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Antennas
! Grading policy. " " " ! ! ! ! Weekly Homework 40%. Midterm Exam 30%. Project 30%.

Office hour: 5:10 ~ 6:00 pm, Tuesday. Textbook: Warren L. Stutzman and Gary A. Thiele, Antenna Theory and Design, 2nd Ed. Matlab programming may be needed. Contents " " " " " " " " Electromagnetics and Antenna Fundamentals Simple Antennas Arrays Resonant Antennas Broadband Antennas Aperture Antennas Antenna Synthesis Numerical Techniques

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Overview of Antennas
! Antenna performance parameters " Radiation pattern: Angular variation of radiation power or field strength around the antenna, including: directive, single or multiple narrow beams, omnidirectional, shaped main beam. " Directivity : ratio of power density in the

direction of the pattern maximum to the average power density at the same distance from the antenna. " Gain : Directivity reduced by the losses on

the antenna. " Polarization: The direction of electric fields. " " Linear Circular Elliptical

Impedance Bandwidth

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Antenna types " Electrically small antennas: The extent of the antenna structure is much less than a wavelength. Properties # # # # # # very low directivity Low input resistance High input reactance Low radiation efficiency

Examples Short dipole Small loop

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"

Resonant antennas: The antenna operates well as a single of selected narrow frequency bands. Properties # # # # # # Low to moderate gain Real input impedance Narrow bandwidth

Examples Half wave dipole Microstrip patch Yagi

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Broadband antennas: Properties # # # # # # Low to moderate gain Constant gain Real input impedance Wide bandwidth

Examples Spiral Log periodic dipole array

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"

Aperture antennas: has a physical aperture (opening) through which waves flow. Properties # # # # # High gain Gain increases with frequency Moderate bandwidth

Examples Horn Reflector

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Maxwell Equations
! Important Laws in Electromagnetics " " " " " " " ! Coulombs Law Gausss Law Amperes Law Ohms Law Kirchhoffs Law Biot-Savart Law Faradays Law
James Clerk Maxwell 1831-1879

Maxwell Equations (1873)

: electric field intensity. : electric flux density : magnetic field intensity

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: magnetic flux density : electric current density : magnetic current density : electric charge density : magnetic charge density : permittivity : permeability ! ! Constituent Relationship

Continuity Equations

Boundary Conditions

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Time-Harmonic Fields

Time-harmonic: : a real function in both space and time. : a real function in space. : a complex function in space. A phaser. Thus, all derivative of time becomes . For a partial deferential equation, all derivative of time can be replace with , and all time dependence of can be removed and becomes a partial deferential equation of space only. Representing all field quantities as , then the original Maxwells equation becomes

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Power Relationship

Poynting vector:

! Solution of Maxwells Equations Note all the field and source quantities are functions of space only. The wave equations of potentials becomes , where is called the wave number. The above equations are called nonhomogeneous Helmholtzs equations. The Lorentz condition becomes Also

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The wave functions for electric and magnetic fields in source free region becomes

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The Ideal Dipole

Purpose: Investigate the fundamental properties of an antenna. Short Dipole:

Therefore

Since

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We have . And

As

or

, then

E-plane pattern: plane containing E-fields. H-plane pattern: plane containing H-fields. Radiated power,

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To sum up, at far field 1. Spherical TEM waves. 2. Wave impedance equal the intrinsic impedance . 3. Real power flow.

Radiation from Line Currents

For a general straight line source located at origin, . At far field, and , thus . Since,

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At neglecting high order terms of , Similarly, and .

Far Field Conditions

To sum up: 1. At fixed frequency, 2. At fixed antenna size,

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3.

At various frequency and antenna size scaled,

Example 1-1

Radiation Pattern Definitions Normalized field pattern: Power pattern: In dB scale

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Examples Ideal dipole: Line current: Main lobe (major lobe, main beam) Side lobe (minor lobe) Maximum side lobe level: Half-power beamwidth: Pattern types: Broadside, Intermediate, Endfire.

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Directivity

Solid angle: Radiation intensity: where

Directivity:

Beam solid angle:

Example 1-2 Example 1-3

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Power Gain (Gain)

or Radiation efficiency:

Referenced Gain: dBi: referenced to isotropic antenna. dBd: referenced to dipole antenna. Antenna Impedance

Ideal dipole: When the conductor is thicker than skin depth where

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Considering the effect of continuity at the end of the dipole, use triangular current distribution

Example 1-4: Radiation Efficiency of an AM Car Radio Antenna. Radius Dipole Length Frequency 1 MHz.

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For short dipole,

Example 1-5: Input Reactance of an AM Car Radio Antenna of Example 1-4.

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Polarization

Cases 1. Linear polarization: 2. Circular polarization: 3. Others: Ellipse.

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Half-wave Dipole

Image Theory

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Monopole

Small Loop Antenna

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Duality: due to symmetry of Maxwells Eqs.

For a magnetic dipole

Inductance: Small circular loop of radius b for

Small rectangular loop of

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Example 2-1: A Small Circular Loop Antenna Loop circumference Wire radius Frequency

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Antenna in Communication Systems

Open circuit voltage: for ideal dipole receiving antenna and polarization match. When Maximum power transfer: Power density: Maximum effective aperture For an ideal dipole In general, Effective aperture: Available power: In general, Aperture efficiency: , where is the physical or

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aperture size. Communication Links

Power delivered to the load : polarization mismatch factor, : impedance mismatch factor, In dB form

or

where dBm is power in decibels above a milliwatt. EIRP: effective (equivalent) isotropically radiated power ERP: effective radiated power by a half-dipole

Example 2-3: Direct Broadcast Satellite Reception Receiving disk antenna: size 0.46 m in diameter,

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Arrays
Phased array: electronic scan. Radars, smart antennas. Active array: each antenna element is powered individually. Passive array: all antenna elements are powered by one source. Array type by positioning: 1. Linear arrays, 2. Planar arrays, 3. Conformal arrays. Examples

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Array Factor

In general the radiation pattern is where is the excitation current of n-th antenna, location vector, and the field pattern. If all antenna elements are the same the

AF is called array factor. It is determine only by two parameters: the excitations and the locations of the antennas. Equal Space Linear Array

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If the excitation has a linear phase progression, i.e. Then

where

If the amplitude of the excitation is the same, that is , then

Neglecting the phase factor,

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Normalized AF: Maximum at Main beam at Broadside: Endfire:

. This is the scanning effect.

Summary: N increases as the main lobe beamwidth decreases. Number of side lobes: N-2. Number of nulls: N-1. Side lobe width: . Main lobe width: . Side lobe peaks decrease with increasing N. is symmetric about .

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BWFN of Broadside Array ( First null occurs when

) , or

Then, for long array

Similarly, half power beamwidth broadside. BWFN of Endfire Array First null occurs when

near

, or

Similarly, half power beamwidth

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Example 3-5 Four-Element Linear Array Parameters: , ,

Main beam

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Single Mainbeam Oridinary Endfire Array Oridinary Endfire: main beam at exactly or Range of : Half-width of a grating lobe: Choose lobe, or

to eliminate most of the grating

Example 3-6 Five-Element Ordinary Endfire Linear Array Parameters:

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Hansen-Woodyard Endfire Array Purpose: increase directivity by increasing to reduce the visible region of the main beam. Choose to reduce main beam width. Choose to prevent back lobe to become larger than main lobe. Maximum directivity for large array: . Simpler Formula for :

Example 3-7 Five-Element Hansen-Woodyard Endfire Linear Array Parameters: ,

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Pattern Multiplication Example 3-8 Two-Collinear, Half-Wavelength Spaced Short Dipoles Parameters:

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Example 3-9 Two Parallel, Half-Wavelength Spaced Short Dipoles

Since

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Directivity of Uniformly Excited, Equal Spaced Linear Arrays

For

and

For broadside, isotropic array , for . For ordinary endfire, isotropic array , for . For Hansen-Woodyard endfire, isotropic array

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Directivity as a function of scan angles Combining element pattern:

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Nonuniformly Excited, Equally Spaced Linear Arrays Let , then the array factor

is a polynomial of 1. Binomial distribution: Properties: no sidelobe, broader beam width, lower directivity. 2. Dolph-Chebyshev distribution: Properties: equal sidelobe levels, narrower beam width, higher directivity. Sidelobe level can be specified.

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General expression of directivity of non-equal spaced and non-uniform excitation:

where is the current amplitude of k-th element, the position, and . For equal space, broadside array, , , we have

Furthermore, if

, we have

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Issue of Array 1. Mutual Coupling a. Effect impedances b. Effect radiation patterns c. Scan Blindness Feed network a. Increase loss b. Effect bandwidth c. Increase space

2.

Feed Network

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2-Dimensional Equal Space Progressive Phase Arrays

From the general equation,

where

Thus,

where

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