Chapter 6

UNCOOLEDMUCROBOLOMETERINFRARED
SENSOR ARRAYS
R.A. Wood
6.1 INTRODUCTION
The first man-made infrared (IR) sensor was a thermometer,
demonstrated by Herschel in 1800 [1]. Such an IR sensor is now termed a
"thermal" sensor, since it operates by sensing the temperature rise caused by
absorbed infrared radiation (in contrast to other types of infrared detectors
[2] which operate at fixed temperatures). Figure 1 shows the fundamental
form of a thermal IR sensor: an IR-absorbing plate (area A) is suspended
from a large thermal mass (supporting substrate) by supporting "legs". The
supporting legs are long and narrow, and are made from a material with low
thermal conductivity, so that the IR heat energy dissipated in the IR-
absorbing plate does not quickly leak away to the supporting substrate.
Some type of temperature-sensitive device is placed on the absorbing plate,
to measure the temperature changes produced by incident infrared radiation.
From Fig. 1, it is intuitively reasonable to expect that the greatest
sensitivity to infrared radiation will be attained from a thermal sensor if:
1) the thermal mass ofthe absorbing plate is as small as possible (so that
small amounts of energy induce a high temperature rise);
2) the absorbing plate is highly thermally isolated from the supporting
structure (so that the absorbed heat does not readily leak away to the
substrate).
If a two-dimensional (20) array of such thermal sensors is placed at the
focal plane of an IR transmitting lens, each of the thermal sensors in the 20
array can provide one picture element (pixel) of an infrared image of a
scene. Such an imager is called a "staring" imager (to distinguish it from
imagers [3] which use a scanning mechanism). For such an application, it is
intuitive to further expect that
P. Capper et al. (eds.), Infrared Detectors and Emitters: Materials and Devices
Kluwer Academic Publishers 2001
150 Infrared Detectors and Emitters:Materials and Devices
3) very large numbers of thermal sensors are desirable, to generate a
finely detailed image (a reasonable-quality image requires a minimum of
about 1 OOx 100 pixels);
4) with tens of thousands of thermal sensors in a 2D array, each thermal
sensor must be as small as possible, to avoid an impractically large array;
5) if an electrical method is used to measure the sensors' temperature
signals, it is impractical to provide individual electrical leads to tens of
thousands of individual sensors, so the electrical signals must be efficiently
passed out along a much smaller number of electrical leads.
6) it is clearly impractical to assemble tens of thousands of individual
tiny thermal sensors by hand, so some easy method of mass-fabrication is
necessary;
7) from the description of the operating mechanism of a thermal sensor,
we can expect that the array will operate well at room temperature
("uncooled" operation).
Each of these expectations will be verified and quantified later in this
chapter, but for the moment we shall take these on trust, and use them to
guide the design of suitable 2D arrays of thermal sensors. Using these
guidelines, we shall describe how two-dimensional arrays of thermal sensors
may be constructed, and show how to calculate their performance in an
infrared imaging system. These calculations will justify the above intuitive
guidelines.
Infrared
Radiation
C 9 8 1 ~ . 1
Area
A
Figure 1 Fundamental form of a thermal IR sensor.
RA. Wood
6.2 FABRICATION OF ARRAYS OF THERMAL
SENSORS
151
A very suitable method of making 2D arrays of thermal sensors is the
process of "silicon micromachining", which is the technology of shaping
microscopic structures by etching silicon wafers. Large 2D arrays can be
formed using photolithographic masks with repeated features. Although
silicon micromachining can be used to fabricate most types of thermal
sensors, the particular type of thermal sensor we will discuss in this chapter
will be a microminiature bolometer ("microbolometer"). Bolometers were
first demonstrated effectively by Langley in 1882 [1] and are thermal
sensors which use a temperature-dependent resistor attached to the IR-
absorbing mass to sense the temperature signal. To sense the signal
electrically, an electrical bias voltage is applied across a thin-film resistor
deposited on the IR-absorbing plate, to produce an electrical signal current
which varies as the incident IR radiation varies. We shall show below that
micromachined microbolometer arrays offer very good sensitivity for
practical infrared imaging applications, without the need to be cooled below
room temperature. This useful performance without the need for a cryogenic
cooler, and the low production costs available with silicon fabrication
techniques, are the two principal factors which make micro bolometer arrays
valuable.
6.3 MICROMACHINED MICROBOLOMETER
DESIGN AND FABRICATION
All of the desired features listed above (low t h ~ r m a l mass, high thermal
isolation, small size, large numbers of sensors, efficient electrical readout
etc.) are attainable, to a near-ideal level, with silicon "micromachining",
which produces microscopic suspended bridge-like structures
("microbridges") on silicon wafers. Micromachining is possible by several
low-cost techniques, and micromachining is now a wide technical area
which cannot be adequately described here: the major techniques are well
described in other publications (e.g., [4]). Here we will only outline the
particular micromachining techniques and materials typically used to
fabricate microbolometer arrays.
Figure 2 shows a drawing of a typical micromachined microbolometer.
This consists of a 35 J.lm-square plate of silicon nitride, a hard, electrically
insulating material, elevated above a semiconducting silicon substrate which
contains electronic readout circuits. The silicon nitride plate is supported
152 Infrared Detectors and Emitters:Materials and Devices
over the substrate by long narrow "legs" of silicon nitride, which carry
metal-film conductors between the plate and the substrate. The thickness of
the elevated silicon nitride plate and silicon nitride legs is typically 0.5 J.U1l,
and the elevation above the underlying silicon substrate is typically 2.5 J.l.m.
The unit cell is about 50 J.U1l square, and the thin plate occupies about half of
the unit cell area. A thin film (typically 0.05 J.U1l) of a resistive material with
high thermal coefficient of resistivity (TCR, a=dRJ Rdn is deposited upon
the square plate, and the thin-film metal layers deposited on the supporting
legs provide electrical contact to the underlying silicon, which contains
readout electronic circuits. As discussed in detail later, the infrared
absorption of the microbridge is enhanced by a reflecting thin-film metal
layer deposited on the silicon substrate underneath the suspended plate. The
legs are intentionally made narrow (typically 3 J.l.m), and the conduction
metallizations made thin (typically 0.05 J.U1l), in order to provide as little
thermal conduction along the legs to the substrate as possible. The complete
unit cell area of the structure (suspended plate, legs, narrow spacing to the
adjacent sensor) of Fig. 2 is typically 50 J.U1l square. The ratio of the area of
the bolometer plate to the unit cell area is termed the "fill factor" of the
bolometer, and is typically 50--75%. Such unit cells may be fabricated by
micromachining in a two-dimensional array (Fig. 3) which may be placed at
the focal plane of an infrared-transmitting lens to produce an infrared image,
in the same way that photographic film receives an image when placed at
the focal plane of a camera lens (Fig. 4). Figure 5 shows photographs of
typical microbolometers.
Figure 2 Drawing of a microbolometer.
R.A. Wood
Figure 3 Drawing of a 2D array of microbolometers.
lnframd
Radiation
\
Lens
Figure 4 Use of a 2D array in an imaging system.
153
154 Infrared Detectors and Emitters:Materials and Devices
Figure 5a Micrograph of a 50 ~ m microbolometer unit cell similar to that shown in Fig. 2. In
this unit cell, each supporting metalized leg terminates at a vertical metal pillar. seen as six-
sided areas with a central circular feature, rather than the downsloping leg termination shown
in Fig. 2. The microbridge is the central area, with a fill factor of about 50%, with thin film
metal contacts at left and right edges.
Figure 5b Micrograph of a larger region of a two-dimensional array of 50 ~ m microbolometer
unit cells.
R.A. Wood
Figure 5c Scanning electron micrograph of microbolometer unit cell.
6.4 TEMPERATURE-SENSITIVE RESISTOR
MATERIALS FOR MICROBOLOMETERS
155
Metals show little change in free carrier density with temperature, but
the mobility of the free carriers reduces with increasing temperature,
producing a small, positive a., typically about +0.002 K-
1
The a. of metal
films usually varies slowly with temperature T, so that for metals near room
temperature (Ts), R(D can be described well by equation (1).
R(T) = R(Ts)(1 + a.(T - 1'., (1)
Semiconductor materials have mobile charge carrier densities which
increase with increasing temperature, as well as carrier mobilities which
change with temperature, producing a larger, negative, more strongly
temperature-dependent a.. A typical R(D behavior for a semiconductor
whose mobile charge carrier density is controlled by thermal excitation
across a bandgap Eg is
R(D oc exp(Egl2kbD i.e., a. = dRJRdT= -Egl2kbr
(2)
Thin films (typically 500 A) of mixed vanadium oxides (VOx) are
commonly used for microbolometer resistors, because these semiconductor
oxides have been found to be able to be deposited in thin films with good
resistor qualities. An a. value of about -0.02 K-
1
is achievable at 25 e,
which is five to ten times better than the a. of most metals.
156 Infrared Detectors and Emitters:Materials and Devices
6.5 MICRO BOLOMETER MICRO MACHINING
SEQUENCE
Figure 6 illustrates the typical micromachining fabrication steps of a
microbolometer array (many different micromachining processes are
possible, [4]). Table 1 summarizes the properties of typical materials used in
the process. Fabrication begins with implantation of the required readout
electronics and conducting metallizations in the silicon wafer. The wafer is
then planarized with a material, such as spun-on polyimide, which can be
photolithographically patterned to form "sacrificial" mesas. Silicon nitride
layers are sputtered over the sacrificial mesas, together with a 500 A thick
vanadium oxide resistor, and 500 A nickel-chromium connecting
metallizations. As a final step, the sacrificial mesas are removed by a
material-selective etch, e.g., oxygen plasma etching, to leave a self-
supporting two-level structure like that of Figs. 2 and 5.



and



islands
Figure 6 Typical fabrication sequence for a microbolometer array.
Figure 7 shows a photograph of a completed 4" diameter silicon wafer
with 12 completed 320x240 microbolometer arrays of 50 JlIIl square pixels.
Each array is functionally complete, having monolithic multiplexing and
control electronics in the underlying silicon substrate.
R.A. Wood 157
Figure 7 Photograph of a completed 4" diameter silicon wafer with 12 completed 320x240
microbolometer arrays of 50 J.l.m pixels.
Table 1 Typical microbolometer materials and their parameters
Material Density Thermal Specific a Electrical
(g cm-
3
)
conductivity heat
(W cm-1K-
1
) (J cm-
3
K-
1
)
(K-
1
)
conductivity
(Qcmr
l
Silicon nitride 3.2 0.0185 2.3 N/A N/A
Nickel-chromium 8.5 0.05 3.3 +0.0028
Sxl04
Vanadium oxide 4.6 0.05 3.0 -0.02 10
6.6 TYPICAL MICROBOLOMETER PARAMETERS
In Fig. Sa, the suspended plate (microbridge) is a silicon nitride plate of
dimensions approximately 25 J.l11l x 45 J.l11l x 0.8 J.l11l, suspended over the
silicon substrate, with a gap of approximately 2.5 J.l11l between the
micro bridge and the silicon. The sensing material is a 500 A layer of
vanadium oxide, with (l = -0.02 K-' at 25 C, sandwiched between upper
and lower insulating layers of silicon nitride. The two supporting legs are
silicon nitride approximately 2 Jlm wide and 48 Jlm long, with 500 A Ni:Cr
conductive films.
Using the material parameters of Table 1, we calculate the microbridge
thermal capacity c is 2.1 x I 0-
9
J K-', and total leg thermal conductance g
(two legs) is l.4x 1 0-
7
W K-'. The thermal (exponential) response time of the
microbolometer is then 't = c1g = 15 ms. We can similarly calculate the other
parameters of a typical microbolometer unit cell like that of Fig. Sa. These
158 Infrared Detectors and Emitters:Materials and Devices
typical values are summarized in Table 2. For completeness, Table 2 also
includes other typical microbolometer parameters which have not been
discussed yet, but will be introduced later in this chapter.
Table 2 Summary of typical values for microbolometer parameters. The upper part of the
table lists typical parameters of single microbolometer unit cells like that of Fig. Sa. The
lower part lists typical parameters of two-dimensional arrays and the array operating
conditions employed in a typical infrared camera. These typical values are used in the
illustrative numerical calculations of this chapter.
Parameter Symbol Typical value
Area of unit cell
Ac
2.5xI0-
5
cm
2
(SO J.1Ill square)
Fill factor of unit cell Ff O.S
IR-absorbing (microbridge) area A=FjAc
1.2x10-
5
cm
2
Mass of micro bridge m
2.3xI0-
9
g
Thermal capacity of micro bridge c
2.1 x 10-
9
J K-
I
Thermal conductance of supporting legs g
1.4x10-
7
W K-
I
Thermal time constant of bolometer (elg) t IS ms
Infrared absorption of micro bridge E 0.8
Resistance of temperature-sensitive resistor Rb SO kn at 300 K
TCR of temperature-sensitive resistor a
-0.02 K-
I
lifnoise parameter of temperature-sensitive resistor k
IxlO-
13
SI
1C
Sx10-
24
cm
3
SI
Applied bias voltage (pulsed)
Vb
IV
Bias current (Vbl&) Ib
20 j.lA
Bias voltage pulse time Tp 6S J.IS
Frametime Tf
33 ms (30 Hz framerate)
Upper bandwidth limit
Ji
7.7 kHz
Lower bandwidth limit
fi
0.0001 Hz
Optical fnumber Fn 1.0
Range of infrared wavelengths transmitted by lens
A2. AI 12 J.1Ill to 8 J.1Ill
Number of rows in array M 240
Number of columns in array N 320
Temperature of microbolometer Tb 300K
RA. Wood
6.7 THERMAL ISOLATION OF
MICROBOLOMETERS
159
If the temperature of a microbolometer increases, the IR power radiated
from it also increases according to Stefan's law, producing a "radiative"
thermal conductance
d I 4) 3
grad = - \(2A)EcrT
b
= 4(2A)EcrT
b
dTb
(3)
where cr = 5.67xlO-
12
W cm-
2
K-4 (Stefan's constant). Since this radiative
thermal conductance is present even if the legs are perfectly thermally
insulating, grad represents the lowest possible thermal conductance a
microbolometer can have. For the typical microbolometer parameters of
Table 2, we calculate
(4)
which is about an order of magnitude lower than the typical thermal
conductance of the supporting legs (Table 2).
6.8 INFRARED ABSORPTION IN
MICROBOLOMETERS
The use of a vacuum gap of approximately 2.5 Jlm, together with a thin-
film metal reflector layer on the underlying substrate, produces a "114 wave"
resonant optical cavity for wavelengths near 10 Jlffi. The infrared absorption
of this multilayer structure can be computed using computer programs
adapted from those used for dielectric multilayer interference filters, and a
typical absorption in the microbridge can be shown to be about 80% in the
8-12 Jlm wavelength band [5].
6.9 READOUT OF TWO-DIMENSIONAL ARRAYS OF
MICROBOLOMETERS
As noted above, the signal current from each individual microbolometer
may be time-multiplexed onto a single output signal line. This may be done
in many ways familiar to electronic engineers. Figure 8 illustrates a typical
electronic method employed to read out a two-dimensional array of
160 Infrared Detectors and Emitters:Materials and Devices
microbolometers in a TV frametime (about 1130 s). In Fig. 8 the
microbolometers are interconnected in a "row and column" structure, with
an "on/off' CMOS FET switch connected in series with a bolometer at the
intersection of each row and column. The bias voltage is applied to each row
and column in sequence by means of CMOS multiplexers at the periphery of
the array. In Fig. 8, the signal currents from each microbolometer in tum
flow down the corresponding column to individual CMOS integrators and a
time-multiplexer located at the bottom of each column. All electronic
components are fabricated by standard silicon CMOS techniques in the
underlying silicon substrate, and the microbolometer fabrication process
includes deposition of metallizations which connect the microbolometers to
the underlying electronics.
substrate
R
Integrators
transfer gate
row store
output multiplexer
serial output
Figure 8 Typical monolithic readout circuit for a microbolometer array.
In Fig. 8, all columns are held continuously at zero voltage by the
virtual-ground nature of the integrators at the foot of each column. The
substrate is held continuously at the desired bias voltage of the
microbolometers. All rows, except one, are also held at zero volts by the
row multiplexer, which maintains the CMOS FET switches in those rows in
an "off' state. At any instant, one single row is raised above the tum-on
voltage of the FET switches, so turning all the FETs in that row to the "on"
condition, and so applying the bias voltage across all the microbolometers in
that row. The current which flows through each microbolometer in that row
flows individually down each column, and is accumulated on the charge
storage capacitor at the base of each column for the time that that row is
"on". Accumulated charges are then transferred to storage capacitors, and
RA. Wood 161
time multiplexed onto a single output line whilst the current integration
sequence is repeated with another row of the array.
In this scheme, the bias voltage can only be applied for a maximum time
Trow=TJM = 137 IlS (Table 2). In practice, a shorter bias pulse is used, to
allow free time for background circuit operations, and a typical value of Tp
might be 65 IJ.S (Table 2). This pulsed bias voltage causes a self-heating in
each bias pulse, causing the temperature of a microbolometer to rise during
each bias pulse, by an amount
(5)
In the frametime interval 1j between bias pulses, each bolometer will
cool down exponentially, to close to the substrate temperature.
It is a curious feature of the operation of micro bolometer arrays that the
temperature of each bolometer is varying by several degrees by self-heating
caused by the applied bias pulses. This heating is, however, reproducible
from frame to frame (Fig. 9), and hence temperature signals induced by
incident radiation can be distinguished by frame-subtraction.
Vb
time
bolometer temperature
Figure 9 Illustration of micro bolometer temperature variation (lower plot) due to bias voltage
pulses (upper plot) as used in readout circuit operation (Fig. 8).
Using the typical values for microbolometer arrays listed in Table 2
numerical values of the bias-induced peak temperature rise in each bias
pulse (equation (5 are shown in Fig. 10.
The rate of rise of microbolometer temperature during a typical bias
pulse (1 V, 651ls - Table 2) is astonishingly high (about 9500K-
1
S-I).
162 Infrared Detectors and Emitters:Materials and Devices
I
K
1
I + - - - ~ ~ ~ - - - - - - ~ - - - - - - ~ - - - - ~
1 11
Figure 10 Computed microbolometer temperature increase during a bias pulse.
6.10 CALCULATION OF THE PERFORMANCE OF
BOLOMETER ARRAYS
We will first derive the basic equations for responsivity and noise of a
single bolometer, then extend this to operation in a two-dimensional
microbolometer array. In these calculations we will use the typical
parameters of Table 2 to calculate numerical values. We will also use these
equations and numerical values to justify the assumptions made in Sect. 6.1.
To calculate the performance of a microbolometer, we use the simple
physical model shown in Fig. 1. This model represents a microbolometer as
a small thermal mass (c, J K-
1
) at temperature Tb (K), with an electrical
resistance R(Tb) (0) and a = dRlRdT
b
. As shown in Fig. 1, the thermal mass
c is assumed to be suspended from some supporting structure at fixed
temperature Ts by legs which provide a very low total thermal conductance
(g, W K-
1
) to heat flowing from the thermal mass c to the supporting
structure, and also provide electrical contact to the temperature-sensitive
resistance R(Tb). The total unit cell area of the device in Fig. 4 is Ac, and
within this area the absorbing frontal area of the microbolometer is A=F .rAc.
We assume a steady infrared power 8Q is being dissipated by optical
absorption in the thermal mass c: this absorbed power 8Q flows through the
two supporting legs to the supporting silicon substrate, producing a
temperature elevation of 8n = Tb-T., = 8Q /g in the microbolometer.
R.A. Wood 163
6.10.1 Responsivity to Changes in Absorbed Infrared Power
With a constant voltage Vb applied across the microbolometer, the
"internal" current responsivity (Ri' current change per unit power absorbed
in the bolometer) can be directly written:
(6)
where Ib and Vb are the applied bias current and voltage.
A more detailed analysis of microbolometer operation can be performed
[5] which takes into account the small changes in heat re-radiated from the
microbolometer when the bolometer temperature changes, and the fact that
the microbolometer bias-induced heating is temperature-dependent (the
"electro-thermal" effect). These effects are not numerically significant under
the operating conditions we assume here.
Using the typical microbolometer parameters provided in Table 2, the
internal responsivity of the microbolometer is
R = _ Ib
U
= _ (20 X 10-
6
x- 0.02) = 2.9
I g 1.4 x 10-
7
AW-
l
(7)
6.10.2 Responsivity to Changes in Target Temperature
In a typical night-vision camera, a bolometer array is coupled to a target
by a lens as shown in Fig. 4, so that infrared radiation from the target scene
is imaged onto the array. Each bolometer then captures infrared radiation
from one corresponding picture-element (pixel) of the target scene. It can be
shown that with this arrangement, the infrared power Q absorbed by each
bolometer absorbing area A is [5]
(8)
where L is the radiance of the corresponding target pixel, and Fn is the F-
number of the lens.
The change in temperature of a bolometer induced by a change m
temperature of a black body target at temperature 1'r is then given by
164 Infrared Detectors and Emitters:Materials and Devices
(9)
Because of the above equation, numerical values of dL/d1't are especially
useful in night-vision imaging system calculations. Numerical values of
dL/d1't are calculated from Planck's law, and are listed in Table 3 for
black-body targets at 290 K, 300 K and 310 K, assuming several typical
wavelength bands transmitted by the lens.
Table 3 dLldT, values (W cm-
2
sr-
I
K-
I
) for targets (assumed to be black bodies) with
temperatures of T, = 290, 300 and 310 K
Wavelength range 290K 300K 310K
Al to A2 (1J.IIl)
3to4
8.9xlO-7 1.3 x 10-6 1.9xlO-6
4to 5 4.0xI0-6 S.SxIO-6 7.2xI0-6
8 to 10 3.1 x 10-
5
3.SxI0-
5
3.9xI0-
5
10 to 12 2.6xlO-
5
2.8xI0-
5
3.1 x 10-
5
12 to 14 1.9xlO-
5
2.lxI0-
5
2.2xI0-
5
As a numerical example, using the typical parameter values of Table 2, if
a typical micro bolometer views a 290 K blackbody target via a 8-14 Jlm F /1
lens, and the temperature of the target changes by 1.0K, the microbolometer
will change temperature by
(10)
Using the typical parameters of Table 2, we find that this temperature
change in a microbolometer will cause a resistance change of dRb = RbaoTb
= -4 n. The function of the readout circuit (Fig. 8) is to measure these small
changes in microbolometer resistance, for each individual microbolometer
in the array, in a frametime of about 1130 s, whilst adding as little additional
electrical noise as possible. The circuit design (Fig. 8) is therefore not
trivial, but is possible using established circuit principles. Space here does
not allow the calculation of the noise added by the readout circuits, so in
this discussion, we shall assume that no noise is added by the readout
circuit.
It is worth noting that the signal-induced temperature signals (equation
(10 are much less than the bias-induced temperature pulses (Figs. 9 and
RA. Wood 165
10). The bias-induced temperature pulses may be removed 1D camera
operation by frame subtraction, as described later in this chapter.
6.10.3 Response Time of a Bolometer
By analogy with an "RC" electrical circuit, the temperature of a thermal
mass c linked to a heat reservoir via thermal conductance g will change
exponentially with time, with a ''thermal time constant" given by
't = c/g (s) (II)
Using typical values for c and g (Table 1) we find a typical
microbolometer thermal time constant is:
't = 2.1 x 10-
9
/1.4x 10-
7
= 15 ms (12)
6.10.4 Noise Level of a Microbolometer
The minimum infrared signal that can be detected by a bolometer is
determined by the electrical noise on the signal current. The "internal" noise
equivalent power (NEP) of the microbolometer is defined as the infrared
power absorbed that induces a signal current equal to the rms current noise,
i.e.,
NEP = rms noise current/current responsivity (13)
There are three principal sources of noise which must be considered: 1)
electrical noise from the microbolometer resistor (Johnson noise), 2)
resistance fluctuation noise in the bolometer resistor (lif noise) and 3)
temperature fluctuation noise of the microbolometer.
6.10.4.1 Resistor Noise
As described above, a bolometer contains a temperature-dependent
resistor, whose value is measured by the application of a bias voltage, which
produces a signal current. In addition to the signal current, there is a small
noise current [5], with a mean square value in a 1 Hz interval at frequency f
(i.e., noise power density) given by
166 Infrared Detectors and Emitters:Materials and Devices
(14)
The first term is the Johnson current noise due to thermal agitation of charge
carriers in the resistor, and the second term is "1/j' fluctuation in the
resistor. IIj noise in microbolometer resistors is often characterized by the
"k parameter" [6]. Figure 11 shows typical values of the Iljnoise parameter
(k) for various resistors [6], including measured values for vanadium oxide
thin film resistors [5].
i f


I I I
Figure 11 Typical k value for resistors.
Assuming that 1If noise power density is inversely proportional to the
resistor volume [7], we can also define a volume-independent figure of merit
K = kxvolume. For the typical bolometer parameters of Table 1, with
vanadium oxide resistors 500 A thick and 23 J.1m by 43 J.1m in area, the k
value is typically 1 x 1 0-
13
Hz, corresponding to a K value of 5 xl 0-
24
cm
3
s -1.
6.10.4.2 Temperature Noise
It can be shown by thermodynamic arguments that, in thermal
equilibrium, a thermal capacity c connected to a heat reservoir via a thermal
conductance g, will fluctuate in temperature with a power density [5]:
(15)
The zero-frequency temperature noise density is
R.A. Wood 167
The equivalent-noise-bandwidth 11/ [6] is the same as an electrical "Re"
filter i.e., 11/ = 1I4't Hz. (Equivalent-noise-bandwidth is the "rectangular"
noise bandwidth that would produce the real noise.)
With a bias voltage Vb applied, the current noise density is then
(16)
Using the concept of equivalent-noise-bandwidth described above, and
the zero-frequency temperature noise density, we can immediately write the
total rms temperature noise:
(17)
With the parameters of Table 2, this has the numerical value:
(18)
6.10.4.3 Total rms Noise
With the parameters of Table 2, the total current noise density is as
shown in Fig. 12.
With the pulsed-bias readout scheme described in Sect. 6.9, the
microbolometer signal current may be integrated electronically over part or
all of the duration of each bias pulse tp.
The upper noise bandwidth limit h of an ideal integrator with integration
time M is [5]
1
f:::::-
2 2t
p
(19)
which is 7.7 kHz for tp=65 fls (Table 2). The lower bandwidth limit.li is
determined by the "staring time" Tstare. by the engineering relation
1
J;:::::--
4Tstare
(20)
168 Infrared Detectors and Emitters:Materials and Devices
which is 0.0001 Hz for Tstare = 40 min (Table 2). Thus the total mean square
microbolometer current noise is
(21)
The three individual terms in equation (21) are, respectively, Johnson, l/j
and thermal noise. Using the typical parameter values of Table 2, the rms
magnitudes of these terms are, respectively, 58 (Johnson), 27 (11j) and 10pA
(thermal).
rll1l boIon'IBter noise
1&10.----------------------------,
..
Arrps
per root Hz 1&12

__ --__ --__ --__ __
0.01 0.1 10 100 1000 10000 100000
Hz
.....-johnson
____ 111
......-thermal
-M-total
Figure 12 Plot of noise current density versus frequency for a bolometer with parameters in
Table 2. Curves show resistor noise (Johnson and Ilf), thermal noise, and total noise density.
6.10.5 Noise Equivalent Power
From equation (14) the "internal" NEP of each microbolometer in a two-
dimensional array is then given by
(22)
R.A. Wood 169
The equation for the NEP has been written in a way that illustrates that the
best possible value for the noise equivalent power dissipated within the
microbolometer is
(23)
which is the ideal thermodynamic value of a thermal sensor. For a
microbolometer, the ideal NEP value is attained if Johnson and lifnoise are
negligible compared with thermal noise. Using equation (11) we can rewrite
the ideal NEP as
(24)
Since the maximum value of 't is set by the framerate of the camera,
equation (24) illustrates that the ideal performance limit of a thermal sensor
is determined by the smallest value of g that can be attained [8]. If a
maximum thermal response time is required for an application, this in tum
places an upper limit on the maximum acceptable value of c.
At first sight, it may seem that the NEP cannot approach the ideal NEP
value if pulsed bias is used, since the system bandwidth (fi-Ji) required for
pulsed bias is necessarily large, with a consequent increase in total noise
(equation (21. However, if we assume lifnoise is negligible, and use the
relation.hJi (Table 2), we can manipulate equation (22) to the form:
(25)
so that, with these assumptions, NEP is in fact dependent on dTb rather than
(fi-Ji). Thus, provided that the bias current is increased as the bias pulses are
made shorter, so as to keep dTb constant, then the NEP is not dependent on
(fi-Ji).
In general, we can define an operating "quality factor" as the ratio of the
expected NEP of a microbolometer array to the ideal NEP (Johnson and lif
noise negligible compared with thermal noise):
170
Q= NEP =
NEP
ideal
Infrared Detectors and Emitters:Materials and Devices
(26)
Figures 13 and 14 show the computed variation ofNEP and Q for the typical
array having parameters listed in Table 2.
1.E-10
W S.E-11
O.E+OO ~ - - - ~ - - - - ~ - - - - _ - - - ~
o 10 20
uA
30 40
Figure 13 Computed variation of NEP with applied bias for the typical array parameters
listed in Table 2.
20
Q10
O ~ - - - ~ - - - ~ - - - - ~ - - - ~
o 10 20
uA
30 40
Figure 14 Computed values of Q with applied bias for an array with parameters in Table 2.
RA. Wood 171
6.10.6 Noise equivalent Temperature Difference (NETD)
We define NETD as ''the temperature change at the target that produces
a signal in the microbolometer equal to the total (rms) noise". From equation
(8) we can write directly:
(27)
NETD is a widely used figure of merit for an infrared imager. For typical
every-day scenes, a good quality infrared image requires an NETD of
300mK or less [3,9]. Using equation (27), Fig. IS shows the computed
NETD of an array with the typical parameters of Table 2. dLldT is obtained
from Table 3 assuming a black body target at 300 K.
200
mK100
O ~ - - - - - - - - ~ - - - - - - - - - - ~ - - - - - - - - ~ - - - - - - - - ~
o 10 20
uA
30 40
Figure 15 Computed variation ofNETD with applied bias for an array with parameters listed
in Table 2 and Table 3 (target temperature 300 K).
6.11 PRACTICAL INFRARED CAMERAS USING
MICROBOLOMETER ARRAY
6.11.1 Microbolometer Packaging
The thermal conductivity of STP air is 2.Sxl0-4 W cm-
1
K-
1
, so a
microbolometer of 50 !-lm
2
area suspended 2.5 !-lm above an underlying
substrate has a thermal conductance in STP air of about 2.SxlO-
5
W K-
1

This is much greater than the thermal conductance of typical supporting legs
172 Infrared Detectors and Emitters:Materials and Devices
(Table 2), so that if operated in air, the microbolometer responsivity is
greatly reduced (equation (8.
As air pressure is reduced, the thermal conductance of a typical
microbolometer eventually becomes limited by the leg thermal conductance,
which typically occurs at an air pressure of about 50 mTorr [5]. Further
reduction in air pressure provides negligible reduction in the
microbolometer g value. Since the responsivity of a microbolometer is
proportional to lIg, full sensitivity requires an air pressure of about 50
mTorr or less. Little improvement in sensitivity is attained by operating at
lower pressures.
Although 50 mTorr air pressure is easy to obtain with air pumps,
maintenance of this pressure for many years in a small-volume package
requires careful attention to leaks and outgassing phenomena. Long-lived
(multi-year) sealed vacuum packages have been demonstrated using
packages constructed of brazed and soldered materials, carefully cleaned
and baked before sealing to produce low outgassing. Some package designs
use internal getters to absorb outgassing from internal package walls and so
provide a longer package vacuum life. Figure 16 shows the construction of a
sealed vacuum package designed for 240x336 arrays, operating in a
chopperless mode [5]. In this package the microbolometer array is held at a
constant (arbitrary) temperature by use of a thermoelectric (TE) stabilizer
mounted inside the package, controlled by a thermistor placed near the
array. Temperature stabilization of the microbolometer array is one way to
eliminate false signals that would otherwise occur as the array temperature
changed.
lower Periphery MetaJized
to Permit Soldering
Pads for AI Bonds
Thermistor --
Metanzed for Solder --
TE StabilIzer
(BeO Plates)
Mounting Holes
OFHC COpper __
Pumpout Tube
Mlerobotometer Array
- } TE Power Leads
Peds for AI Bonds
88 Pins
AIO Frame
r-:-'loo..__ Qopperlfungsteo
BaHpiate
Zr Getter Inside
Pumpout Tube
Crimp Seal
Figure 16 Long-life sealed vacuum package for a 2D microbolometer array.
R.A. Wood 173
6.11.2 Offset Signal Removal
Each microbolometer array has some intrinsic variation in
microbolometer resistance, due to fabrication process variations from
microbolometer to microbolometer. A typical microbolometer array might
have a standard deviation of 1 % in the as-fabricated microbolometer
resistance values, i.e., a typical standard deviation of 500 0 for a typical
bolometer resitance of 50 kn (Table 2). This is, however, very large
compared to the bolometer signals induced by thermal radiation in a typical
night-vision camera application: equation (10) has been shown to predict a
thermal signal of about 4 mK if the scene increases by 1.0 K, and assuming a
typical a (Table 2) the equivalent resistance change would be given by
(4x 10-
3
)(-0.02)(50 000) = 40.
If not removed in the camera, the large fixed resistance non-uniformity
of the array would produce a large fixed pattern on the image. The fixed
resistance non-uniformity of the array can be removed in a camera by use of
an intermittent shutter which blocks radiation from the lens: whilst the
shutter is closed, several frames are averaged (to reduce time-dependent
noise) and stored in a digital memory in the camera. The shutter is then
opened, and the stored memory frame is subtracted from subsequent frames,
on a pixel-by-pixel basis. This process also removes the fixed pattern caused
by bias-pulse heating.
6.11.3 Typical Microbolometer Camera Performance
Figure 17 shows measurements [5] made with a microbolometer array,
with an average NETD of 39 mK with an FIl lens, 8-12 J.U1l wavelength
range, 300 K black body target. Figure 18 shows typical infrared images
obtained with a 240x240 microbolometer array.
6.12 CONCLUSION
Micromachined thermal infrared sensors are capable of operation close
to the room-temperature thermodynamic limit. This limit is set by the
thermal conductance between the individual sensors and the supporting
substrate, which in a micromachined sensor can approach the radiative limit,
provided the sensor is operated in a vacuum. Silicon micromachining offers
cost-effective batch processing of two-dimensional thermal arrays, complete
with integrated readout electronics. The combination of silicon batch
processing and uncooled operation provides the potential for the lowest cost
infrared cameras. Whilst the above comments generally apply to all
174 Infrared Detectors and Emitters:Materials and Devices
micromachined thermal sensors, bolometers are an attractive thermal sensor,
since the sensing device (a resistor) is comparatively simple to fabricate, and
the sensing mechanism has some intrinsic advantages (e.g., a wide dynamic
range).
Pixel
Count
.01 .03
Pixel NETD
.05
i--NETD @1I1.0
I
Mean ~ 39.4 mK
Median ~ 38.8 mK
St. Dev. ~ 8.3 mK
.07 .09
C
Figure 17 Histogram of NETD values measured for pixels of a 320x240 microbolometer
array (F II lens, 8-I2!lm wavelength range, 300 K black body target, 30 Hz framerate).
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The author wishes to thank his many colleagues at Honeywell, both
present and past, who played major roles in the achievement of uncooled IR
imaging with microbolometer arrays, and whose work is described here. A
large part of the development work at Honeywell was directed by the staff
of the US Night Vision and Electronic Sensors Directorate and the
Advanced Research Projects Agency. Government funding has been
provided to Honeywell under the following programs: ASP Sensor
Development DAALOI-85-C-0153, High Density Array Development
DAAB07-87-C-F024, Low Cost Uncooled Sensor Prototype DAAB07-90-
C-F300, Technology Reinvestment Program MDA972-95-3-0022.
REFERENCES
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2. Kruse, P.W., McGlauchlin, L.D and McQuistan, R.B. (1963) "Elements of Infrared
Technology" Wiley.
3. Lloyd, 1M. (1979) "Thermal Imaging Systems" Plenum, NY.
4. Middelhoek, S. and Audet, S.A. (1989) "Silicon Sensors" Academic Press.
5. Wood, R.A. (1997) Semicond. Semimet., 47.
RA. Wood
175
6. Motchenbacher, C.D. and Fitchen, F.C. (l973) "Low noise electronic design" Wiley.
7. Hooge, F.N. (1976) Physica B 83, 14.
8. Kruse, P.W. (1997) Semicond. Semimet., 47.
9. Schumaker, D.L. et at (eds), (1988) "Infrared Imaging Systems Analysis" ERIM
Series in Infrared and Electro Optics.
Figure 18 IR images obtained with a 240x340 micro bolometer array with parameters similar
to those of Table 2.