Setting the Record Straight: What is Known and Unknown About Intelligence

After the publication of Hernnstrein and Murray's controversial book The Bell Curve, The APA's Board of Scientific Affairs (BSA) established a Task Force to prepare an authoritative report on research findings related to intelligence. The Task Force focused on five specific questions and indicated what is known from scientific evidence, what is currently in dispute, and what is still unknown. The following is a summation of the Task Force findings. The original article detailing the Task Force's findings appears in the February 1996 issue of American Psychologist.

Question 1: What Are the Significant Conceptualizations of Intelligence at this Time?

Known:

Most of our knowledge on intelligence is based on research from psychometric testing. Most traditional intelligence tests focus on analytic abilities. Some psychometricians focus on the differences and patterns of specific abilities. Some psychometricians are concerned with correlations of specific abilities and finding an overall general intelligence factor (g).

In Dispute:
What is the definition of g? Is it a form of mental energy, an abstract reasoning ability, a measure of neural processing speed or a mere statistical regularity? Should measures of intelligence include musical, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, naturalist and broader forms of spatial abilities? How do we distinguish between talents and intelligence? Should intelligence tests measure creative and practical abilities as well as analytic skills? How can intelligence tests reflect the factors of significance within specific cultures? (Anglo-Americans stress cognitive abilities as important in the concept of intelligence; people from other cultures view motivation, social skills, and practical school skills as more important.)

Unknown:

How do brain functions relate to intelligence? (With current improvements in technology, research is still in the early stages.)

Question 2: What Do Intelligence Test Scores Mean, What Do they Predict, and How Well Do they Predict It?
Known:

Tests of intelligence usually have subtests to measure specific abilities. Intelligence test scores correlate fairly well with school grades (.50) but this correlation accounts only for 25 percent of the overall variance. (Culture and type of schooling are important variables contributing to school achievement.) IQ scores are relatively stable throughout development. Intelligence test scores are the best single predictor of how long an individual will remain in school. Psychometric intelligence is only one of the many factors that affect social status. Intelligence test scores are weakly related to job performance. Correlations between intelligence test scores and juvenile crime are negative and extremely low. Perceptual and cognitive speed are correlated with psychometric intelligence.

Unknown:
Are factors such as interpersonal skills and aspects of personality more important than intelligence in predicting job performance? Does speed or "neural efficiency" promote increases in intelligence or do more intelligent individuals just find quicker ways to complete perceptual and cognitive tasks?

Question 3: Why Do Individuals Differ in Intelligence and Especially in their Scores on Intelligence Tests?
Known:

Intelligence is the joint product of both genetic and environmental factors. Failure to attend school has a negative effect on intelligence scores. Preschool programs usually have a positive effect on intelligence scores but the gains tend to fade with time. Exposure to lead has a negative effect on intelligence. Prenatal exposure to high levels of alcohol has a negative effect on intelligence. Malnutrition is a negative factor for intelligence. In the last 50 years, mean IQ scores world-wide have increased more than 15 points (called the "Flynn effect").

In Dispute:

Can dietary supplements of micronutrients increase intelligence scores in well-nourished individuals?

Unknown:
How do genes contribute to individual differences in intelligence? What level of nutrition is required to maintain intelligence? Which factors contribute to the recent worldwide increase in intelligence test scores (Flynn effect): improved nutrition, cultural changes, experience with testing, shifts in schooling or child-rearing methods, or other unknown considerations?

Question 4: Do Various Ethnic Groups Display Different Patterns of Performance on Intelligence Tests and If So, What Might Explain those Differences?
Known:

There are no important gender differences in overall IQ scores. Males tend to score higher on visual-spatial and (starting in middle-childhood) mathematical skills, while females tend to achieve higher scores on several verbal scales. Sex hormone levels as well as social factors are responsible for gender differences. Intelligence distributions among groups overlap widely. Ethnic differences show complex patterns and are difficult to generalize. While Chinese and Japanese Americans have outstanding school achievement, their IQ scores are similar to those of European Americans (Whites) although their spatial scores are slightly higher. Hispanic Americans (Latinos) score somewhat lower than Whites, but many Hispanics are less familiar with English. African Americans (Blacks) score about 15 points below Whites. Empirical evidence shows little support for genetic explanations of the Black/White IQ differential.

In Dispute:
Can the Flynn effect explain the Black/White IQ differential?

Unknown:
What cultural factors lead to differences in IQ scores? Can sex differences in brain structures and functions explain differences in patterns of intelligence?

Question 5: What Significant Scientific Issues Are Presently Unresolved?

Why does the genetic impact on intelligence increase with age? What aspects of schooling are critical to the development of intelligence? What is the role of nutrition in intelligence? How should the correlation between information processing speed and psychometric intelligence be interpreted? Why have mean intelligence scores risen more than 15 points in the last 50 years? What causes the differences in scores between Blacks and Whites? How are such factors as creativity, wisdom, practical sense and social sensitivity related to intelligence?

Possible Activities for Introductory Psychology Students

Assign students to read the assigned chapter (or pages) on "intelligence" in their text. Each student must outline their text's author's views on: Known information on intelligence; Issues that are currently in dispute; and Concepts that are unknown and require further study.