Shivam Patel Biology Study Guide XV. CHAPTER 15 EVOLUTION: EVIDENCE AND THEORY A.

. Section 1 The Fossil Record 1. Nature Of Fossils a. Fossil a trace of a long-dead organism. They are often found in layers of sedimentary rock. 1. Sediment such as dust, sand, or mud is deposited by wind or water. 2. There are two principal forms of fossil: i. Mold is an imprint in rock in the shape of an organism. ii. Cast is a rocklike model of an organism. 3. Robert Hooke concluded that fossils are the remains of plants and animals. 2. Distribution Of Fossils a. Nicolaus Steno made an important contribution toward a modern understanding of Earths biological history. 1. Law of Superposition stated that successive layers, or stratum, of rock or soil were deposited by wind or water. 2. Using Stenos law, observers could establish: i. The relative age of a fossil (one fossil is younger/older than the other). ii. The absolute age of a fossil (age in years), which could involve radiological dating. 3. Fossil-bearing strata show that species appeared, existed for a while, and then disappeared. i. Extinction the permanent disappearance of an entire species from earth. ii. Mass Extinctions brief periods during which large numbers of species vanish. 4. Biogeography the study of the geographical distribution of fossils and living organisms. 5. A comparison of fossil types shows that new organisms arise in areas where similar ones lived. B. Section 2 Theories of Evolution 1. Lamarcks Explanation a. Jean Baptiste de Lamarck proposed that similar species descended from a common ancestor. 1. He hypothesized that acquired traits were passed on to

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offspring. 2. Acquired Trait a trait that is not determined by genes. It arises as a result of an organisms experience or behavior. 3. Ex. Lamarck believed that the webbed foot of shore birds resulted from repeated stretching of membranes between toes. 52 i. Offspring of birds with webbed feet would acquire that trait from their parents. ii. If an organism did not use a certain part of its body, a smaller version of that part would be passed on. 4. His hypothesis was easily disproved, but laid out the foundations for the eventual work of Charles Darwin. 2. The Beginning Of Evolutionary Thought a. Natural Selection organisms best suited for their environment reproduce more successfully. 1. Population a group of organisms of the same species. 2. Over time, the proportion of organisms with more favorable traits increases. b. Charles Darwin was born in 1809 to a wealthy British physician. 1. In 1831, Darwin sailed aboard the H.M.S. Beagle as the ships naturalist for five years. i. Uniformitarianism the geological structure of Earth results from cycles. Detailed in Principles of Geology by Charles Lyell. ii. In Chile, Darwin observed fossil shells in rock beds more than 4 km above ground. He reasoned that the formation of mountains slowly changed habitats. c. Alfred Wallace approached Darwin with his own paper on natural selection, prompting Darwin to publish his own work. 1. Both their hypotheses were presented to the Linnean Society of London in 1858. 2. A year later, Darwin published On the Origin of Species. 3. Darwins Theories a. Darwins ideas about evolution and natural selection are summed up in two theories: 1. Descent with modification newer forms appearing in fossil records are actually the modified descendants of

older species. 2. Modification by natural selection states how evolution occurs. Darwin was influenced by Thomas Malthus. b. Adapt an organism becomes better suited to its habitat. c. Fitness a single organisms genetic contribution. C. Section 3 Evolution in Process 1. Evidence Of Evolution a. Homologous Features similar features that originated in a shared ancestor. 53 1. Ex. beaks of birds, similar forelimbs of penguins, alligators, bats, and humans. b. Analogous Features serve identical functions and look somewhat alike. 1. They have very different embryological development and may differ in anatomy. 2. Ex. A hummingbird and a humming moth both hover to feed off of flower nectar, but do not share anatomy or embryological structure. c. Vestigial Features features that seem to serve no useful function in an organism. 1. A vestigial feature in a modern organism is evidence that the structure was used in some ancestor. 2. Ex. humans tailbones, appendix, whale pelvis. d. The early stages of different vertebrate embryos are strikingly similar to each other. e. Ernst Haeckel stated that embryological development repeats evolutionary history. 1. His statement was over exaggerated; as during no stage of development does a fish resemble a gorilla. 2. All vertebrate embryos are similar, but those similarities fade as development continues. f. Darwin hypothesized that more similar forms of organisms have a more recent common ancestor than less-similar forms. 2. Patterns Of Evolution a. Coevolution the change of two or more species in close association with each other. Ex. plants and pollinators. b. Convergent Evolution organisms that appear to be similar are not related at all. Ex. sharks and dolphins. c. Divergent Evolution two or more related populations or species become increasingly dissimilar. 1. Adaptive Radiation many related species evolve from

a single ancestral species. Ex. Galpagos finches, which diverged in response to food availability. 2. Artificial Selection selection for reproductive success in plants and animals that is directed by humans. Ex. domestic dogs are all members of the same species but come in multiple breeds. XVI. CHAPTER 16 THE EVOLUTION OF POPULATIONS AND SPECIES A. Section 1 Genetic Equilibrium 1. Variation Of Traits In A Population a. Population Genetics the study of the genetic aspect of evolution. b. Variations are influenced by environmental factors and heredity. c. Variations in genotype arise in three main ways: 54 1. Mutations result from faulty copies of individual genes. 2. Recombinations occur during meiosis through independent assortment and crossing-over. 3. Random fusion of gametes is driven by probability. Out of millions of sperms, only one will fertilize an egg, ensuring that offspring vary from their parents. 2. Allele Frequencies And The Gene Pool a. Gene Pool the total amount of genetic information available in a population. b. Allele Frequency a measure of the genetic frequency of an allele within a population. Can be determined with the formula: Number of a Particular Allele Total Number of All Alleles in the Population c. Phenotype Frequency a measure of the frequency of phenotype in a population. Can be determined with the formula: Number of Individuals with the Phenotype Total Number of Individuals in the Population 3. Hardy-Weinberg Genetic Equilibrium allele frequencies within a population remain the same from generation to generation. a. In a non-evolving ideal population under in equilibrium: 1. Allele frequencies do not change because of mutation. 2. Individuals neither enter nor leave the population. 3. The population is very large. 4. Individuals mate randomly. 5. Natural selection does not occur. B. Section 2 Disruption of Genetic Equilibrium 1. Mutation a. Mutations can influence genetic equilibrium in a species by

producing new alleles for a trait. b. Beneficial mutations, in the long term, play a vital role in ensuring the survival of a species. 2. Migration a. Immigration and emigration can affect gene frequencies in a species. b. Gene Flow the process by which genes are transferred from one population of a species to another. 3. Genetic Drift a shift in allele distribution due to random changes in individual allele frequency. a. Abnormal rates of reproduction in small populations can easily disrupt allele distribution, leading to genetic drift. 55 b. This can result in all organisms in a population having the same allele, which can endanger the species since there is no variation for natural selection to act on. 4. Nonrandom Mating a. Mating of related individuals can lead to the anomalous amplification of certain traits, leading to disorders. b. Assortative Mating individuals seek out mates that have similar physical characteristics/genes. 5. Natural Selection a. Any of the 4 forms of natural selection can lead to evolution: 1. Stabilizing Selection individuals with the normal form of a trait are the most successful. Ex. lizards of a certain color and size evade predators more efficiently. 2. Directional Selection favors individuals with traits at one extreme of the phenotypic range. Ex. anteaters with longer tongues can reach into deeper ant nests. 3. Disruptive Selection favors individuals with traits at either extreme of the phenotypic range. Ex. white and dark shelled limpets blend in better than grey shells. 4. Sexual Selection based on the selection of a mate because of certain distinguishing features. Ex. female peacocks pick their mate based on their plumage. C. Section 3 Formation of a Species 1. The Concept Of Species a. Speciation the process of the formation of a new species. Existing species are basically altered versions of older ones. b. Morphology the internal and external structure/appearance of an organism. It was originally used to define a species. c. Biological Species Concept proposed by Ernst Mayr; states that species are groups of interbreeding natural populations

that are reproductively isolated from other such groups. 2. Isolating Mechanisms a. Isolation involves two populations that cease interbreeding. Two forms of isolation drive speciation: 1. Geographic Isolation the physical isolation of two different populations. 2. Reproductive Isolation groups within a population can become genetically isolated from the rest. There are two types: i. Prezygotic Isolation occurs before fertilization. ii. Postzygotic Isolation occurs after fertilization. 3. Rates Of Speciation a. Speciation can occur quickly; on the order of thousands of years rather than millions. 56 b. Punctuated Equilibrium - holds that evolutionary change in the fossil record came in fits rather than a steady process of slow change.