Machine Tool Metrology

Test types :
Static test check alignment accuracy of various parts.
Dynamic test check alignment accuracy under operating condition with
dynamic loading.
MACHINE TOOL METROLOGY
Machine tools (discussed) :
1. Turning/Lathe machine
2. Milling machine
Quality of the work pieces depends on :
1. Stiffness and rigidity of the machine tool and its components parts.
2. The alignment of various machine parts in relation to one another.
3. Quality and accuracy of the control devices and the driving mechanism.
Geometrical checks on machine tools :
1. Straightness :
Line in two-planes
Slideways of machine tools
Straight line motion
2. Flatness.
3. Squareness of straight lines and planes
4. Rotations :
Out of round
Eccentricity
Radial throw of an axis at a given point
Run-out
Periodical axial slip
Camming
5. Parallelism, equidistance and coincidence :
Parallelism of lines and planes
Parallel motion
MACHINE TOOL METROLOGY (CONTD)
UNCERTAINTY ANALYSIS & QUALITY
CONTROL
UNCERTAINTY IN MEASUREMENT
Every measurement or judgement has limitations in accuracy
and contains a certain error
Therefore
Reported value = best estimated + uncertainty
Uncertainty is a parameter, associated with the result of a measurement,
that characterizes the dispersion of the values that could reasonably
be attributed to the measurand.*
* The term measurand is defined as a particular quantity subject to
measurement.
UNCERTAINTY IN MEASUREMENT
The parameter may be, for example, a standard deviation (or a given
multiple of it), or the half-width of an interval having a stated level of
confidence.
Uncertainty of measurement comprises, in general, many components.
Some of these components may be evaluated from the statistical
distribution of the results of series of measurements and can be
characterized by experimental standard deviations. The other
components, which can also be characterized by standard deviations,
are evaluated from assumed probability distributions based on
experience or other information.
UNCERTAINTY IN MEASUREMENT
It is understood that the result of the measurement is the best
estimate of the value of the measurand, and that all components of
uncertainty, including those arising from systematic effects, such as
components associated with corrections and reference standards,
contribute to the dispersion.
Standard:
International Organization for Standardization (ISO) Guide to the
Expression of Uncertainty in Measurement.
DEFINITIONS OF TERMS
Standard Uncertainty (u
i
):
The representation of each component of uncertainty that
contributes to the uncertainty of measurement, by an estimated
standard deviation is termed as standard uncertainty.
Combined Standard Uncertainty (u
c
):
The combination of all the standard uncertainties, which
represents the standard deviation of the result, is known as combined
standard uncertainty. It is usually the square root of the sum of the
squares of the individual standard uncertainties.
DEFINITIONS OF TERMS
Expanded Uncertainty (U):
The combined standard uncertainty times the coverage factor gives the
expanded uncertainty. The expanded uncertainty forms a boundary about the
measurement result y within which the measurand Y is confidently believed to
lie.
Coverage Factor (k):
The factor that is used to multiply the combined standard uncertainty
to obtain the expanded uncertainty is called coverage factor.
U y Y
or
U y Y U y
=
+ s s
SOURCES OF ERRORS
Random Errors:
Arise from random causes that cannot be predicted.
May be characterized by the standard deviation and the type
of distribution.
Cannot be completely eliminated, but can be reduced by
making a large number of measurements.
Systematic Errors:
Arise from recognizable causes and can be corrected for in
advance.
May be characterized by size and sign (+ or -).
SOURCES OF ERRORS
Drift:
Is often a time effect or a wear effect.
May be characterized by change per unit time or per amount
of use.
Outliers:
Are caused by non-repeatable incidents in measurements.
Are very difficult (almost impossible) to characterize in
advance.
SOURCES OF ERRORS
:>
UNCERTAINTY CONTRIBUTORS
::
GUIDE TO EXPRESSION OF UNCERTAINTY IN
MEASUREMENT (GUM)
Estimation of standard uncertainty (u(x
i
)):
The measurand can be
Measured directly i.e., it could be the result of a single
measurement.
Determined from other quantities through a functional relationship.
where X
1
, X
2
are determined either by direct measurement or by evaluating
certain functions. Again these quantities may be independent of each other or
correlated.
) ,......, , (
2 1 N
X X X f Y =
TYPE A STANDARD UNCERTAINTY
The type A evaluation of uncertainty involves the use of statistical
techniques on a series of measurements.
The estimation of uncertainty through type A can be done in any one
of the following ways.
Estimating the standard deviation of the data set.
Adopting the method of least squares to fit a curve
representing the data and deriving parameters from the fit.
Using the analysis of variance (ANOVA) to estimate
uncertainty.
TYPE B STANDARD UNCERTAINTY
Type B standard uncertainty:
Techniques other than statistics are used to evaluate
standard uncertainty.
Usually evaluated by scientific judgement based on available
information and previous knowledge of the measurand.
The pool of information may include
previous measurement data;
experience with or general knowledge of the behavior and
properties of relevant materials and instruments;
manufacturers specification;
data provided in calibration and other certificates;
uncertainties assigned to reference data taken from
handbooks.
UNCERTAINTY
In general the quoted uncertainty is calculated by assuming a
distribution and the standard uncertainty is obtained by
dividing the quoted uncertainty by a factor characteristic of
the distribution used.
There are three types of distributions used in general.
Triangular
Rectangular
Normal (Gaussian)
TYPES OF DISTRIBUTIONS
Rectangular Distribution:
To obtain the factor for the above distribution,
Area under the curve = 1 and m=0. Therefore
The variance is given by
Standard deviation:
-a +a
Rectangular Distribution
f
a
f
a f
2
1
1 2 *
=
=
}

=
a
a
dx x f x ) ( ) (
2 2
o
3
a
= o
TYPES OF DISTRIBUTIONS
Normal (Gaussian) Distribution:
Triangular distribution:
-a +a

Gaussian
3
a
= o
-a +a

Triangular
6
a
= o
COMBINED UNCERTAINTY (U
C
)
The combined standard uncertainty is the positive square root of the
combined variance and is given by
where f is the function in
Note:
If the input quantities are correlated then the uncertainty must be
calculated in terms of their covariances. The correlation effect must
be taken into account if it is significant.
2 / 1
1
2
2
) ( ) (
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
=

=
n
i
i
i
c
x u
x
f
y u
) ,......, , (
2 1 N
X X X f Y =
EXPANDED UNCERTAINTY (U)
The expanded uncertainty is obtained by multiplying the
combined standard uncertainty by a coverage factor k.
The result of a measurement is then expressed as
) ( y ku U
c
=
U y Y =
SUMMARY
Step 1:
Identify all the error sources
Step 2:
Estimate standard uncertainty
Type A evaluation
Statistical means.
Type B evaluation
Other means.
Experience.
Previous data.
Calibration reports.
Manufacturers specification
Distributions
Normal
Triangular
Rectangular
SUMMARY
Step 3:
Compute combined uncertainty uc.
Step 4:
Compute expanded uncertainty U choosing a suitable coverage factor k.
WHAT IS QUALITY?
Fitness for use
Conformance to requirements
Variability is enemy of Quality
Controlling variability
Inspection
Prevention
STATISTICAL PROCESS CONTROL (SPC)
Charts: Control Charts for Process Means
R Charts: Control Charts for Process Variability
p Charts: Control Charts for Attributes
X
CHARTS: CONTROL CHARTS FOR PROCESS
MEANS
A center line (CL)
An upper control limit (UCL) line
A lower control limit (LCL) line
x
x x
3o +
x

UCL
x x
3o
LCL
CL
n
x
o
= o
=
x
CHARTS: CONTROL CHARTS FOR PROCESS
MEANS
Process is in-control
X
UCL
LCL
CL
CHARTS: CONTROL CHARTS FOR PROCESS
MEANS
Process is out-of-control: outliers beyond
control limits
X
``
UCL
LCL
CL
CHARTS: CONTROL CHARTS FOR PROCESS
MEANS
Process is out-of-control: increasing trend in
observations
X
UCL
LCL
CL
CHARTS WHEN AND ARE NOT
KNOWN
= grand mean
= sum of all observations
= sum of the sample means
n = number of observations in each sample
k = number of samples taken

x
k
x
k n
x
x

=

=
o
x

x
Grand Mean from Several Samples of the Same Size
CHARTS WHEN AND ARE NOT
KNOWN
= grand mean
= averages of the sample Ranges =
d
2
= control chart factor
n = number of observations in each sample
.
x
n d
R 3
x UCL
2
+ =
.
x
R

k / R
Control limits for an Chart
n d
R 3
x LCL
2
=

o x
R CHART: CONTROL CHART FOR PROCESS
VARIABILITY
Standard deviation of the sampling
Distribution of R
3
d
o
= population standard deviation
= Another factor depending on n
o o
3
d
R
=
R CHART: CONTROL CHART FOR PROCESS
VARIABILITY
Control limits for an R Chart
|
|
.
|

\
|
= =
2
3
2
3
3
1
3
d
d
R
d
R d
R LCL
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ = + =
2
3
2
3
3
1
3
d
d
R
d
R d
R UCL
P CHART: CONTROL CHART FOR ATTRIBUTES
Standard deviation of the sampling
Distribution of R
Center Line for a p Chart
n
pq
p
= o
p CL
p
= =
P CHART: CONTROL CHART FOR ATTRIBUTES
Standard deviation of the sampling
Distribution of R
n
pq
p LCL
p p
3 3 = = o
n
pq
p UCL
p p
3 3 + = + = o
CONTROL CHART FACTORS
Sample
size,n
Factor for x chart Factor for R chart
d
2
=R/o A
2
=3/(d2\n) d
3
=o
R
/o D
3
=1-(3d
3
/d
2
) D
4
=1+(3d
3
/d
2
)
2 1.128 1.881 0.853 0 3.629
3 1.693 1.023 0.888 0 2.574
4 2.059 0.729 0.88 0 2.282
5 2.326 0.577 0.864 0 2.114
6 2.534 0.483 0.848 0 2.004
7 2.704 0.419 0.833 0.076 1.924