Compound Key

A compound key consists of more than one attribute to uniquely identify an entity occurrence.

Each attribute, which makes up the key, is also a simple key in its own right. For example, we have an entity named enrolment, which holds the courses on which a student is enrolled. In this scenario a student is allowed to enrol on more than one course. This has a compound key of both student number and course number, which is required to uniquely identify a student on a particular course.

Student number and course number combined is a compound primary key for the enrolment entity.

Composite Key
A composite key consists of more than one attribute to uniquely identify an entity occurrence. This differs from a compound key in that one or more of the attributes, which make up the key, are not simple keys in their own right. For example, you have a database holding your CD collection. One of the entities is called tracks, which holds details of the tracks on a CD. This has a composite key of CD name, track number.

CD name in the track entity is a simple key, linking to the CD entity, but track number is not a simple key in its own right.

For each of the entities below, list possible primary keys. Then, suggest secondary keys, if any. Student, Course, Unit, Result, Classroom, Lecturer, Department, Attendance ntity Primary Key Student student no., SQA no. Course course no. Unit unit no Result student no, unit no. Classroom classroom id. Lecturer lecturer no. NI no. Department department no. Attendance student no, unit no, date, time

The Process of Normalisation

Normalisation is a data analysis technique to design a database system. It allows the database designer to understand the current data structures in an organisation. Furthermore, it aids any future changes and enhancements to the system. Normalisation is a technique for producing relational schema with the following properties:

No Information Redundancy No Update Anomalies

The end result of normalisation is a set of entities, which removes unnecessary redundancy (ie duplication of data) and avoids the anomalies which will be discussed next.

Update Anomalies

An Update Anomaly exists when one or more instances of duplicated data is updated, but not all. For example, consider Jones moving address - you need to update all instances of Jones's address. StudentNum S21 S21 S24 S30 S30 CourseNum 9201 9267 9267 9201 9322 Student Name Jones Jones Smith Richards Richards Address Edinburgh Edinburgh Glasgow Manchester Manchester Course Accounts Accounts physics Computing Maths

Delete Anomalies
A Delete Anomaly exists when certain attributes are lost because of the deletion of other attributes. For example, consider what happens if Student S30 is the last student to leave the course - All information about the course is lost. StudentNum S21 S21 S24 S30 S30 CourseNum 9201 9267 9267 9201 9322 Student Name Jones Jones Smith Richards Richards Address Edinburgh Edinburgh Glasgow Manchester Manchester Course Accounts Accounts physics Computing Maths

Insert Anomalies
An Insert Anomaly occurs when certain attributes cannot be inserted into the database without the presence of other attributes. For example this is the converse of delete anomaly - we can't add a new course unless we have at least one student enrolled on the course. StudentNum S21 S21 S24 S30 S30 CourseNum 9201 9267 9267 9201 9322 Student Name Jones Jones Smith Richards Richards Address Edinburgh Edinburgh Glasgow Manchester Manchester Course Accounts Accounts physics Computing Maths

Normalisation Stages
Process involves applying a series of tests on a relation to determine whether it satisfies or violates the requirements of a given normal form.

When a test fails, the relation is decomposed into simpler relations that individually meet the normalisation tests. The higher the normal form the less vulnerable to update anomalies the relations become. Three Normal forms: 1NF, 2NF and 3NF were initially proposed by Codd. All these normal forms are based on the functional dependencies among the attributes of a relation.

Normalisation follows a staged process that obeys a set of rules. The steps of normalisation are: Step 1: Select the data source and convert into an unnormalised table (UNF) Step 2: Transform the unnormalised data into first normal form (1NF) Step 3: Transform data in first normal form (1NF) into second normal form (2NF) Step 4: Transform data in second normal form (2NF) into third normal form (3NF) Occasionally, the data may still be subject to anomalies in third normal form. In this case, we may have to perform further transformations.

Transform third normal form to Boyce-Codd normal form (BCNF) Transform Boyce-Codd normal form to fourth normal form (4NF) Transform fourth normal form to fifth normal form (5NF)

Normalisation Example
We will demonstrate the process of normalisation (to 3NF) by use of an example. Normalisation is a bottom-up technique for database design, normally based on an existing system (which may be paper-based). We start by analysing the documentation, eg reports, screen layouts from that system. We will begin with the Project Management Report, which describes projects being worked upon by employees. This report is to be 'normalised'. Each of the first four normalisation steps is explained.

Step 1
Select the data source (ie the report from the previous page) and convert into an unnormalised table (UNF). The process is as follows:

Create column headings for the table for each data item on the report (ignoring any calculated fields). A calculated field is one that can be derived from other information on the form. In this case total staff and average hourly rate. Enter sample data into table. (This data is not simply the data on the report but a representative sample. In this example it shows several employees working on several projects. In this company the same employee can work on different projects and at a different hourly rate.) Identify a key for the table (and underline it). Remove duplicate data. (In this example, for the chosen key of Project Code, the values for Project Code, Project Title, Project Manager and Project Budget are duplicated if there are two or more employees working on the same project. Project Code chosen for the key and duplicate data, associated with each project code, is removed. Do not confuse duplicate data with repeating attributes which is descibed in the next step.

UNF: unnormalised table

Step 2
Transform a table of unnormalised data into first normal form (1NF). any repeating attributes to a new table. A repeating attribute is a data field within the UNF relation that may occur with multiple values for a single value of the key. The process is as follows:

Identify repeating attributes. Remove these repeating attributes to a new table together with a copy of the key from the UNF table. Assign a key to the new table (and underline it). The key from the original unnormalised table always becomes part of the key of the new table. A compound key is created. The value for this key must be unique for each entity occurrence.

Notes:

After removing the duplicate data the repeating attributes are easily identified. In the previous table the Employee No, Employee Name, Department No, Department Name and Hourly Rate attributes are repeating. That is, there is potential for more than one occurrence of these attributes for each project code.

These are the repeating attributes and have been to a new table together with a copy of the original key (ie: Project Code).

A key of Project Code and Employee No has been defined for this new table. This combination is unique for each row in the table.

1NF Tables: Repeating Attributes Removed

Project Code Project Title PC010 Pensions System PC045 Salaries System PC064 HR System Project Code PC010 PC010 PC010 PC045 PC045 PC045 PC045 PC064 PC064 PC064 Employee No. S10001 S10030 S21010 S10010 S10001 S31002 S13210 S31002 S21010 S10034 Project Manager M Phillips H Martin K Lewis Project Budget 24500 17400 12250 Department Name IT Pensions IT IT IT Database Salary Database IT HR Hourly Rate 22.00 18.50 21.00 21.75 18.00 25.50 17.00 23.25 17.50 16.50

Employee Name A Smith L Jones P Lewis B Jones A Smith T Gilbert W Richards T Gilbert P Lewis B James

Department No. L004 L023 L004 L004 L004 L028 L008 L028 L004 L009

Step 3
Transform 1NF data into second normal form (2NF). Remove any -key attributes (partial Dependencies) that only depend on part of the table key to a new table. What has to be determined "is field A dependent upon field B or vice versa?" This means: "Given a value for A, do we then have only one possible value for B, and vice versa?" If the answer is yes, A and B should be put into a new relation with A becoming the primary key. A should be left in the original relation and marked as a foreign key. Ignore tables with (a) a simple key or (b) with no non-key attributes (these go straight to 2NF with no conversion). The process is as follows:

Take each non-key attribute in turn and ask the question: is this attribute dependent on one part of the key?

If yes, remove the attribute to a new table with a copy of the part of the key it is dependent upon. The key it is dependent upon becomes the key in the new table. Underline the key in this new table. If no, check against other part of the key and repeat above process If still no, ie: not dependent on either part of the key, keep attribute in current table.

Notes:

The first table went straight to 2NF as it has a simple key (Project Code). Employee name, Department No and Department Name are dependent upon Employee No only. Therefore, they were moved to a new table with Employee No being the key. However, Hourly Rate is dependent upon both Project Code and Employee No as an employee may have a different hourly rate depending upon which project they are working on. Therefore it remained in the original table.

2NF Tables: Partial Key Dependencies Removed

Project Code PC010 PC045 PC064 Project Code PC010 PC010 PC010 PC045 PC045 PC045 PC045 PC064 PC064 PC064 Project Title Pensions System Salaries System HR System Employee Hourly No. Rate S10001 22.00 S10030 18.50 S21010 21.00 S10010 21.75 S10001 18.00 S31002 25.50 S13210 17.00 S31002 23.25 S21010 17.50 S10034 16.50 Project Manager M Phillips H Martin K Lewis Employee No. S10001 S10030 S21010 S10010 S31002 S13210 S10034 Project Budget 24500 17400 12250 Department No. L004 L023 L004 L004 L028 L008 L009 Department Name IT Pensions IT IT Database Salary HR

Employee Name A Smith L Jones P Lewis B Jones T Gilbert W Richards B James

Step 4
data in second normal form (2NF) into third normal form (3NF). Remove to a new table any non-key attributes that are more dependent on other non-key attributes than the table key. What has to be determined is "is field A dependent upon field B or vice versa?" This means: "Given a value for A, do we then have only one possible value for B, and vice versa?" If the answer is yes, then A and B should be put into a new relation, with A becoming the primary key. A should be left in the original relation and marked as a foreign key. Ignore tables with zero or only one non-key attribute (these go straight to 3NF with no conversion). The process is as follows: If a non-key attribute is more dependent on another non-key attribute than the table key:

Move the dependent attribute, together with a copy of the non-key attribute upon which it is dependent, to a new table. Make the non-key attribute, upon which it is dependent, the key in the new table. Underline the key in this new table. Leave the non-key attribute, upon which it is dependent, in the original table and mark it a foreign key (*).

Notes:

The project team table went straight from 2NF to 3NF as it only has one non-key attribute. Department Name is more dependent upon Department No than Employee No and therefore was moved to a new table. Department No is the key in this new table and a foreign key in the Employee table.

3NF Tables: Non-Key Dependencies Removed

Project Code PC010 PC045 PC064 Project Title Pensions System Salaries System HR System Project Manager M Phillips H Martin K Lewis Project Budget 24500 17400 12250

Project Code PC010 PC010 PC010 PC045 PC045 PC045 PC045 064 PC064 PC064 Employee No. S10001 S10030 S21010 S10010 S31002 S13210 S10034

Employee No. S10001 S10030 S21010 S10010 S10001 S31002 S13210 S31002 S21010 S10034

Hourly Rate 22.00 18.50 21.00 21.75 18.00 25.50 17.00 23.25 17.50 16.50 Department No. * L004 L023 L004 L004 L023 L008 L0009

Employee Name A Smith L Jones P Lewis B Jones T Gilbert W Richards B James

Department No. L004 L023 L028 L008 L009

Department Name IT Pensions Database Salary HR

Summary of Normalisation Rules

That is the complete process. Having started off with an unnormalised table we finished with four normalised tables in 3NF. You will notice that duplication has been removed (apart from the keys needed to establish the links between those tables). The process may look complicated. However, if you follow the rules completely, and donot miss out any steps, then you should arrive at the correct solution. If you omit a rule there is a high probability that you will end up with too few tables or incorrect keys.

The following normal forms were discussed in this section: 1. First normal form: A table is in the first normal form if it contains no repeating columns. 2. Second normal form: A table is in the second normal form if it is in the first normal form and contains only columns that are dependent on the whole (primary) key. 3. Third normal form: A table is in the third normal form if it is in the second normal form and all the non-key columns are dependent only on the primary key. If the value of a non-key column is dependent on the value of another non-key column we have a situation known as transitive dependency. This can be resolved by removing the columns dependent on non-key items to another table.

SAQ 1
A college maintains details of its lecturers' subject area skills. These details comprise:

Lecturer Number Lecturer Name Lecturer Grade Department Code Department Name Subject Code Subject Name Subject Level

Assume that each lecturer may teach many subjects but may not belong to more than one department. Subject Code, Subject Name and Subject Level are repeating fields. Normalise this data to Third Normal Form. Slution : UNF Lecturer Number ,Lecturer Name, Lecturer Grade, Department Code,Department Name, Subject Code, Subject Name, Subject Level 1NF Lecturer Number, Lecturer Name, Lecturer Grade, Department Code, Department Name

Lecturer Number , Subject Code, Subject Name,Subject Level 2NF Lecturer Number, Lecturer Name, Lecturer Grade, Department Code, Department Name Lecturer Number, Subject Code Subject Code, Subject Name, Subject Level 3NF Lecturer Number,Lecturer Name,Lecturer Grade *Department Code Department Code, Department Name Lecturer Number, Subject Code Subject Code,Subject Name,Subject Level A software contract and consultancy firm maintains details of all the various projects in which its employees are currently involved. These details comprise:

Employee Number Employee Name Date of Birth Department Code Department Name Project Code Project Description Project Supervisor

Assume the following:

Each employee number is unique. Each department has a single department code. Each project has a single code and supervisor. Each employee may work on one or more projects. Employee names need not necessarily be unique. Project Code, Project Description and Project Supervisor are repeating fields.

Normalise this data to Third Normal Form. Solution:==

UNF Employee Number, Employee Name,Date of Birth, Department Code, Department Name, Project Code, Project Description, Project Supervisor 1NF Employee Number, Employee Name, Date of Birth Department Code, Department Name Employee Number, Project Code, Project Description, Project Supervisor 2NF Employee Number, Employee Name, Date of Birth, Department Code, Department Name Employee Number,Project Code, Project Code, Project Description,Project Supervisor 3NF Employee Number, Employee Name, Date of Birth, *Department Code Department Code, Department Name Employee Number, Project Code Project Code, Project Description, Project Supervisor