542 Developmental Section C Questions: - Developmental a) Outline one assumption of the developmental approach in psychology (2)

The Developmental approach to understanding the human condition covers the whole lifespan. Of particular interest are changes over time. Researchers use a wide range of methods and techniques. The focus is on how behaviours are initiated and then develop. Typical areas of study include; emotional and moral development; how thinking develops and how children learn to communicate.
b) Describe how the developmental approach could explain aggression (4)

Bandura (1961) demonstrated that children learn development from role models. Bandura's approach is an extension of behavioural theories which emphasise the way we learn behaviour from others, our environment, experiences and so on. Bandura was particularly interested in the way children learn new behaviours, such as aggression, through observing and imitating role models.
c) Describe one similarity and one difference between the Bandura, Ross & Ross study and any other developmental approach study (6)

Both, Bandura, Ross & Ross and Samuel & Bryant use an experimental method to gather data, both use samples of young children and set up situations to see how children react. Therefore, both needed parental consent. Bandura collects this evidence by observation, which is subjective, however he reduced this by inter-rater reliability, whilst Samuel & Bryant question children, this is also subjective. A major difference is that Samuel & Bryant are interested in cognitive development, the development of the intellect and the ability to conserve, Bandura is interested in the development of behaviour, aggression. Both of these are learnt by experience and through interaction with others.

542 d) Discuss the strengths and limitations of the developmental approach using examples from the Bandura, Ross & Ross study (12)

The strengths of this approach are that it looks at changes over time (longitudinal research). Knowing what normal development looks like enables us to spot potential problems and intervene early. This approach emphasises the importance of early childhood experiences and has influenced social policy. Banduras study has informed the on-going debate about the effect that the media has over children. Developmental psychology has many practical applications for education. A major weakness is that developmental psychology tends to concentrate solely on childhood. Development, as recognised by Erikson, is a life-long process. It is very difficult to study children as their level of language and understanding is often not sufficiently developed for them to be able to fully express themselves, as evidenced in Samuel & Bryants study. There are also ethical issues, in Banduras study children were exposed to violence; this could have had lasting consequences. The guiding principal is that parental consent must be obtained, but is this sufficient? Banduras study could be said to lack ecological validity as the situation was artificial. In real life exposure to violence involves emotions and consequences.

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Individual differences Section C Questions: a) Outline one assumption of the individual differences approach in psychology (2)

This approach recognises that the human condition is extremely diverse and questions the need to provide generalisations about behaviour. Studies are often focused on gender, cultural diversity, personality and pathological behaviour. Research uses a wide variety of methodologies.
b) Describe how the individual differences approach could explain gambling (4)

The study by Griffiths (1994) suggests that cognitive distortions underlie the behaviour of regular gamblers. He found that regular gamblers are more skilful e.g. knowing the reels and when to nudge. Regular gamblers believe they are more skilful than they are. Gamblers know they will lose, but they play with money, not for it (staying on is the objective). Regular gamblers make more irrational verbalisations, demonstrating cognitive bias. Cognitive behavioural therapy could help problem gamblers
c) Describe one similarity and one difference between the Griffiths study and any other individual differences approach study (6)

Both the study by Griffiths and the case study of Eve examine problem behaviours (gambling and multiple personality disorder), therefore both used participants with issues and this raises ethical problems. Both studies had therapeutic implications for the treatment of these disorders. The study of Eve by Thigpen & Cleckley was a case study and had only one participant; Griffiths study included 30 regular gamblers and a control group of 30 non-regular gamblers. This makes Griffiths study more reliable. Thigpen & Cleckley used the case study method and Griffiths a natural experiment.

542 d) Discuss the strengths and limitations of the individual differences approach using examples from the Griffiths study (12)

An issue that is often included in the section of individual differences is what psychologists refer to as abnormality. However the concept of abnormality is also a highly controversial issue. The judgement that somebody is abnormal is relative and is based on factors such as culture, class, religion, sexuality and so on. The main strength of this approach is that it does offer insights into complex issues surrounding abnormality. For example, Rosenhan illustrate the difficulties of diagnosis and Thigpen & Cleckley give us an insight into a complex psychological disorder. These insights offer the possibility for the development of treatments and therapies to improve peoples lives. Gambling can be a severe problem both for the individual and society as a whole, Griffiths study helps us better understand the problem and offers some practical solutions. A weakness is that studies are often based on case studies such as Eve; this limits the generalisability of findings. Rosenhans study was unethical as he deceived doctors, furthermore, the 2nd stage of the study could have lead to serious ill people being denied mental treatment. The individual differences approach to psychology can be seen as reductionist and determinist. Classification of mental illness can lead to labelling and self-fulfilling prophecies. Labelling someone as mentally ill or a problem gambler can take away their individual responsibility and lead them to deny personal control over their behaviour.

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Physiological Section C Questions: a) Outline one assumption of the physiological approach in psychology (2)

This approach studies the biological basis of human behaviour. This may involve discovering localised function in the brain. This can be done by working with brain-damaged patients but more recently involves neuroimaging techniques. It often focuses on the chemical basis for human behaviour e.g. serotonin and depression. It may also consider the genetic basis for behaviour.
b) Describe how the physiological approach could explain the behaviour of split-brain patients (4)

Human brains are divided into hemispheres a left and a right hemisphere. The two hemispheres are joined at their base by commissural fibres. In people with very severe epilepsy, that cannot be controlled by drugs surgeons sometimes cut through these fibres in order to limit the epileptic fit to just one side of the brain. Roger Sperry was able to take the opportunity of studying patients who had had hemisphere deconnection in order to determine whether there were differences between the two hemispheres of human brains. Sperry argued that his studies give considerable support to his argument of lateralisation of function. That is, that different areas of the brain specialise on different tasks, such as the left hand side is responsible for language.
c) Describe one similarity and one difference between the Sperry study and any other physiological approach study (6)

Both Maguire and Sperry used a natural experimental method to investigate brains. The IV in Maguires experiment was taxi driver or non-taxi driver, in Sperrys study it was a split brain. Both had small sample sizes.

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Maguires study used normal participants as a control and looked for differences in brain structure by analysing MRI scans. Sperrys study did not have a normal control and looked for differences in responses to a set of tasks given to participants.
d) Discuss the strengths and limitations of the physiological approach using examples from the Sperry study (12)

The main strength of this approach is that it is very objective and based on the scientific model. It uses scientific methodology and usually employs the experimental mental. This means that cause and effect can be established. It has implications for treatment, for example, the study by Maguire has implications for brain damaged patients. The study by Sperry increases are knowledge of brain physiology and function, this too has implications for brain damaged patients. The weaknesses are that the approach is reductionist and determinist, it ignore social and environmental factors. It does not explain how mind and body interact. The samples used in these studies are very small and not representative. For example, Sperrys study used just 11 split-brain patients and these patients had all suffered from severe epilepsy, Maguires study used just 26 taxi-drivers. Dement & Kleitman used 7 males and 2 females, of which only 5 were studied intensively.

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Social Section C Questions: a) Outline one assumption of the social approach in psychology (2)

Social approaches are concerned with how the individual relates to others, how others affect our behaviour. A wide range of research methods and techniques are used to study social interactions. Typically this area focuses on how individuals behave in groups and how these may influence decision-making.
b) Describe how the social approach could explain obedience (4)

In Milgrams study obedience was explained by two major processes; socialisation and the agentic state. From an earlier age we are taught to obey. Primary socialisation starts this process in the home and continues throughout our life by the use of rewards and punishments. We learn to obey authority figures. In the agentic state people do not feel responsible for their own actions, they transfer blame to the person giving the order I was only following orders, its not my fault!
c) Describe one similarity and one difference between the Milgram study and any other social approach study (6)

Both the studies by Milgram and Haslam & Reicher used a self-selected sampling technique, participants answered an advertisement and all the participants were male. This means the sample was not representative of the population in general. All the participants entered an artificial environment and their behaviour was recorded. The study by Milgram was interested in how people react to an authority figure. Haslam & Reicher were interested in social groups. Milgrams study was a laboratory experiment, whereas Haslam & Reichers was an experimental case study. Milgrams study raised many ethical issues, whereas Haslam & Reicher showed that it was possible to conduct ethical social research.

542 d) Discuss the strengths and limitations of the social approach using examples from the Milgram study (12)

A main strength of social psychology is the attempt to use real life situations when studying behaviour. Because social psychology is interested in human interaction this is best studied in real situations where participants have the opportunity to interact such as with the field experiment method used by Piliavin et al. or a simulated situation such as that carried out by Haslam and Reicher. Field experiments are experiments carried out in a real world situation. Field experiments are usually high in ecological validity and may avoid demand characteristics as the participants are unaware of the experiment. Simulated situations such as the BBC prison study are high in experimental realism because even though the situation is not high in ecological validity the participants still did believe in the situation. However with field experiments it is not possible to have the same level of control as with laboratory experiments. When laboratory experiments though are used by social psychologists such as the experiment carried out by Milgram we have to be careful generalising the findings as participants may behave differently in the real world. Another strength of the social approach is the contributions it makes about understanding social behaviour. Social psychology makes useful applications because it can explain and even offer solutions to problems in the real world. For example, Haslam and Reicher demonstrate how the breakdown of groups can lead to conditions under which tyranny can flourish and Milgram identifies many situational factors which can lead to obedience. However we do have to recognise that studies which measure social behaviour may be specific to the time they were done. For example obedience rates in the 1960s might be different to obedience rates in the noughties. A problem which arises when studying social behaviour relates to ethics. It is difficult to study social behaviour without negatively affecting the participants in the study. Nowadays psychologists have strict ethical guidelines which they should follow when conducting studies. The Milgram study is often criticised for the way in which participants may have been harmed in the study. For example it can be argued that Milgram did not take adequate measures to protect his participants from the stress and emotional conflict they experienced. However, the ethical guidelines that psychologists nowadays must follow were not introduced when Milgram
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carried out his study and Milgram did not expect the results that he found. Reicher and Haslam did anticipate that their study could have a negative effect on their participants but ensured that their study was monitored by independent psychologists and believed that their study demonstrates that large scale social psychological studies can be ethical. A further problem with the social approach is related to the generalisability of the findings. The social approach attempts to make generalisations about social behaviour but often the samples used are very restricted. Both the Milgram study and the study by Reicher and Haslam were carried out on male participants and therefore we would have to be careful generalising these findings to females. Furthermore both of these studies used a self-selected sampling technique which may mean that participants who volunteer may not be representative of the target population for a number of reasons. For example, they be more obedient, more motivated to take part in studies and so on. This is in contrast to the Piliavin et al. study where participants were an opportunity sample of males and females.

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Cognitive Section C Questions: a. Outline one assumption of the cognitive approach in psychology (2)

This approach regards mental processes to be important and these are internal, not external events. What is studied are the processes that come between an external stimulus and the behavioural response. Research is often experimental or linked to developing models of how the mind may work. Recent work is influenced by neuro-imaging.
b. Describe how the cognitive approach could explain memory(4)

Memory is described by the information processing approach. Information is picked up by the senses, it is then processed and stored in the short term memory, the process of rehearsal transfer information to the long term memory where it is stored until needed. Loftus and Palmer's (1974) study of eyewitness testimony demonstrates how the cognitive process of memory can be distorted by other information supplied after an event. This highlights that memory is not merely a tape recording but is a dynamic process which can be influenced by many events, such as leading questions.
c. Describe one similarity and one difference between the Loftus et als study and any other cognitive approach study (6)

Both the studies by Loftus and that of Baron Cohen use the experimental method, which means that they had complete control over the variables, and collect quantitative data, which is easy to analyse and objective, from participants. However, Loftuss study used university students as participants and was interested in the accuracy of memory. It had implications for the legal system as it questioned the accuracy of eye witness testimony. Baron-Cohens study investigated theory of mind in Autistic individual, the participants comprised three groups; Autistic, normal and Tourettes patients.

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542 d. Discuss the strengths and limitations of the cognitive approach using examples from the Loftus et als study (12)

A main strength of cognitive psychology is that this approach has tended to use a scientific approach through the use of laboratory experiments, as shown in Loftus study. A strength of using laboratory experiments is that they are high in control therefore researchers are able to establish cause and effect. Furthermore, such standardised experiments are easy to test for reliability. However, as many cognitive studies are carried out in laboratory settings they can lack ecological validity. When cognitive processes such as memory and theory of mind are studied in artificial situations it may be difficult to generalise the findings to everyday life. A further strength of the cognitive approach is the useful contributions that have arisen from this approach. For example, many modern types of therapy are based on the cognitive approach. Understanding cognitive processes allows us to help people to improve their cognitive processes such as memory and language. The Baron-Cohen et al. study enables us to better understand the behaviour of people with autism, Loftus and Palmers study highlights the limitations of eye-witness testimonies and the ape research may offer strategies to help children with language difficulties to develop language or to use strategies such as the lexigram system. Furthermore the cognitive approach has become the dominant approach in psychology particularly since it has become allied with neurology. The cognitive approach nowadays is often called cognitive science and is able to provide a very sophisticated understanding of how the brain processes information. A weakness of the cognitive approach relates to the validity of measuring cognitive processes. We can only infer what a person is thinking and therefore the cognitive approach relies heavily on self report measures and observation. There are a number of reasons why we have to question the validity of self report measures and observation. For example we can only infer that adults with autism have theory of mind difficulties from the results of the Eyes Task or that pygmy chimps are really using language when they communicate through a Lexigram. However, because of the developments of brain scanning techniques we are able to record the active parts of the brain more accurately nowadays and cognitive science is providing a more and more detailed description of how

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cognitive processes work. For example, brain scanning techniques are giving great insights about how memory works. It has been argued that a weakness of the cognitive approaches reliance on the computer analogy leads to a reductionist and mechanistic description of experiences and behaviour. Reductionism is the idea that complex phenomena can be explained by simpler things. The cognitive approach often takes this narrow focus and ignores social and emotional factors which may impact on cognition. For example, the autism study investigated just one central cognitive deficit as an explanation for autism. However the reductionist approach does have strengths. An advantage of the reductionist view is that by breaking down a phenomenon to its constituent parts it may be possible to understand the whole. This type of single mindedness has lead to some great discoveries in psychology as it has in the 'natural' sciences.

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Behaviourist Section C Questions: a) Outline one assumption of the Behaviourist approach in psychology (2)

All behaviour is learnt. Either by the process of classical conditioning (Pavlov association), Operant conditioning (Skinner Reinforcement) or Social Learning (Bandura Imitation).
b) Describe how the Behaviourist approach could explain aggression (4)

Bandura (1961) demonstrated that children learn development from role models. Bandura's approach is an extension of behavioural theories which emphasise the way we learn behaviour from others, our environment, experiences and so on. Bandura was particularly interested in the way children learn new behaviours, such as aggression, through observing and imitating role models.
c) Describe one similarity and one difference between the Bandura, Ross & Ross study and any other developmental approach study (6)

Both, Bandura, Ross & Ross and Samuel & Bryant use an experimental method to gather data, both use samples of young children and set up situations to see how children react. Therefore, both needed parental consent. Bandura collects this evidence by observation, which is subjective, however he reduced this by inter-rater reliability, whilst Samuel & Bryant question children, this is also subjective. A major difference is that Samuel & Bryant are interested in cognitive development, the development of the intellect and the ability to conserve, Bandura is interested in the development of behaviour, aggression. Both of these are learnt by experience and through interaction with others.
d) Discuss the strengths and limitations of the behaviourist approach using examples from any study involving behaviourism. (12)

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The strengths of the behaviourist perspective are that it offers an alternative to the biological model that dominated early psychology. It is based on observable behaviour and can be test using laboratory experiments. Experiments such as those used by Bandura are highly controlled and reliable. They can suggest cause and effect relationships. Evidence from experiments is usually objective, although in Bandura study, there was still a degree of subjectivity in the definitions of behaviours observed in the children. Behaviourism is a very logical theory; we can see everyday examples of how people learn, through association, reinforcement and imitation. Many successful therapies for removing problem behaviours have been based on behaviourist techniques. However, a major weakness is that most of the early research by Pavlov and Skinner is based on animal experiments. Animals lack language and higher cognitive function, so there is a limit to how much we can generalise to humans. Behaviourism offers a very reductionist and determinist view of human behaviour; it ignores other factors that can shape behaviour such as genetics and cognitive factors. There are a great deal of individual differences, some people learn much faster than others for example. In animals food and sex are the main reinforces of behaviour, for humans it is more complex, finding a motivating reinforcement is often very difficult. Human behaviour is the result of a complex interaction between factors, not simple cause and effect.

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Psychodynamic Section C Questions: a) Outline one assumption of the psychodynamic approach in psychology (2)

The psychodynamic approach is based on the work of Freud. It sees childhood experiences as influential. Based on unconscious motivations. Personality: - Id, Ego, Superego. Psychosexual stages: - Oral, Anal, Phallic, Latency and Genital. Oedipus & Electra complexes
b) Describe how the psychodynamic approach could explain phobias (4)

Little Hans was referred to Freud because of his phobia of horses. Freud argued that he had an unresolved Oedipus Complex. He had strong feelings for his mother and saw his father as a rival for her affections. Little Hans transferred this unconscious fear of his father onto horses. Phobias can be explained as unconscious displaced fears. So the phobic object may not be what the patient is really afraid of.
c) Describe one similarity and one difference between the Freuds and any other developmental approach study (6)

Both the studies by Freud and Bandura are interested in child development and looked at children of similar ages (3-5). Both are interested in what could be seen as undesirable, problem behaviour, aggression and phobias. The methods used were very different, Bandura used a laboratory experiment to study aggression and Freud used a case study. Whilst Bandura had a sample of 72 children, Freud only had one, Little Hans, this means we cannot generalise from Freuds study. Whilst Freud focused on the effect of the family on child development, Bandura was interested in the effect of wider society and the media.
d) Discuss the strengths and limitations of the Psychodynamic approach using examples from Freuds study (12)

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The strengths of the psychodynamic perspective are that it offers an alternative to the biological model that dominated early psychology. In fact, Freuds theories have shaped modern psychology. Although, often now dismissed as outdated, they at least sparked debate and led to the formation of alternative theories such as behaviourism, humanism and cognitive psychology. Freuds work has implications for many modern therapies such as psychoanalysis, dream analysis etc. and marked the beginning of the so-called talking cure. Freud used the case study method extensively. Case studies are detailed and in-depth. His case studies were actual patients so he was able to suggest ways of alleviating their problems as a result of his studies. Freud recognised the importance of the family and early childhood experiences. This has led to improvements in child care practices and government policies. However, because Freud focuses on unconscious motivations and desires his theory is seen as untestable and unscientific. However, this means it cant be proved wrong either! The theory is deterministic and pessimistic as it sees problems in childhood as automatically causing problems in later life. This ignores individual differences in coping strategies and the effects of other factors. Whilst, our childhoods inevitable shape us, adult experiences also have an influence. Freud over emphasises the influence of the family and the theory is based on an outdated concept of the nuclear family. It is sexist as it is based on stereotypical gender roles within the family. The theory suggests that boys that grow up without a father figure will become homosexual and we know that this is not the case.

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