.[214]Indeed,the notionofbrotherlylovewasenlargedintoanuniversalisticparadox,basedontheaxiom thatGodalonecanandwillreward.Unconditionalforgiveness,[215]unconditional charity,[216]unconditionalloveevenofenemies,unconditionalsufferingofinjustice withoutrequitingevilbyforce[217]thesedemandsforreligiousheroismcouldhave beenproductsofamysticallyconditionedacosmismoflove.Butitmustnotbe overlooked,asitsooftenhasbeen,thatJesuscombineduniversallovewiththeJewish notionofretribution.Godalonewillonedaycompensate,avenge,andreward.Human mustnotboastofhisvirtueinhavingperformedanyoftheaforementioneddeedsoflove, sincehisboastingwouldtakehissubsequentreward.[218]Toamasstreasuresinheaven onemustinthisworldlendmoneytothosefromwhomnorepaymentcanbeexpected; otherwise,thereisnomeritinthedeed.[219]Astrongemphasisuponthejust compensationofdestinieswasexpressedbyJesusinthelegendofLazarusand elsewhere.[220]Fromthisperspectivealone,wealthisalreadyadangerousgift.

(K.5.c)IndifferencetoWorld ButJesusheldingeneralthatwhatismostdecisiveforsalvationisanabsolute indifferencetotheworldanditsconcerns.Thekingdomofheaven,arealmofjoyupon earth,utterlywithoutsufferingandsin,isathand[221];indeed,thisgenerationwillnot diebeforeseeingit.[222]Itwillcomelikeathiefatnight;itisalreadyintheprocessof appearingamonghumankind.Letpersonbefreewiththewealth(Mammon),insteadof grabbingitfast;letpersonrenderuntoCaesarthatwhichisCaesar's ,[223]forwhatprofit isthereinsuchmatters?LetpersonpraytoGodfordailybreadandremainunconcerned forthemorrow.[224]Nohumanactioncanacceleratethecomingofthekingdom,but personshouldpreparehimselfforitscoming.Althoughthismessagedidnotformally abolishthelaw,itdidplacetheemphasisthroughoutuponreligiousinwardness.The entirecontentofthelawandtheprophetswascondensedintothesimplecommandment toloveGodandone' sneighbor,[225]towhichwasaddedtheonefarreaching conceptionthatthetruereligiousattitudeistobejudgedbyitsfruits,byitsfaithful demonstration.[226] Thevisionsoftheresurrection,doubtlessundertheinfluenceofthewidelydiffused salvationalmyths,generatedatremendouspowerinpneumaticmanifestationsof charisma;intheformationofcommunities,beginningwithJesus' ownfamily,who originallyhadnotsharedJesus'f aith;andinmissionaryactivityamongtheheathens. InitialChristianitymaintainedcontinuitywiththeolderJewishpropheciesevenafterthe fatefulconversionofPaulhadresultedinabreakingawayfromthepariahreligion.Asa resultofthesedevelopments,twonewattitudestowardthe"world"becamedecisivein theChristianmissionarycommunities.OnewastheexpectationoftheSecondComing, [227]andtheotherwastherecognitionofthetremendousimportanceofcharismaticgifts ofthe"spirit."[228]TheworldwouldremainasitwasuntiltheLordwouldcome.Sotoo theChristianswereasrequiredtoabideintheirpositionandintheircalling,[229] submittedtotheauthorities,savewheretheydemandedoftheChristianstocommita sinfuldeed.[230]

NotesofTheSociologyofReligion

[1][Deuteronomy4:40]

[2]Usener's Augenlicksgoetter.[SeeHermannUsener,Goetternamen.Versucheiner LehrevonderreligioesenBegriffsbildung(Bonn:Cohen,1896),279ff.] [3][Exodus18:112] [4][Exodus19:58] [5][Judges5:45;Deuteronomy33:2] [6][Forafullerdiscussion,seeCI,chap.XVI:iv:4.] [7][Joshua3:3] [8][TheiconoftheMadonnaofKazan(fromMoscow)andtheremainsofAlexander Nevskii(fromVladimir)weretransferredtohisnewlyfoundedcapitalcityontheNeva bytheEmperorPeterI(16821721).Ataearlierdatein1395theMadonnaofVladimir, theformerseatoftheMetropolitan,wastransferredtoMoscow,andatvarioustimes subjugatedcompetingcitieshadtohandovertheirmainchurchbells(Tverin1340; GreatNovgorodin1478,PskovinIsro).Inthe16405,theremainsofseveralRussian PatriarchsweretransferredforburialplaceinMoscow.] [9]Thisisthe"henotheism"whichMaxMuellererroneouslyassumedtoconstitutea specialstageofdevelopment.[MaxMueller,AnthropologicalReligion(London: Longmans,Green1892),76.] [10][SeeExemplaryandEthicalProphecy] [11][SeeIntellectualReligiosity] [12][Seechap.XIV:8,andalsochap.XV:4] [13][SeeRationalizationoflife]

[14][Isaiah37:2137] [15][Onwarriorvsreligiousrationalism] [16][godascreator] [17][Joshua7:126] [18][GodofBands] [19]Thebeliefintheuniversalityoftotemism,andcertainlythebeliefinthederivation ofvirtuallyallsocialgroupsandallreligionsfromtotemism,constitutesatremendous exaggerationthathasbeenrejectedcompletelybynow. [20][SpiritandGodofHousehold] [21][Galatians2:1116] [22][1Corinthians7:20] [23][possessionofdivine,mysticism] [24][exemplaryandethicalprophecy] [25]Weshallforegohereanyconsiderationofthegeneralquestionregardingthe "bringerofsalvation"asraisedbyBreysig.Noteveryanthropomorphicgodisadeified bringerofsalvation,whetherexternalorinternalsalvation.Andcertainlynotevery providerofsalvationbecameagodorevenasavior,althoughsuchphenomenawere widespread.[KurtBreysig,DieEntstehungdesGottesgedankensundderHeilbringer (Berlin:Bondi,1905).] [26][John8:14]

[27][John8:19] [28][John14:6] [29][Amos7:14] [30][2Thessalonians3:10] [31]ThePropheticAgeissobrilliantlyanalyzedbyRohde.[ErwinRohde,TheCultof SoulsandBeliefinImmortalityAmongtheGreeks(London:Paul,Trench,Trubner, 1925)] [32][Deuteronomy15:13] [33][Deuteronomy34:10] [34]["Amongthesesinners,weknow,Yimawasincluded,Vivanghen' sson,who desiringtosatisfymengaveourpeoplefleshoftheoxtoeat.FromtheseshallIbe separatedbyThee,OMazda,atlast"(Avesta33:8).] [35][PropheticAge] [36]ThestrongimpactofthePersianPrince,Cyrus(424?401BC),upontheGreeksis mirrored,forinstance,inthefactthatapedagogicaltreatisebyXenophon(430?355? BC)wasformulatedasaCyropaedia("EducationofCyrus")despitethedefeatofthis monarch. [37]BartholomaetranslatestheSodalenoftheGathaforapostle.[Sodalenwerethe membersofthefirstrankinZoroastrianism;thesecondrankwasconstitutedbythe knights,thethirdbythepeasants.(ChristianBartholomae,trans.Anded.,DieGathasdes Avesta.ZarathushtrasVerspredigten.Strassburg:Truebingen,1905),130] [38][CA,Leaderandfollowers]

[39]Thereisanalmostineradicablemisunderstandingthatthemajorityorevenallofthe ChineseareregardedasBuddhistsinreligion.ThefactisthatmanyChinesearebrought upintheConfucianethic(whichaloneenjoysofficialapprobation),consultTaoist diviningpriestsbeforebuildingahouse,mourndeceasedrelativesaccordingtothe Confucianritual,andalsoarrangeforBuddhistdeathmass. [40]TheAchaemenids,astheirdocumentsdemonstrate,werenotZoroastrians,but rather,followersofMazda. [41]Theconceptof"confessionalcommunity"belongstotheanalysisofrulership.[RR, ConfessionalCommunity] [42][RR,Sect] [43][Gathaswhere?somaasabominationofAhuramazda] [44][separationeducationfrompriestbybureaucracy,BUorRR] [45][Ezra10:11;Nehemiah13:17] [46]Oldenberghasemphasized.[HermannOldenberg,DieReligionderVeda,1894] [47][Judges5:110] [48]["ThestruggleoftheoriginalSwisscantonssituatedalongtheSt.Gotthardroute againstZurich,oftheSamnitesagainstRome,theAetoliansagainsttheHelleniccity leaguesandtheMacedoniankings.Withslightinaccuracyonemightsay:itwasthe struggleofthemountainagainsttheplain"(AJ,54).ReferalsoCI,Swiss] [49][LA,NaturalLaw] [50]Harnackdecisivelydemonstratedit[AdolfHarnack,DieMissionundAusbteitung desChristentumsindenerstendreiJahrhunderten(Leipzig:Hinrich,1905),PartIV,esp. 539.]

[51][Greekremainedwarriorideal] [52][Psalms2:8;Isaiah2:4] [53][Theprinciplethatjustifiestheuseofforceagainstheretics,ordeceitful proselytizing;derivedfromamisinterpretedpassageinLuke14:23.Cf.LA,chap.VIII:v, n.26.] [54]IcouldmaketheobservationthatatthefirstappearanceofvonEgidy(Lieutenant Colonel,Ret.)TheOfficers' Clubsentertainedtheexpectation,inasmuchastherightof suchcriticismoforthodoxywasobviouslyopentoanycomrade,thatHisMajestywould seizetheinitiativeindemandingthattheoldfairytales,whichnohonestfellowcould managetobelieve,wouldnotbeservedupatthemilitaryservicesanylonger.But, naturallyenough,whennosuchthinghappeneditwasreadilyrecognizedthatthechurch teaching,justasitwas,constitutedthebestfodderfortherecruits.[Weber's note.Lt.Col. MoritzvonEgidywascashieredin1890afterpublicationofanattackondogmatic Christianity.Cf.AlsoWeber'sc ontemporaryobservationsinJugendbriefe,33437.] [55]Butthesuperstitiousofficialsmayparticipateit,asisthecasewithspiritualism amongtheGermantoday(1915). [56]["Asastratumwithpurelyeconomicinterests,thefreedmenprovidedanidealpublic forthecultofAugustusasthe"BringerofthePeace."ThedignityoftheAugustales, whichwascreatedbythefirstPrinceps,playedsomewhatthesameroleasinourtimethe titleof"PurveyortoHisMajestytheKing.99"(SC,chap.XVI:v,n.29.)] [57][Matthew13:55;Acts18:3] [58][Romans11:24] [59][RE,Peasant:Christianity] [60][noethicalrationalizationinIndiancitizenTheReligionofIndia,306ff]

[61]TheservantswerepresumablythefreedpersonsofEmperorClaudius(AD4154) [Romans16:11] [62]AccordingtotheappealinghypothesisofDeissmann.[Romans6:1822;1 Corinthians7:2123] [63]OfcoursetheOldTestamenttermsforredemption,gaalandpada,mustalsobe regardedasapossiblesourceoftheChristianconcepts. [64]Sombarthasalreadydemonstratedthispointinfinefashion.[WernerSombart,Das Proletariat(Frankfurt:RuettenundLoening,1906),75ff.Andid.,Sozialismusund sozialeBewegung,1908,6thed.,25.] [65][REorLA,ethicandnaturallaw] [66][religiosityofdisprivilegedstrata,seeStrataandSenseofDignity] [67][statusandclassIX:6] [68][RE,CasteEthic] [69][Deuteronomy15:6] [70]ThisisfirstnoticedbyNietzsche.AccordingtoNietzscheandindirectinversionof theancientbeliefofHebrew,theunequaldistributionofthisworldlygoodsiscausedby thesinfulnessandtheillegalityoftheprivileged;andthatsoonerorlaterGod's wrathwill overtakethem.Inthistheodicyofthedisprivileged,moralismservesasameansfor compensatingaconsciousorunconsciousdesireforvengeance.[FriedrichNietzsche, Werke(Leipzig:Kroener,1930),II,38and98f.] [71][Psalms58:10;Psalms79:10;Psalms94:1;Psalms99:8;Psalms149:7] [72]Someofthesepassagesareadmittedlylaterinterpolationintoearliercompositions, inwhichthissentimentwasnotoriginallypresent.

[73][Ahaziah,theprinceofJuda,died942BC,andJosiah,theprinceJuda,in609BCat Megido] [74][Luke16:2025] [75][Deuteronomy32:35;Romans12:19] [76][Matthew9:1011;Matthew11:19] [77][Matthew19:2126] [78]Thelimitedsignificanceofthefactorof"resentment,"andthedubiousnessof applyingtheconceptualschemaof"repression"almostuniversally,appearmostclearly whenNietzschemistakenlyapplieshisschemetothealtogetherinappropriateexampleof Buddhism. [79]Itispossibleofcoursethattheactualdevelopmentwentintheotherdirection,so thattherecommendationofworldrenunciationtotheBrahminwho"hasseenthesonof hisson"isthelaterofthetwophenomena,andaborrowingofShramanas. [80][RE,Mysticism] [81]Modernpsychopathologyhasnotyetformulateduniformlyapplicablerulesforthese processes. [82]Dvorakhascorrectlytranslatedtheterm.[RudolfDvorak,ChinasReligionen (Muenster:Aschendorff,1895)vol.I,"ConfuciusundseineLehre,"122;cf.AlsoGAzRS, I,449.] [83][Job29:10;Job34:1618] [84][Proverbs14:2835]

[85][Proverbs31:1] [86][BenSirach1:prolouge] [87][BenSirach34:911] [88]Boussetcorrectlypointedout.[WilhelmBousset,DieReligiondesJudentumsim neutestamentlichenZeitalter(Berlin:ReutherundReichard,1906)sec.Ed.,187f.] [89][BenSirach38:2539] [90]Meinholdhasemphasized.[JohannesMeinhold,GeschichtedesjuedischenVolkes (Leipzig:QuelleundMeyer,1916),63.] [91][Ezra7:1112] [92][Zechariah9:9;Matthew21:5] [93][Matthew10:23] [94][Matthew13:3435;Matthew11:25] [95][1Corinthians1:23] [96]HarnackfoundaspecimenofitstracesintheEpistletotheHebrews.[Adolfvon Harnack,LehrbuchderDogmengeschichte(Tuebingen:Mohr,1909),volI,104ff;onthe DidacheandtheancientChristiandistinctionbetweenapostles,prophetsandcharismatic teachers,seeid.,DieMissionundAusbreitungdesChristentumsindenerstendrei Jahrhunderten(Leipzig:Hinrich,1902),23751.] [97][RE,MonasticismWestandEast]

[98]Largesegmentscanbeinterpretedsomethinglikeorthodoxy10percentandliberals 90percent. [99]Indeed,arecentquestionnairesubmittedtothousandsofGermanworkersdisclosed thefactthattheirrejectionofthebeliefingodwasmotivated,notbyscientific arguments,butbytheirdifficultyinreconcilingtheideaofprovidencewiththeinjustice andimperfectionofthesocialorder.[AdolfLevenstein,DieArbeiterfrage(Munich: Reinhardt,1912).SeeWeber,"ZurMethodiksozialpsychologischerEnquetenundihrer Bearbeitung,"ArchivfuerSozialwissenschaft,2.9,1909,94958.] [100][Matthew20:16] [101][Luke11:20;Mark1:15] [102][1Corinthians11:29] [103][RE,methodologyofsalvationbyastoolorcontainer] [104]AccordingtoarecentstatementbyDr.Frank.[C.Frank,Studieszurbabylishchen Religion,1911] [105][whereisthediscussionofvirtosiandmassreligiosity??] [106][whereisthediscussionofdemonstrationofvirtositiy??] [107][Psalms35:20] [108][1Corinthians6:12] [109][MeisterEckehart,Schrifte(Duesseldorf:Diederichs,1959),HermannBuettner, trans.Anded.,P.259ff.] [110][Cf.IX:3above]

[111]ItistheremarkofMallinckrodt.[HermannMallinckrodt(182174)wasoneofthe foundersoftheCatholicCenterParty.HewasamemberoftheReichstagfrom1867until 1871.] [112][Matthew17:1620] [113][Mark6:46] [114][Mark10:5152] [115]Itincludedthenonintellectual"hylics"andthemysticallyunilluminated "psychics." [116][Psalms31:23;Isaiah63:9] [117][Matthew5:43;1John4:7] [118][Psalms89:26;Matthew6:9] [119][Analects?] [120][Luke14:26] [121]accordingtotheinterpretationofMeinhold [122][Deuteronomy32:35;Romans12:19] [123][Matthew10:36] [124][Matthew10:34]

[125][CommunityandSociety,Neighborhood,PartTwo,chap.III:2] [126][dharmmapada?JainamazedBuddha's universallove] [127][SociologyofRulership,Noble?] [128][Matthew25:3146] [129][ThePillarofIslam:(1)ConfessionofthefaithinAllah,(2)Fiveprayerinevery day,(3)almsgiving,(4)amonthfasting,and(5)PilgrimagetoMecca.The CommandmentswereestablishedafterthedeathofMuhammad.] [130][BhagavadGitachapter18] [131][Analects?] [132][Deuteronomy15:11] [133][Confession,Chapter18and19orNo.6975,(Book13:24.34)] [134][Luke6:35] [135]["TheCatholicbanonusuryderives,intheformulationoftheVulgate:'Donot depriveanybodyofhope' (mutuumdatenihilindesperantes)perhapsfromanincorrect reading,(mhdenapelpizontesinsteadofmhdenaapelpizontes,'Donote xpectanything fromit,' accordingtoAdalbertMerx."(Weber,RR,Chapter6EconomicEffectof Rulership,Section:Usury). http://acs2.bu.edu:8001/~moriyuki/weber/ruler/ruler_relig/rul_rel_6.html#usur SeealsoEconomicHistory,chap.21andP.274.]

[136]Schultehaspointedout.[AloysSchulte,GeschichtedesmittelalterlichenHandels undVerkehrszwischenWestdeutschlandundItalien(Leipzig:Dunker&Humblot,1900), I,263ff.] [137][PE,"paradox"] [138]Deoplacerenonpotest.[Thecompleteformulationreads:"Homemercatorvixaut nunquamdeopotestplacere""AmerchantcanhardlyorneverpleaseGod."The passagebecameimportantthroughtheDecretuGratiani(about1150AD).Cf.Weber, Wirtschaftsgeschichte,S.305.] [139][Cf.Weber,adelsgesellschaften,chap.IV,"Pisa.DasSozietaetsrechtdes ConstitutumUsus,"reprintedinGAzSW,386410.] [140]ThisissowelldescribedbyH.Levy.[HermannLevy,EconomicLiberalism (London:Macmillan,1913),chap.VI;firstpublishedinGermanin1902.] [141][Matthew5:39,Dhammapada10:Violence] [142][Maccabeanrulershipprohibitedcircumcision,installedthestatuesofZeusinthe JerusalemTempleandtheHellenicgymnasiumduringthe160sBC.] [143]ItisfoundedbyThomasF.Tout[18551929] [144][Matthew22:21] [145]TheinvestigationsofTroeltschhavebrilliantlydemonstrated.[ErnstTroeltsch, "DasstoischchristlicheNaturrechtunddasmoderneprofaneNaturrecht"(1911),in AufsaetzezurGeistesgeschichteundReligionssoziologie(Tuebingen:Mohr,1924),179.] [146][RR,Chapter?] [147]Troeltschhascorrectlystressedthepoint.[ErnstTroeltsch,"EpochenundTypen derSozialphilosophiedesChristentums"(1911),op.Cit.,133.]

[148][SeeClass] [149][Theterm"herrenloseSklaverei"isattributedtotheeconomistAdolfWagner (18351917),aproponentoftheChristianwelfarestate."RackervonStaat"hadin Weber' stimebecomeahumorousexpression;itwasafavoritephraseoftheromantic kingFrederickWilliamIVofPrussia(184061).Thewordswereallegedlyspokenbya peasantwhosepersonalpetitionthekinghadturneddowninthenameofstateandorder; thepeasantissupposedtohavesaid:"Iknewinadvancethatitwouldnotbemybeloved KingwhowouldconfrontmebutthatRackervonStaat."] [150][Mark12:14] [151][Psalms94:1;Jeremiah46:10;Ezekiel25:1215] [152][Intellectualreligiosity,Communalreligion] [153]Itisaltogetherfalseinterpretationforaninternalmarriageclanorkinshipto attributeto"promiscuity"ofextraordinarysexualorgiesasprimordialinstitutionsof everydaylife. [154]Inthenatureofthecase,thetypicalclientofbrothelstothisverydayremainsthe travelingbusinessperson. [155][SeeSalvationbyFaith,emotionalfaith] [156][SeeProphet] [157][Koran4:3,theChapterofWomen] [158][Matthew5:2732] [159][Accordingtoatradition,thesittingwomanwasYasodhara,Buddha' sexwife (GospelofBuddha28:Yasodhara).]

[160][GospelofBuddha32:WomenadmittedtoSanga] [161][1Corinthians7:78] [162][Genesis38:810] [163][Matthew22:30] [164][class,SeealsoAncientJudaismChapter1] [165]CitedbySombart.[WernerSombart,TheJewsandModernCapitalism(London FischerUnwin,1913),230ff.] [166][ProtestantEthicandSpiritofCapitalism,P.175] [167]InthepolemicagainstSombart' sTheJewsandModernCapitalism,onepointwas notseriouslyquestioned,namelythatJudaismplayedaconspicuousroleinthe developmentofthemoderncapitalisticeconomy.However,thisthesisofSombart'sbook needstobemademoreprecise. [168][Onthecommendaandthecommandite,seeWeber,Handelsgesellschaften(1889), 1924reprintinGAzSW,339ff,andEconomicHistory,chap.17"FormsofCommercial Enterprise."ThemaonacomprisedvarioustypesofassociationsemployedinItalian citiesfortherunningofaReetortheexploitationofanoverseascolony.] [169]AsSombartcorrectlypointsout. [170]AgainSombarthasrightlystressedthispoint. [171][Matthew23:1327] [172][John1:46]

[173][Matthew12:1112] [174]Guttmannhascorrectlyemphasized.[JuliusGuttmann,"DieJudenanddas Wirtschaftsleben,"AfS,vol.36,1913,149ff.ThisisacritiqueofSombart'sbook.] [175]Where?Resentment? [176][Romans7:12] [177]Wernleinparticularhaspointedout.[PaulWernle,TheBeginningsofChristianity (NewYork:Putnam),vol.II,chap.IX,esp.192f.] [178][Romans4:619] [179][Galatians5:1] [180][Romans8:3539] [181][Matthew15:34] [182][Koran9:34;Accordingtotradition,Muhammadremarked:"nomonasticismin Islam.";"donottroubleyourselvesandGodwillnottroubleyou.Somehavetroubled themselvesandGodhastroubledthem,theirlikesareinthehermitagesandmonasteries." (FromBritanicaOnline)] [183][seetheodicy,providence] [184][pariahreligiosity,ortheodicyoforganicsociety] [185][SociologyofRulership] [186][Matthew5:3]

[187][Matthew5:1718] [188][Matthew12:1112] [189][Matthew5:3132] [190][Romans3:1920] [191][Mark7:1115] [192][Joh8:3858;John14:6] [193][Mark1:22;Mark1:34] [194][Mark6:46;John8:45] [195][Matthew9:130;Matthew8:510] [196][Matthew11:2122;Matthew21:19] [197][Matthew23:37;Matthew23:1329] [198][Matthew12:31] [199][Matthew5:22] [200][Matthew7:1314] [201][Matthew11:3]

[202][Matthew18:3] [203][Matthew5:1920] [204][Luke13:2324;Matthew22:14] [205][John12:3740] [206][Isaiah1:9;Isaiah6:910] [207][Zechariah9:9;Matthew21:5] [208][Matthew9:912] [209][Matthew19:2126] [210][Luke14:26] [211][Matthew6:24] [212][Mark12:3033] [213][Matthew5:44] [214][Luke10:2936] [215][Matthew18:2122] [216][Matthew5:42]

[217][Matthew5:39] [218][Matthew6:14] [219][Luke12:33] [220][Luke16:2025] [221][Matthew4:17] [222][Mark13:30] [223][Matthew22:21] [224][Matthew6:3034] [225][Matthew22:3639] [226][Matthew7:1517] [227][John14:28] [228][Acts2:1] [229][1Corinthians7:20] [230][Accordingtonotesinthemanuscript,thissectionwastohavebeenexpanded further.]

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