CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW

II.1 Basis Theory II.1.1 Anthropometrics Anthropometrics literally means measurement of height. Anthropology of people living involves measurement height, torso length, torso transverse dimension, the circumference of the torso, leg and hand measurements, weight and robusitas, head and face. This type of measurement is the size of anthropology vertical, horizontal, and the circle. (Undiarti, 2010) The first person who uses the term anthropometry in the real sense is Johan Sigismund Elshotz (1954). He was an anatomist who in his time he created a tool that is used as a measurement called "anthropometron", but finally Elshotz refine the instruments which is a precursor instrument which is now known as antropometer. (Glinka, 2008) Began to flourish in the 19th century about the research in the field of anthropometry starting from simple calculations become more complex is to calculate the index. The index is a calculation that is used to describe the form via the link between measurement points. The calculation of the index, there are various kinds of point measurements and measurements that impact on a wide variety of measurements. This causes no standardization in measurement, especially in the field of osteometri (measurement the bones). The lack of standardization that led investigators had no standard of measurement because the measurement point and the index of the different measurements. (Glinka, 2008) In the mid-19th century began to be developed to standardize on the basis of studies of Paul Broca is where this effort has been made since the early 1870s, then refined by the congress of anthropologists in Frankfurt Germany in 1882 which later became known as the "Agreement Frankurt". The development of the next standardization made by an anthropologist who is also from Germany named Rudolf Martin, who published a book entitled "Lehburch der Anthropologie" in 1914 which was renewed with the next book Knusmann in 1981. (Glinka, 2008)

Anthropometric divided into somatometri and osteometri: 1) Osteometri 2) Somatometri There are several anatomical points that are used in determining a person's height. Where each point is given a name or symbol that represents the anatomical points. The distance between points is a measure used in anthropometry, which is denoted by the symbol both points, in the example of the symbol "v" that is used to represent the vertex, while the sty is used to represent stylion which is the most distal point at the end of the processus styloideus. (Glinka, 2008; Krogman, 1986) II.1.1.1 Antropometrics tools Sliding caliper: sliding caliper, spreading caliper: caliper range; skinfold caliper: thickness of skin fold calipers; Pitameter:; to measure a circle; Stadiometer: measuring height; Scales: weight scales; Antropometer: measuring the length and height; Segmometer: measuring segment body (width and length). (Undiarti, 2010) Anthropometry is divided into two parts, namely antrpometri life-dental and skeletal anthropometry. This is due to biological anthropology include the span of the past and the present, then the measurement in the framework of anthropology applied to the bones and teeth as well as to the human body. Three types of standard sizes in anthropometry is a measure of vertical, horizontal and circular. (Undiarti, 2010) II.1.1.2 Measurement Technique 8 Dimensions (Length / Height) There are two methods to measure the length of body segments. First by measuring the vertical distance from the floor to a series of specific points with antropometer. In this case the subject was asked barefoot standing upright with feet together. This method is done by measuring the length of the projected segment. Second, by directly measuring the length of segment. In this case, a large sliding caliper or segmometer can be used. After this measurement can be determined the length of individual segments, for example high high net akromiale radiale, to seek long-sleeve top (akromiale-radiale). Second, by directly measuring the length of

segment. In this case, a large sliding caliper or segmometer can be used. The types of vertical dimension as measured on the human body based on anatomical points that there is (length / height), the length of akromiale-radiale, radiale-stylion long, long midstylon-dactylion, high iliospinale, high trokanter, long-tibiale trokanterion lateral (segmometer), high lateral tibiale (antropometer), medial-sphyrion tibiale tibiale (segmometer). II.1.1.3 Dimensional Measurement Technique Horizontal (width) Small sliding caliper (bone) and were used in the same way. Caliper was in the back of the hand while the thumb stick on the edge of the inside of the caliper arm, and finger extension is along the edge of the outer sleeve. In this position the fingers to determine the pressure that is expected to reduce the thickness of soft tissue and middle fingers are free to mempalpasi protrusion of bone would be placed where the front calipers. Measurements were taken when caliper is in place with the pressure regulated along the index finger. 1) Width Biakromial 2) Width Biiliokristal 3) Length of Foot 4) Sitting Height 5) Chest width transverse 6) The depth of the anterior posterior chest 7) Width Biepikondilar humerus 8) Width Biepikondilar Femur

II.1.1.4 Dimensional Measurement Technique Circles 1) Arm upper 2) Circumference head 3) waist and hip circumferences 4) thickness of skin folds (using tongs) 5) Arc (arch) (Undiarti, 2010)

II.1.2 Osteometri Osteometri a bone length measurement used to determine the techniques in measuring the length or height of bone. (Krishan, 2007) II.1.2.1 Technique From osteometri postkranial frame size selected only a few long bones, which have a relationship with the estimated height. It should be noted, that the formulas are given based on material composed especially from Europe. So the entry into force for Indonesia only aproksimatif. Which is probably closer to the truth formulas Mongoloid race (eg Japan). 1) Arm a) The maximum length of the upper arm (humerus): the straight distance between the most proximal end (top) caput and the point most distal humeral trochlea humeral b) The maximum length of lever bone (radius): the distance between the most proximal (upper) at the head of the lever (caout radii) and the most distal point of processus styloideus c) The maximum length of ulna (ulna): the distance between the most proximal to the olecranon and the point most distal to the processus styloideus 2) Limbs a) The maximum length of the thigh bone (femur): the straight distance between the heads femoris and the most distal point on the board or the medial condylus antropometer b) The maximum length of the shinbone (tibia): the straight distance between the highest point on tuberuberkulum interkondilar and most distal point on the media ankle (medial malleolus) c) The maximum length of fibula (fibula): the distance between the apex capitis fibulae most proximal and most distal point of the lateral malleolus. Board or antropometer. (Glinka, 1990)

II.1.3 Forensic Identification Identification is an attempt to determine a person's identity through a number of

characteristics that exist in people not known, in such a way that it can be determined that the man does the same with the missing person was previously also known as the characteristics of it. Therein all, the identification has important meaning both for the benefit in terms of forensic and non-forensic. (Budiyanto, 1997) II.1.3.1 Medical Identification Medical Identification is a way of identification with the use of medical science, it is divided into several types: general medical identification, identification of bones, Serological Identification, Reconstruction of the face and superimposed, Psyhological personality profiling. (Budiyanto, 1997) II.1.3.2 Identification Types This identification can be made from: 1) morphological characteristics of victims, including: height, weight, hair, skin color, clothing, jewelry, tattoos, etc.. 2) the victim's fingerprints 3) Dental victim 4) The bones. (Budiyanto, 1997) II.1.4 Bones Identification II.1.4.1 Osteologi Definition Osteologi is the branch of anatomy that studies the bones, which is one of the most significant technique in the examination of forensic anthropology, forensic anthropology-related because the investigation remains intact bone and bone. Examiner to determine the approximate age, sex, racial affinity, physical appearance when alive. The skull is part of the human frame of the most informative. However, rarely found intact skull or both. Therefore osteologis should be able to utilize any available bone. (Shepherd, 2003)

II.1.4.2 Various kinds of bone and the parts Bone in the body of every creature has its diverse forms, including human

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bones. Bone in the human body consists of several kinds: (Martini, 2009) 1) Bone Pipe or Long Bone (Long Bone) As the name implies bone pipe has a shape like a pipe or tube and is usually hollow. At the end of the bone occurred extension pipe which serves to relate to other bones. Bones pipe is divided into three parts: the center is called diafisis, called the epiphyseal ends and between the epiphyseal and epiphyseal diafisis called chakras. Some examples of bone pipe is in the hands of them ulna bone (ulna), bone lever (radius) and leg bones including the femur (femur) and shinbone (tibia). 2) Bone Flat (Flat Bone) The second form of bone lamellar bone. Lamellar bone is composed of two plates compact bone and spongy bone, bone marrow contained therein. Most bone lamellar arrange cavity wall, so that these lamellar bone often serves as a protective or strengthening. Examples are rib (costa), scapula (scapula), the breastbone (sternum), and skull bone 3) Bone Short (Short Bone) Named short bone short because of its size and shape of a cube generally can be found at the base of the feet, base of arms, and joints of the spine. 4) Bone amorphous (Irregular Bone) Amorphous bone shape that is not included into the bone pipe, flat bone, and short bones. Bone is located on the face and spine. Image of facial bones (the mandible) in addition to including irregular bone.

Picture 2.1 Various Forms of Bones

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Source : Martini, F.H., Nath, J.L. 2009. Fundamentals of Anatomy and Physiology 8th Edition. Pearson Education, Inc. San Francisco: 184-210

II.1.4.3 The types of bone When we were infants we have about 300 bones. But when we get older some of these bones are fused until finally there are about 206 bones. Of the 206 bones have several types of bone. The types of bone have a differentiated based on the matrix and there are based on the network and physical properties (hard or not) of bone. Based on the constituent networks and physical properties of bone can be divided into two types, namely (Sloane, 2004) 1) Cartilage (cartilage) Cartilage is the bone that does not contain blood vessels and nerves except the outer layer (perikondrium). Cartilage elastic properties because the cartilage is composed of intercellular substance in the form of jelly that is kondroithin sulfate in which there are collagen and elastin fibers. Thus the cartilage is flexible and more powerful than regular tissue. In the intercellular substance is also contained cavities called lakuna containing cartilage cells are khondrosit. Cartilage consists of three types: hyaline cartilage, elastic cartilage, fibrous cartilage. 2) Bone Hard (Osteon) Bone hard or that we often refer to as bone function develop various systems framework. Bone is composed of: osteoblasts, Osteosit: mature bone cells, osteoclasts.

II.1.5 Growth of Bone

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Growth begins from the time mesoblas where growth occurs when the fetus was in the yellow sac (yolk Salk). Further growth continued into the medullary tesebut further continued growth in childhood where such growth occurs in the bone marrow, whereas in adulthood the growth occurs in flat bones. (Snell, 2006) The development of bone in the embryo occurs in two ways, namely osteogenesis and osteogenesis desmalis endokhondralis. In the first way, the bone to grow directly from the membrane of connective tissue; in a way that both the early formed cartilage models and then replaced by bone. Both cause the supporting network of collagen primitive is replaced by bone, or cartilage tissue which would then be replaced also become bone tissue. The result of both processes are woven bone osteogenesis which in turn will experience the process of remodeling by resorption and apposition to form mature bone composed of lamella bone. Then, resorption and bone deposition occurs on a much smaller ratio to accommodate bone growth tesebut. Changes that occur due to function and to affect calcium homeostasis. Bone development is regulated by growth hormone, thyroid hormones, and sex hormones. Extremity long bone ossification develop endokhondral. This ossification is a slow process and only finished at the age of 1820 years or even longer. Centre for bone formation found in the corpus is called diaphysis, while the center at the ends of the bone called the epiphysis. Plate prone on each end, which is located between the epiphysis and diaphysis of growing bone called the epiphysis plate. Metaphysis is part diaphysis epiphysis adjacent to the plate. (Snell, 2006; Sloane, 2004)

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Picture 2.2 Limitation of age on bone epiphyseal plate closure

Source : Knight, B. The Establishment of identy of Human Remains. In Forensic Pathology. Second Edition. Oxford University Press.New York. 1996: 95-132

II.1.6 Human Body Skeleton Bone or supporting skeleton is the human body. Without the bones, our bodies would not be standing. Bones begin to form as a baby in the womb, continues until the second decade in a regular arrangement. Humans can move because there are skeletal and muscle.skeleton is not able to move itself, but assisted by the muscles. With this partnership between the skeletal and muscular, man can jump, run, sway, run, and so forth. (Sloane, 2004) Skeleton Framework of the human body has the following main functions: 1) Give strut and body shape Framework provides a framework for the body so that support and maintain the body shape. 2) Movement Bone articulates with another bone at a joint and serves as a lever. If the muscles (which are embedded in bone) contract. The power given to the lever produces movement. 3) Protection Framework of the body protects soft organs in the body cavity da yanga like some vital organs: a) The bones of the skull protect the brain, eye, and in the middle ear.

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b) The spine protects the spinal cord. c) the rib cage, spine, and sternum protect the lungs and heart. d) Bone shoulder blade and collarbone to protect the shoulder. e) The bones of the spine protect the gut and excretion system, digestive system, and hips. f) Bone kneecap and ulna protect the knee and elbow. g) bone wrist and ankles protect the wrists and ankles. 4) Production of blood cells Bone marrow exist in adult bone in the sternum bone, ribs, vertebrae bone, flat bone in the cranium, and at the end of long bones, is the production of red blood cells, white blood cells and blood platelets. 2) Storage of Minerals Bone matrix is composed of about 62% inorganic salts, mainly calcium phosphate and calcium carbonate with the amount of magnesium, chloride, fluoride, citrate fewer. Frame body contains 99% calcium. Calcium and phosphorus saved in bone and to be used again and used for bodily functions. Substance is then replaced through nutrition received. Human order can be grouped into two parts, namely parts of the body axis (axial) and the tool motion (apendikular). Axial section consists of 80 bones in the adult human generally. While the apendikular consists of 126 adult human bone in general. (Sloane, 2004) II.1.7 Height Estimation Method It was mentioned that the human body is built based on the composition of bone or skeleton structure of the human body. Based on this, it is believed that the human body's height is closely related to the measurement of the long bones. So in estimating the height of the human body should be noted that the establishment of a person's height which began in the womb (intra uterine), and height growth will continue to grow in size until the age of 18-20 years because after that age height growth is not significant and will decrease with age a person and this is the reason the authors take a sample of students over the age of 21 years due to restrictions in accordance with the theory of bone growth. (Byers, 2008; Snell, 2006)

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If the measurement is done on the dry bones, it generally occurs along the shortening of 2 millimeters (mm) compared with fresh bone which still remained wrapped in tissue and muscle, it should be considered in measuring height. In some bones mentioned shrinkage for each 2.3 to 2.6 mm femur, the humerus of 1.3 mm, tibia at 1.7 mm, and a radius of 0.7 mm. Therefore, to find the actual height, there are several formulas that can help the process of determining the height that has been determined by experts, such as: II.1.7.1 Karl Pearson Formulas This formulas has been used all over the world since 1989. This formula is done by using measurements of long bones in the group of Europeans, and this formula to determine the distinguished men and women. (Nandy, 1996; Glinka, 2008; Knight, 1996) Male - male: 1) Height: 81 306 + 1.88 x F1 2) Height: 70 641 + 2.894 x H1 3) Height: 78 664 + 2376 x T1 4) Height: 85 925 +3271 x R1 5) Height: 71 272 +1159 x (F1 + T1) 6) Height: 71 443 +1.22 x (F1 xT1 +1.08) 7) Height: 66 885 +1.73 x (H1 + R1) 8) Height: 69 778 +2769 x (H1 +0195 xR1) 9) Height: 68 397 +1.03 x H1 xF1 +1557 10) Height: 67 049 +0913 +1225 xF1 +0.6 x T1 x H1 - 0.187xR1 Women: 1) Height: 72 884 +1945 x F1 2) Height: 71 475 +2754 x H1 3) Height: 74 774 +2352 x T1 4) Height: 81 224 +3343 x R1 5) Height: 69 154 +1126 x (F1 + T1) 6) Height: 69 154 +1126 x (F1 +1125 xT1) 7) Height: 69 911 +1628 x (H1 + R1)

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8) Height: 70 542 +2582 x (H1 +0281 xR1) 9) Height: 67 435 +1339 x +1027 x H1 F1 10) Height: 67 469 +0782 +1059 x F1 + 1.12xT1 XH1-0.711xR1 II.1.8 Bone Disorders II.1.8.1 Fracture Fractures Fracture is a fraction or bone damage. On the fracture of cells and bone matrix is unable to repair themselves directly without the help of network-related. Repairs begin along with the occurrence of injury. The final stage of fracture repair through a process ossifikasi endokondral and intramembranosa which took place on a small cartilage fragments in callus external and internal. And calling circumstances that can affect the height due to the deformity. (Dorland, 2007; Sloane, 2004) II.1.8.2 Cretinism State of a person as a result of iodine deficiency is characterized by mental retardation accompanied by one or more neurological disorders such as hearing loss, speech disorders, and disruption in the standing posture and walking from mild to severe or stunted growth (dwarf). (depkes, 2002) II.1.8.3 Gigantism Gigantism is the result of the overproduction of growth hormone before puberty (the world record for tallest human recorded Robert Wadlow from Alton, Illinois with 272 cm height 8 feet 11 inches who died at age 22 in 1940. Wadlow weight reached 216kg). If the abnormal growth hormone increase after epiphyseal plate is closed, then the bone will not grow long, but will experience a thickening of the bone, especially in the face, chin, and hands. Growth and development of cartilage in the soft tissue structures that will determine the physical features, for example the contours of the face. Abnormalities of the physical changes are called acromegaly. (Martini, 2009)

II.2

Skeleton Theory

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Right humerus bone length Left humerus bone length

Scheme 2.1 Skeleton Theory

Height

II.3 Hypothesis H0: There is a no Correlation between the length of the humerus bone with height determination on students FK UPN Veteran Jakarta of 2007 aged 21 years. H1: There is a Correlation between the length of the humerus bone with height determination on students FK UPN Veteran Jakarta of 2007 aged 21 years.