Essays on the History of Mathematics

Essays on the History of Mathematics interest and calculated from known diameters (exercise: 1.10, p.18). Perfect patterns such as golden rectangles were keys to Egyptian and Greek architecture, (1.2, p.20) and represented a continuity of problem solving across civilisations.

A comparison of the main mathematical achievements of Greece and Egypt

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ Marios N. Miliorizos Cardiff Wales & Corfu Greece ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ Egypt and Greece, ancient civilisations of the eastern Mediterranean have an interwoven history of achievements augmented by earlier Mesopotamian discoveries. What were the achievements of Egyptians? Possibly, they were the decimal counting system; outstanding geometry in architecture; management of changeable Nile farmland; and, the fair distribution of resources to labourers. The Egyptians were master arithmeticians, users of fractions to divide quantities, areas and volumes. And, what of the Greeks? They achieved pure mathematics, reason, axioms and detailed explanation. They developed solid geometry, geometric proof and applied them to architecture and engineering. The Egyptian counting system was decimal and used hieroglyphs for 1, 10, 100, 1000 (reference: 1.2, Egyptian Mathematics, page 9). A number is written by repetition of hieroglyphs starting from the left or the right of the papyrus. Numbers were added by grouping the same hieroglyphs together and substituting groups of ten by next hieroglyphs (1.2, Egyp. Math., p.10). A notable decimal Greek counting system began around Platos time. It used the Greek alphabet plus three archaic symbols to represent 1 to 9 and 10, 20,...,90 and then for 100, 200,...,900, (1.4, Greek Math., p.43). Egyptians considered practical mathematics, e.g. problems of Distribution (1.2, p.13). Mathematics was applied. However eye of Horus involves a geometric progression. The picture represented a regular number sequence (1.2, p.15). Areas of circles were also of

Greeks took on geometric problems and analysed them axiomatically by mathematical reasoning e.g. the three classical geometric problems (1.4, p.52). Pythagoras school tackled pure mathematical concepts and constructed famous theorems (1.4, p.41) and Platos academy considered perfect solids (1.4, p.42). Euclids Elements (1.4, p.44) laid the foundation of proof and geometric axioms whilst Archimedes worked in the frontiers of solid geometry and applied mathematics. Finally, conics were investigated by Apollonius (1.4, p.57) illustrating a wide scope in topics. Egyptian styles of writing were pictorial, symbolic and limited to hieroglyphics. Preservation of writing was limited by papyrus. Egyptians were concise in recording operations but systematic in the order of calculations. Whole numbers and unit fractional systems were developed. Numbers were organised into columns and relevant parts of a calculation were highlighted with a mark. This facilitated lengthy arithmetic involving multiplication using different orders of ten, subtraction, addition and doubling. Division was characterised by unique fractions. Greeks elaborate styles succeeded the succinct Egyptian style. Systematic proof, detailed geometric and logic reasoning left no room for error and lack of explanation. Transcriptions from Ptolemys Alexandrian library include works on triangles, circles, lines, perfect solids and links with astronomy and music. Theory and practice were combined in pursuit of science and used in study of numbers e.g. sieve of Eratosthenes (1.4, p.49). Thus styles of representation were geometric, symbolic and logical. Egyptian mathematics had outstanding uses in culture. Distributions of resources are recorded on papyrus e.g. Rhind. So were architectural calculations and measurements of the seasonal lands along the Nile. Emphasis was on application and teaching of arithmetic skills rather than the Greeks studies for the sake of it. Area calculations were important in land management and building (1.2, p.17). How else would the pyramids have been built so magnificently? Greeks nurtured concepts of practical geometry and then pure mathematical proof. It was thought science could be discovered though pure reason alone, an application which

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Essays on the History of Mathematics continues today. The Acropolis golden ratio marks a peak in architectural achievement. Yet Archimedes reluctant use of geometry and mechanics in the design of war machines showed the sinister aspect of application. In conclusion, Egyptians were the arithmeticians who summarised everyday calculations in a beautifully simple and structured way. Their applications were to economy, agriculture, architecture and teaching. Greeks were the thinkers, the pure mathematicians of the ancient world. But, as pure as some axioms were, many Greeks did not overlook the applications of geometry to building design, destructive war machines and yet inspiring, structured science.

Essays on the History of Mathematics

A comparison of 17th Century and 18th Century mathematical achievements

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ Marios N. Miliorizos Cardiff Wales & Corfu Greece

M.N.M., Cardiff, 2009. ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

Reference Section and page numbers in the essay, refer directly the following texts: Open University TM190 team, 2008. Blocks 1 to 4, the story of maths. Rooney, Anne, 2008. The story of mathematics. Publishers Arcturus, London.

Foundations of maths had been laid by the classical civilisations and Arabic and eastern culture transcribed and created mathematics which reached 17th Century Europe during the Renaissance. An achievement of the C 17th was the rejuvenated study of maths and its application from mechanics to arts. There was a quest for knowledge. C 17th saw flowering of geometry and the budding of algebra. C 18th involved blossoming of algebra plus a retrospect on Euclidean geometry. The styles of representation were manifold from accurate geometric constructions to perspectives and new fields of symbolism in coordinate geometries and algebra and the Calculus of Newton and Leibniz. Our heritage from these centuries was an evolution from three dimensional solids to infinite groups of numbers. During the C 17th mathematicians had a fascination with perspective; e.g. in Renaissance art it was developed by Girard Desargues (1591-1661) (reference: the story of mathematics, chapter 4, page 109) a French polymath. Rene Descartes and Pierre de Fermat and the communicator Marin Mersenne were giants of C 17th (ref.: s. of m., 5, p.137) placed at the cusp of geometry and algebra, at the beginning of combined numerical analyses. Systems of representation began to accommodate both geometry and symbolic algebra beyond the conventional three dimensions. Theorems of general geometric characteristics e.g. Desargues, considered incidence, not specific angles or lengths. Descartes in Discource on

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Essays on the History of Mathematics method, treatise in mathematical representation i.e. Cartesian coordinate geometry, represents work using algebraic methods to solve geometric problems. It illustrates transition from geometry to algebra that continued in to the C 18th. This reign of algebra culminated with Leonhard Euler (ref.: block 3, the frontiers... page 16). By C 18th Calculus of Leibniz and Newton were presented in two different styles. Calculus represented a breakthrough in physics. The uses of calculus were endless in quantitative analysis. This in retrospect only became possible because of the separation of C 18 algebra from earlier roots.
References
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Essays on the History of Mathematics In conclusion, mathematical studies from C 17th and C 18th were an achievement as great as the Greeks axioms of geometry and the methods of logical deduction. C 17th geometry based on the classical tradition changed to a combined geometry and algebra and eventually to the axiomatic based algebra of the C 18th. From this calculus of the infinite and infinitesimal was devised on as firm a foundation as any in the history of mathematics. M.N.M., Cardiff, 2009.

C 18th calculus of Europe complemented Renaissance pure mathematical study and underpinned developments up to recent times. Integration, differentiation and differential calculus are achievements of C 18th Europe. As geometry was founded on the axioms of Euclids Elements, in the C 17th so the algebra of the C 17th and C 18th begged for an equivalent system. Fermats last theorem recently proven by Andrew Wiles (Singh, 1997) marks famous attempts at proof of algebraic equations using logic. The achievements of classical times were revitalised in the C 17th and emulated in the new algebraic era of the C 18th. Of the most vivid applications of three dimensional geometry were Johannes Keplers laws of planetary motion, based on Brahes observations. It was in Newtons Principia, eighty years later, that Keplers hypotheses were explained; a clear application of calculus and algebraic geometry in astronomical systems. But earlier 1696, Johann Bernoulli used calculus similarly, solving the brachistochrone problem. Leonhard Euler was the most prolific mathematician (ref.: section 3.5, p.39). His C 18th work involved number series e.g. prime and perfect. Introductio in analysin infinitorum (1748) included classical conics but defined by algebraic formula. By 1767 Euler discovered pure geometric results e.g. the Euler line and algebraic results in growth of sequences. Despite the breakthrough in algebra C 18th also saw Gerolamo Saccheris (1733) Euclid vindicated, in which he considered geometry where the parallel postulate is not assumed. Non-Euclidean geometry had to wait until C 19th to reach forefronts of mathematics with algebra and number theory.
Open University TM190 team, 2008. Blocks 1 to 4, the story of maths. Rooney Anne, 2008. The story of mathematics. Publishers Arcturus, London. Singh, Simon, 1997. Fermats last theorem. Publishers Fourth Estate, London.

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