CN4119 Design I

Part 2 Mechnical Design

References Beer, F. P. and E. R. Johnston, Jr.Mechanics of Materials, Second Edition in SI Units, McGraw Hill, Book Company. Singapore, 1992.

Chapter 1. Tension
1. Stress Mechanics of Materials. Strength and Rigidity. Determination of stresses and deformations of members in a structure. Mechanical design: - Strength requirement: []. - Rigidity requirement: deformations an allowable value. Analysis of stresses and strains. 1.1. Stress Normal stress Consider a rod subjected to a tensile force P at its end. To determine the internal force at any point, we pass through a cross section, consider the equilibrium of either portion of the rod, we have a force equilibrium equation in the axial direction. The internal force at any cross section within the rod is thus equal to the load P . Will the rod break under the action of P ? The ability of the material to withstand the intensity of the internal force, but not the internal force itself. Assume that the internal force P is uniformly distributed over the entire cross section A, we call = P/A the normal (tensile) stress on any point of area A.

In general, consider a small area A around a point Q on a cross section A, on which the internal force is F , we dene = lim F A0 A 101

as the normal stress at point Q. Therefore = (Q) represents the stress distribution over cross section A. Accordingly,

P =
A

(Q) dA.

SI units of stress: N/m2 = P a (Pascal). Multiples of P a: 1 kP a = 103 P a = 103 N/m2 1 M P a = 106 P a = 106 N/m2 1 GP a = 109 P a = 109 N/m2 [],

The design of a rod requires where [] = y /ns for ductile materials, [] = c /ns for brittle materials.

y is the yielding stress of the ductile material specimen and c is the stress of the brittle specimen at break in tensile test, which is coducted in a tensile machine. ns is called the factor of safety, which should be determined by considering the imporatnce of the structure componenet and the price of the material. 1.2. Shear Stress Consider a member AB subjected to transverse forces P and P in a close distance. To determine the internal force, we pass through a section at position C between the two forces and consider the equilibrium for either portion of the member. We conclude the internal force must be in the section and its magnitude is P . We call P in the section shearing force, or simply, shear. upon both the magnitude of P and the value of A. Assume a uniform distribution of P over A, we dene = P/A 102 Whether the member breaks depends

the shear stress at any point on A.

General denition:

= lim

F A0 A

= (Q) is a function of the position Q on section A and represents the intensity of the shearing forces at point Q. Accordingly P =
A

(Q) dA.

Design of bolts, pins and rivets:

[ ], where [ ] is the allowable shear stress of the material used.

1.3. Stress State at a Point and Stress Components Consider a two force member subjected to axial forces P and P . We pass though a section at an angle with the normal plane. What would be the stresses on this oblique plane? Resolving P into components F and V , which are normal and tangent to the section respectively F = P cos , V = P sin . The area A0 of this section is A0 = A/ cos , the normal and shear stress on this section: = = We can see = 0 , = 45 , = P = max , A P , 2A 103 = = 0; P = max 2A F P cos P = = cos2 A0 A/ cos A V P sin P = = sin cos A0 A/ cos A

 Consider a body subjected to loads P1 , P2 , P3 , . Consider point Q within this body. To know the stresses at Q, we should calculate the stresses on the three co-ordinate planes at Q. First, pass through point Q a section perpendicular to x-axis. Consider an area element A around Q.

i.e., and depend on the orientation of the section. Scholar, vector and tensor. Stress is a (second order) tensor. It has 32 = 9 components.

Resolve the internal force on A to a normal force F x and a shearing force V x . Further resolve V x to Vyx and Vzx in y and z direction, respectively. The denition of the normal & shear stress at Q on this section: F x , A0 A Vyx , A0 A Vzx . A0 A

x = lim

xy = lim

xz = lim

Note 1) x = xx is the normal stress. 2) xy and xz have two subscripts: the rst indicates the direction of the section, the second indicates the direction of the shear force. 3) If the section is in +x direction, x , xy and xz are + if the force is in + co-ord direction. They are - if they are in - co-ord direction. However, If the section is in -x direction, x , xy and xz are + if the force is in - co-ord direction. They are - if they are in + co-ord direction. Similarly, at point Q, we can dene y , yx and yz on the section of outnormal in y direction and z , zx and zy on the section of outnormal in z direction. The stress state at Q, x xy xz yx y yz zx zy z which is called the stress tensor, or stress matrix. The stress state at Q can also be represented by a small cube centred at Q with various stresses exerted on each of its six faces. 104

 The stress tensor is symmetric. The two shear stresses of the same indices is equal.

2. Hookes Law 2.1. 1-D Hookess Law For small deformation, i.e., for < y , from the =E

diagram, we have

which is known as the 1D Hookes law after the English mathematician Robert Hooke (1635-1703). E is called modulus of elasticity, or Youngs modulus after the English scientist Thomas Young (1773-1829). Note since is dimensionless, E has the same dimension as the stress. 2.2. Poissons Ratio We assume that the materials considered are 1) homogeneous; and 2) isotropic. Lets consider a slender bar under an axis loading P in x direction, the stress within the bar is x = P/A. According to the Hookes law, the strain in x direction is x = x /E. From equilibrium consideration, the stress is zero in any lateral direction, i.e., y = z = 0. However, y = 0 and z = 0. The elongation in the axial direction is always accompanied by a contraction in any transverse direction. We call =
y x

z x

Poissons Ratio after the French mathematician Simon Denis Poisson (1781-1840). e In the case of 1D axial loading
x

x , E

x E

2.3. Hookes Law for Multiaxial Loadings We consider a cube and assume it is subjected axial loading x , y , and z , in x, y, and z direction, respectively. If the cube is subjected to x alone,
x

x , E y , E

x E y E

Similarly, we have
y

105

for the single axial load y , and

z

z , E

z E

for the single axial load z . For small deformation, superposition can be applied. That is, we assume that the deformation produced by each load is not aected by other loads. The Hookes law for multiaxial loading:
x

= = =

1 [x (y + z )] E 1 [y (z + x )] E 1 [z (x + y )] E

For < y , there is a proportional segment of the - diagram, which can be determined by test of a specimen in a torsion machine.. Hookes law in shear: xy = Gxy G is called the modulus of rigidity, or the shear modulus. Similarly, yz = Gyz zx = Gzx The six equations are called the 3D Hookes law. They are also called the 3D constitutive equations for linearly elastic materials. 1-D Hookes Law: = E For members under axial loading, both the stress and the strain are uniformly distributed over the member far from the two ends, i.e. = Therefore P A = L

PL EA i.e., the deformation is proportional to the load and the length, inversely proportional to the cross section area. this tension formula is valid for 1) homogeneous rod, 2) uniform cross section area A, and 3) P is loaded at the two end of the rod. =

106