VARIABLE HIGH VOLTAGE DC POWER SUPPLY

DESIGN TEAM 2

Senior Design 2 (ECEN-4023)

DANIEL HUMBOLT RANDY BOWLER DYLAN GOERTZ AMBIKA SHAH

PROJECT ADVISOR DR. JAMES WEST

DATE SUBMITTED
MAY 1, 2006

Abstract Randy Bowler and Daniel Humbolt

The DC power supply is commonly used in high-power applications to convert an AC sinusoidal input voltage to a DC output voltage. These power supplies are designed to utilize single-phase or three-phase inputs to output DC voltages that are fixed or variable depending on the intended purpose of the device. Topologies for these types of applications come in many varieties with a wide range of applications available to implement the desired outcome. This document will explain the use of a single-phase AC controller that outputs an AC rms voltage fed into a bi-phase rectifier to output a variable DC voltage. It will also further explain the use of an LC filter to limit current and voltage ripples, as well as the use of capacitors placed in series to obtain a bi-polar output.

Table of Contents
INTRODUCTION DANIEL HUMBOLT ..............................................................4 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS RANDY BOWLER .............................................4
Single-Phase Thyristor Controlled Rectifier Randy Bowler.................................................................. 4 Three-Phase Fully Controlled Converter with IGBTs Randy Bowler.................................................. 5 Boost Regulator Randy Bowler ................................................................................................................ 7

DESIGN ROADBLOCKS (BOOST CHOPPER) DYLAN GOERTZ...................8 FINAL TOPOLOGY RANDY BOWLER ..........................................................11
AC Controller Randy Bowler ................................................................................................................. 11 Bi-Phase Rectifier Dylan Goertz ............................................................................................................ 13 Filter for Limiting Ripple Daniel Humbolt ........................................................................................... 14

SOFTWARE DANIEL HUMBOLT ...................................................................15

PIC Controller Code Daniel Humbolt ................................................................................................... 15 LabVIEW Daniel Humbolt..................................................................................................................... 17 Visual Interface Daniel Humbolt .......................................................................................................... 18 DAQ Card Daniel Humbolt .................................................................................................................. 19

SAFETY AMBIKA SHAH ................................................................................19

Fuses Ambika Shah ................................................................................................................................. 20 Heat Dissipation Ambika Shah .............................................................................................................. 20 Relays Ambika Shah ............................................................................................................................... 21 Standoffs Ambika Shah .......................................................................................................................... 22 Connectors Ambika Shah ....................................................................................................................... 22

SPECIFICATIONS DYLAN GOERTZ..............................................................23 RESULTS AND DATA DYLAN GOERTZ AND AMBIKA SHAH ....................23

Independent of Load Criteria Dylan Goertz and Ambika Shah ......................................................... 23 Bipolar Voltage Dylan Goertz ................................................................................................................ 25 Efficiency Randy Bowler ........................................................................................................................ 26 Ripple Calculations Dylan Goertz.......................................................................................................... 27 Current Ripple Dylan Goertz................................................................................................................ 27 Voltage Ripple Ambika Shah ............................................................................................................... 28

CONCLUSIONS DANIEL HUMBOLT .............................................................29 FUTURE WORK AMBIKA SHAH AND DYLAN GOERTZ..............................29 REFERENCES ...................................................................................................30 APPENDIX A STATUS REPORTS .................................................................31 APPENDIX B ADVISOR MEETING MINUTES ...............................................36 APPENDIX C - BUDGET....................................................................................49 APPENDIX D DC POWER SUPPLY SPECIFICATIONS ................................50 APPENDIX E PIC CODE.................................................................................51 APPENDIX F OTHER FIGURES .....................................................................53 APPENDIX G LABVIEW GRAPHS .................................................................54

Introduction Daniel Humbolt

The DC Power Supply team designed a power supply capable of outputting a variable DC voltage with minimal current and voltage ripple from a sinusoidal AC input. While its design is not as efficient as a professionally manufactured DC power supply, it is much smaller, lighter, and more cost effective than a design that utilizes large-scale transformers (up to 10kVA or greater). The major benefit of this design is mobility, making it possible for the power supply to be transported between classrooms and laboratories for demonstration purposes. Had our design implemented a 10kVA transformer, it would have more than doubled the overall cost of our design, as well as making it virtually immobile. The power supply can be utilized to power small DC motors, small industrial heaters, light controls, and on-load transformer connection changing.

Design Considerations Randy Bowler

There are many topologies available that could be implemented into the design of an AC/DC converter. However, not all topologies have the ability to meet the specifications as outlined in the problem statement for a Variable High Voltage DC Power Supply with a bipolar output. Designing the circuit required individual sub-systems integrated into one to make a complete and functional system. Listed below are some of the topologies considered for the individual sub-systems, as well as the final topology.

Single-Phase Thyristor Controlled Rectifier Randy Bowler

The easiest design to implement would be the uncontrolled bridge rectifier circuit with a sinusoidal AC input that outputs a DC voltage. This type of circuit is relatively simple to build, but has limitations that made the circuit unsuitable for the specifications. To obtain variable output voltages, phase-control thyristors are used instead of diodes. Controlling the delay or firing angle of thyristors varies the output voltage. A phase-controlled thyristor is turned on by applying a short pulse to its gate and turned off due to natural or line commutation. During the positive half-cycle of input voltage, the thyristor anode is positive with respect to its cathode and the thyristor is said to be forward-biased. When thyristor T1 is fired at t = , thyristor T1 conducts and the input voltage appears across the load. When the input voltage becomes negative at t = , the thyristor anode is negative with respect to its cathode and thyristor T1 is said to be reversed biased; therefore, it is turned off. The difference in time between when the input voltage starts to become positive until the thyristor is fired at t = is called the delay or firing angle . These phase-controlled devices are simple and relatively inexpensive; and the efficiency is generally above 95% [1]. Figure 1 represents the simplicity of a thyristor-controlled load.

Figure 1 Single Phase Thyristor Controlled Rectifier The mathematical analysis for this type of circuit is derived from the following equations: Vdc =
1 Vm Vm Vm sin t d (t ) = 2 [ cos t ] = 2 (1 + cos ) 2

(1)

The average output voltage reaches its peak when = 0 and the maximum output voltage Vdm is

Vdm =

Vm

(2)

Three-Phase Fully Controlled Converter with IGBTs Randy Bowler

Three-phase converters, more commonly known as three-phase bridges, are used in numerous industrial applications. The filter requirement for smoothing out the load current and load voltage of these types of circuits is minimal, making them the ideal for high-power variable-speed drives. There are six IGBTs within this circuit that must be fired at specific times throughout the cycle. Controlling this type of circuit is much more difficult than an uncontrolled diode bridge. Figure 2 is a schematic of a typical threephase thyristor bridge that will show the numbering sequence of the thyristor firing process. For an IGBT circuit, simply replace the thyristors with IGBTs (the term thyristors will be used to describe the functionality of the circuit). The thyristors are fired at an interval of /3. At t = /6 + , thyristor T6 is already conducting and thyristor T1 is turned on. During interval (/6 + ) < t < (/2 + ), thyristors T1 and T6 conduct and the line-to-line voltage vab = (van vbn) appears across the load. At t = /2 + , thyristor T2 is fired and T6 is reversed biased, thus turning it off. During interval (/2 + ) < t < (5/6 + ), thyristors T1 and T2 conduct and the line-to-line voltage vac appears across the load. The firing sequence is 12, 23, 34, 45, 56, and 61 [1]. The line-to-neutral voltages are defined as follows:

Van = Vm sin t
2 Vbn = Vm sin t 3

(3)
(4)

2 Vcn = Vm sin t + 3 The line-to-line voltages are defined as:

(5)

Vab = 3 Vm sin t + 6 Vbc = 3 Vm sin t 2 Vca = 3 Vm sin t + 2

The average output is defined as: Vdc = 3 3 Vm cos

(6)

(7)

(8)

(9)

The maximum average output voltage for delay angle, = 0, is: Vdm = 3 3 Vm (10)

The normalized average output voltage is: Vn = cos The rms value of the output voltage is:
Vrms = 3 Vm 1 3 3 + cos 2 2 4 (12)

(11)

Figure 2 Three Phase Fully Controlled Converter

Boost Regulator Randy Bowler

A boost regulator circuit is more commonly referred to as a boost chopper. A boost regulator can step up the output voltage without a transformer. Due to the transistor, it has a very high efficiency. The input current is continuous; however, the high-peak current has to flow through the transistor. The output voltage is very sensitive to changes in the duty cycle k, making it difficult to stabilize the regulator. Due to these characteristics, a much larger inductor and capacitor would be required to filter the rms current [1]. The duty cycle k can be derived from the equation k= t T (13)

When the switch is closed for time t1, the inductor current rises and energy is stored in the inductor L. If the switch is opened for time t2, the energy stored in the inductor is transferred to a load through diode D1, and the inductor current falls [1]. When the converter is turned on, the voltage across the inductor is Vl = L di dt (14)

The peak-to-peak ripple current in the inductor is represented as

I =

Vs t1 L
7

(15)

The average output voltage is

V0 = Vs

1 1 k

(16)

With a resistive load, the load current and the load voltage pulsates. An output filter is required to smooth the output voltage [1]. A typical step-up arrangement is shown in Figure 3 with a capacitor across the load. With this type of circuit arrangement the output voltage is continuous, and V0 becomes the average value Va. The average output voltage then becomes

Va =

Vs 1 k

(17)

Figure 3 Boost Regulator

Design Roadblocks (Boost Chopper) Dylan Goertz

While not implemented into the final design, a large portion of time was allotted to designing and constructing a boost chopper. An IR1150 gate driver senses the line current and the DC bus voltage then controls the amplitude, phase and shape of the input current, with respect to the input voltage, giving near-unity power factor [2]. The device accomplishes this by switching the IGBT using pulse width modulation. The frequency for switching is pre-programmed from an RC network on its frequency pin. The device adds an additional safety feature by sensing an over-voltage on its DC bus from a voltage divider. If this voltage reaches 105.5% of a reference voltage, Vref, then it shuts the device off. . To test the boost chopper we first calculated all component values using [3]. Our team used through-hole components for our first test of the boost chopper because it would be

faster than having it milled and soldered. We tried to simulate the boost chopper using International Rectifiers PSpice model which has since been removed from their website for unknown reasons [4]. We were unable to get this model to work even after following the instructions given. For construction, we soldered all of our components into our perforated board circuit and used 10 gauge wire for large currents and 12 gauge wires elsewhere, as shown in Figure 7. Our first attempt used a methods inductor for Lbst, shown in the datasheet schematic [2]. After ramping up the circuits input, the device first failed around 40 VAC input. We knew it failed because our IR1150 chip was drawing a lot more current from our power supply than it was supposed to according to [2]. We found that power and ground pins had shorted on the chip. After testing our circuit for errors, we found that there was around a 20 V voltage drop across this inductor. Our assumptions were that we exceeded the current capacity of the inductor, therefore we purchased a toroidal inductor from DigiKey Inc., capable of handling up to 10 A of current. We replaced the IR1150 and made additional changes to make the gate of the IGBT as close to the gate driver chip as possible. The next time we reached around 90VAC, the gate driver charged up to around 190 Volts. Since at this time we did not have a capacitor with a voltage rating of higher than 200 V, we could not further increase the input voltage. This conclusion allowed us to construct a printed circuit board (PCB) and buy capacitors capable of handling this voltage.

Figure 7 Perforated Board for Boost Chopper

Next, we calculated if a PCB could handle 30A of current. After talking with Dr. Cheville [5] and referencing Horowitz and Hill [6] we calculated that 1.6 inch traces should handle 30A with a 1oz copper board. We searched for thicker copper because if we doubled the thickness to 2oz, the trace width necessary would be reduced by a factor of two. We were unable to find thicker PCB copper in the ECEN part shop and all

sources online required a minimum purchase of 10 boards. Next, we purchased surface mount components that were more precise than the perforated board through-hole components. At about 40 VAC input we blew the chip and once again power and ground were shorted on the gate driver chip. After this, we made an additional board that could be jumpered to the main board (Figure 8) in order to limit the time needed to re-mill the entire PCB. We tried many other slight modifications, but overall none were successful.

Figure 8 Milled Boost Chopper with Large Traces

We decided to make the traces on our circuit smaller because in the PCB layout section of [3] it reads Parasitic inductance resulting from long trace length in the power path can introduce noise spikes which can deteriorate performance to unacceptable levels. It also stated, These spikes can decrease reliability of power devices and if severe enough, can be destructive to the point of catastrophic failure of the devices. Besides making the traces smaller on our next attempt (Figure 9), we also changed some components. We also added decoupling capacitors between power and ground on the gate driver so as to minimize any possible noise pickup due to excessive trace lengths [3]. We also added a 15V zener diode to the power pin of the devices because it was not internally clamped [2]. When testing this device we achieved the necessary voltage up to a certain point. However, when the device drew enough current the smaller traces were now not sufficient, and the traces leading to our current sensor blew. Due to closing deadlines, we were forced to switch to our backup plan of a bi-phase rectifier.

10

Figure 9 Milled Boost Chopper with Medium Traces

We believe the reasons for the devices failure deals with the trace sizes, noise in the circuit, and our limitation of copper thickness. Given more time, we would have experimented with slightly larger traces with the included zener diode and decoupling capacitors. We believe this would limit any current or voltage spikes from reaching the pins on the gate driver and thus not destroying it. Thicker copper would have been useful as we could be confident about having short trace widths, which could better handle the current and limit noise. We did not want to finalize the working perforated board boost chopper due to sloppy wiring and safety concerns when placing the device inside our entire project casing. It also worked much less reliably than it did during initial testing.

Final Topology Randy Bowler

The final topology of the project utilized a single-phase AC controller on the front half feeding a bi-phase rectifier on the back half. The output of the rectifier was fed through an LC filter to limit the current and voltage ripple of the output. To meet the bipolar specification, two capacitors were placed in series with a zero reference in the middle, after the LC filter, to produce a positive and negative DC output. The following sections further describe the functionality of each sub-system used to obtain the final design.

AC Controller Randy Bowler

If a thyristor is connected between the AC supply and load, varying the rms value of an AC voltage applied to the load can control the power flow. There are two types of control for this application: pulse-width modulation control and phase-angle control. The phase-angle control was implemented in our design. In phase control, thyristors connect 11

the load to the AC source for a portion of each cycle of input voltage. Because the input voltage is AC, thyristors are line commutated; and phase control thyristors are normally used. Due to line or natural commutation, there is no need of extra commutation circuitry and thus the circuits for AC voltage controllers are relatively simple. In a half-wave AC controller, one single thyristor and a diode are used to control the output. Delaying the firing angle of thyristor T1 controls the power flow to the load. Due to the presence of a diode D1, the control range is limited and the effective rms output voltage can only be varied between 70.7% and 100%. However, using bi-directional control, and a singlephase full-wave controller to feed a resistive load can prevent the problem of DC input current and the output can have a greater range of control. For this reason, the bidirectional control was chosen for the front half control of the circuit [1]. Figure 4 shows the schematic of the circuit. During the positive half-cycle of input voltage, varying the delay angle of thyristor T1 controls the power flow; and thyristor T2 controls the power flow during the negative half-cycle. The firing pulses of T1 and T2 are kept 180 degrees apart. If v s = 2 Vs sin t is the input voltage, and the delay angles of thyristors T1 and T2 are equal, the rms output voltage can be found from
1 sin 2 V0 = Vs + 2
1 2

(18)

Utilizing the above equation and a delay angle of /2, the rms output voltage was calculated to be 84.85 volts. This AC controller was then fed to a bi-phase rectifier with a center tap located between two capacitors of equal value to obtain the DC output as described in the next section.

Figure 4 AC Controller

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Bi-Phase Rectifier Dylan Goertz

A center tapped bi-phase rectifier acts as two half-wave rectifiers with each half responding to the positive input voltage and the neutral of the input source as shown in Figure 5. Two 1 M resistors were placed in parallel with the charging capacitors to help equalize the output voltage.

Figure 5 Bi-Phase Rectifier

Because there is no DC current flowing through from the AC controller, there is no DC saturation back to the motors lab source that was used to supply the circuit. The mathematical analysis of the circuit can be derived utilizing the following equations: The average output voltage is Vdc = 2Vm

(19)

The average load current is Idc = Vdc R (20)

The rms value of the output voltage is

2 2 Vrms = (Vm sin t ) dt T
12

(21)

Irms =

Vrms R

(22)

The input power factor for a resistive load is

13

PF =

Pac VA

(23)

Figure 6 shows a schematic of the circuit as a system designed to convert a sinusoidal AC input into a bipolar DC output. The software control of the system is described later in this documentation.

Figure 6 AC/DC Power Supply

The bi-phase rectifier was relatively easy to construct. We used two equal 680uF capacitors supplied from spare part shop parts. When testing this device independently we inputted a full 120VAC and achieved an output voltage of 340V DC. At first glance, it appears that this device triples the AC input, but it actually doubles the peak AC voltage. Thus, it doubles 169VAC peak input, which matches the 340V DC output [7]. This device was constructed on perforated board since it could not have been built on a PCB because the capacitors could not have been fully secured.

Filter for Limiting Ripple Daniel Humbolt

In order to limit the amount of output ripple voltage and ripple current, the appropriate values of an LC filter were necessary to calculate. Equation 24 shows the calculation of the filter capacitor given the load conditions of R and L for a bi-phase rectifier [1]. 10 C filter = (24) 2 4f R + (4fL) 2 Since an inductive load was not available in the motors laboratory, only a resistive load could be experimentally tested. Therefore, the minimum resistance value of R=150 and L=0 H for the load conditions were used.
C filter = 10 240 150 2 = 88.4 F

(25)

14

From the filter capacitance value calculated in Equation 25 and a necessary ripple factor of 10% for our specifications, calculations for the filter inductor can be derived. This was calculated as shown in Equation (26) [1]. RF = 2 1 = .1 2 3 ((4f ) L filter C filter ) (26)

Using the filter capacitance value from Equation 25, the value needed for the filter inductance is calculated in Equation 27. RF = 2 1 = .1 2 3 ((4f ) L filter 88.4F )

L filter = 9.378mH

(27)

Using this data, a filter inductance of 10mH was used. However, from old power supply parts, a filter capacitor of 860F could be obtained. This changes our ripple factor according to Equation 28.
RF = 2 1 = 9 .6 % 2 3 ((4f ) 10mH 860 F )

(28)

Therefore, using the 860 F filter capacitor and the 10mH inductor, the power supply produced a mathematical 9.6% output ripple voltage, thus meeting the specification of a 10% ripple voltage. Experimental ripple calculations were much smaller than this value, however, due to the affect the AC controller had on the bi-phase rectifier in the DC power supply. The Data and Results section details the experimental calculations of the ripple voltage and ripple current.

Software Daniel Humbolt

The software for the DC Power Supply was divided into two main portions: PIC coding and the LabVIEW interface. The main role of each of these devices is to implement independent of loading criteria and display data respectively.

PIC Controller Code Daniel Humbolt

The main function of the PIC microcontroller is to allow the power supply to operate independent of loading. Since the AC controller varies by adjusting a 0 to 5 V input, the PIC can be used to easily adjust this value. For our purposes, the PIC16F876A was used because free samples could be readily obtained. It also has two PWM ports, one of which was used to allow the AC controller

15

to raise or lower its output voltage. Code size was also not an issue with our design, as the PIC16F876A had more than enough memory for our objectives. Total memory used on our final PIC covered less than 10% of the available overall memory according to the PIC-C compiler. In order to implement our independent of load specification, the PIC microcontroller must read in the desired output voltage from LabVIEW, read in the actual output voltage, and compare these values in order to adjust the output voltage to the AC controller. This makes it possible to control the AC controller, thus allowing our power supply to vary the output DC voltage. If the actual output voltage is lower than the desired output voltage, then the PIC will increase the 0-5 V input control for our design until the desired voltage and actual voltage are within +/- 1.37 V. In the reverse scenario, it will also decrease the output voltage if the actual output voltage is higher than the desired output voltage. This value of 1.37 V corresponds to an increment of one binary bit for the PIC, and is related to the precision of the PIC as described by the following. The PIC16F876A had 8 bits of precision for analog to digital conversion. This means that the precision on the PIC can be found using Equation 29. 5V = 19.5mV 2 8bits (29)

From Equation 29, the precision on the PIC in the 0-5 V range is limited to 19.5 mV. However, this precision changes on the overall output for the power supply because in order to read the actual output voltage of our power supply on the PIC, a voltage divider must be implemented (Figure 7).

Figure 7 Voltage Divider

This voltage divider essentially scales 350 V to 5 V, 175 V to 2.5 V, etc. Since this creates a scale factor of 70, the actual precision on the PIC calculated from Equation 29 must be amplified by a scale factor of 70 as well. This yields a value of 1.37 V of

16

precision on the output of the power supply. Therefore, the ideal mathematical range that the PIC can control the output voltage is by +/- 1.37 V. While only the ratio of R1 and R2 shown in Figure 7 determines the scale factor of 70, the high resistance values used in the voltage divider are imperative for limiting current. Since the PIC acts as a high impedance, current induced from the voltage divider will not harm the PIC, but high currents through this voltage divider will result in an unnecessary loss of current on our output load. Since this would reduce the overall efficiency of the design, high resistance values were used to limit the current on the voltage divider to no more than a few hundred A, as shown in Figure 7. The only detrimental scenario for the PIC would occur from a voltage greater than 5 V, so the large value of R1 and comparatively smaller value of R2 help protect against this as well. Since the output to the AC controller must be an analog voltage between 0 V and 5 V, the PIC must output an analog voltage instead of a digital value. In order to accomplish this, pulse width modulation (PWM) was used. This technique is utilized to generate a series of pulses of fixed frequency where the duty cycle can be adjusted to generate an output voltage proportional to the average time spent in the HIGH state and LOW state respectively. This concept is displayed in Figure 8. By using a small capacitor as a low pass filter on the output pin of the PIC, the PWM controlled signal will generate the desired analog voltage to the AC controller. The code for the entire PIC microcontroller is shown in Appendix E.

Figure 8 PWM Control [8]

LabVIEW Daniel Humbolt

The objective of our LabVIEW code is to display our output voltage, output current, and output power characteristics, as well as to allow control of the output voltage for the entire power supply. Although our LabVIEW code was not implemented for the project demonstration due to an excess of current to the data acquisition card (DAQ), the code

17

worked in all simulation purposes, and would have worked for our design had we not miscalculated the amount of current that would be flowing to our DAQ card. The maximum amount of current supported by the DAQ card is 270 mA [9]. Since our power supply drew 320 mA of current, we did not connect our design to the DAQ card.

Visual Interface Daniel Humbolt

The code for our LabVIEW vi is shown in Appendix F. It works by reading in two voltages from the DAQ card: a 0-5 V signal representing the amount of output current from our system and a 0-5 V signal from the previously mentioned voltage divider representing the actual output voltage. Each of these numbers is then multiplied by an appropriate scale factor, which then represents the actual output voltage and output current on the LabVIEW vi. The equation for calculating the output current using the current sensor is shown in Equation 30 [10]. I actual = (Vsensor 2.5) 75 (30)

The equation for calculating the output voltage using the voltage divider is shown in Equation 31. Vactual = (Vdivider ) 70 (31)

The power, therefore, was calculated using Equation 32. Pactual = Vactual I actual (32)

A simulated version of the visual interface for the LabVIEW vi is shown in Figure 9.

Figure 9 LabVIEW VI

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The final feature provided by the visual interface is allowing the user to input a desired 0-5V input to the PIC, which then sends the corresponding control voltage to the AC controller. This control is implemented with a virtual knob, as shown in Figure 9.

DAQ Card Daniel Humbolt

The basic operation for the DAQ card can be represented by a microprocessor and an amplifying circuit for serial communication. It works by using a PIC microcontroller to send data serially to an amplifying circuit which converts 0-5V signals into -12 to 12 V signals that can be read by the computer. The connection interface for the DAQ card is shown in Appendix F, while the DAQ card itself is shown in Figure 10.

Figure 10 DAQ Card Circuit [11]

Another important feature implemented with the DAQ card is the ability for fine tuned calibration. Using the LabVIEW interface, the DAQ card was calibrated so our 5 V signal used to power the PIC were nearly exactly equal to 5 V on the DAQ card. This allowed for minimal error between what the PIC determined a specific voltage was and what the DAQ card determined this same voltage was.

Safety Ambika Shah

Due to the nature of our project, there were additional precautions necessary to maintain a safe working environment. Isolating the individual components of the subsystems required the use of standoffs to maintain separation between the case and all live components. Additionally, there were other safety precautions added to the design such as fuses, heat sinks, relays, and connectors. These features not only protect the user from our system, but they protect the motors lab equipment from our system as well. Each of these safety features is described in the following sections. 19

Fuses Ambika Shah

Fuses are perhaps the most important safety feature in order to prevent the overflow of currents greater than 20A into our system. When currents reach levels greater than 20 A, the fuse will blow thus halting input power to the entire design. This allows the protection of all devices in our system, all of which are rated for 20A current.

Figure 11 Case Design

Heat Dissipation Ambika Shah

Heat dissipation is another major issue involved in our power supply design. In order to prevent component failure due to excess heat, a fan (Figure 12) was mounted internally at the back of the case. Figure 11 shows the ventilation system used in conjunction with the fan in order to allow cold air to flow through the entire system. Moreover, since the bolt diodes used for rectification create an excess of heat, they are mounted on top of a large heat sink. The AC controller is mounted onto a heat sink as well in order to dissipate the heat generated by the SCR.

Figure 12 Case Fan

Junction temperatures of the diodes are shown in Table 1 [12].

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Table 1 Thermal and Mechanical Specifications for Diode Heat Sink [12]

Utilizing the information from this table and the heat sink calculations found in Horowitz and Hill [6], the heat sink requirements can be calculated with the following formula. TJ = T A + ( Jc + CS + SA )P Where TJ = Junction Temperature TA = Ambient Temperature Jc = Thermal resistance from junction to case CS = Thermal resistance from case to heat sink SA = Thermal resistance from heat sink to ambient P = Power being dissipated As an additional safety factor, the heat sink was oversized to ensure heat dissipation. (33)

Relays Ambika Shah

In order to discharge capacitors upon system shutdown, a relay is used in series with a power resistor. This feature is used only when there is no external load connected to the system, as an external resistive load would allow the capacitors to discharge properly. When the system is powered on, the relay becomes an open circuit, therefore allowing current to pass through the load. When the system is powered off, the relay becomes a closed circuit which allows the voltage to bleed off the capacitors. Should the relay fail, a short circuit condition would occur which would cause no current to pass through the load, thus allowing it to discharge through the power resistor. The amount of energy released through the capacitor when the relay acts as closed circuit is calculated using the following formula.

21

E=

1 * CV 2 2

(34)

Using Equation 34, the energy of individual capacitors used within the system is calculated and is shown in Table 2.
Capacitance (microfarads) 1500 Voltage (Volt) 160 Energy (Joules) 19.2

Biphase Rectifier Top 1500 160 19.2 Biphase Rectifier Bottom 680 160 8.704 Bipolar Top 680 160 8.704 Bipolar Bottom 860 320 44.032 Filter Capacitor Table 2: Energy of individual capacitors used within the system

The total energy released when the relay acts as closed circuit is found in Equation 35.

ETOTAL = (19.2 + 19.2 + 8.704 + 8.704 + 44.032) = 99.84 Joules

(35)

According to [13], in our design the output voltage is comparable to that of a defibrillator, however, standard defibrillators utilize energy of around 360 to 400 J, depending on the model. The energy released from our design is found to be a maximum of around 100 J. While this energy output is still high and could be extremely harmful to a user, it is not comparable to the shock issued from most defibrillators used today.

Standoffs Ambika Shah

Another safety parameter included in our design is the use of standoffs to isolate the circuitry from the aluminum case. Also, a mechanical ground was used in the circuitry as a safety measure to protect currents from shorting to the case giving circuit faults a path to ground. This was accomplished by placing a ground lug directly to the metal casing of the power supply.

Connectors Ambika Shah

The final safety measure taken in our DC power supply is the use of safety insulated connectors. These connectors are used to prevent any possible human contact to all current carrying wires, and they are also fully compatible with all motors lab safety connectors.

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Specifications Dylan Goertz

Input

120V AC at 60Hz Input current must be rated for 20A*

Output Independent of Load Maximum output voltage a minimum of 300 V Maximum output bipolar voltage a minimum of +/- 150 V. Power efficiency no less than 95% Current ripple must not exceed 20% of average load current Voltage ripple +10% of average voltage at full voltage *Motors lab cannot provide more than 10A AC input

Results and Data Dylan Goertz and Ambika Shah

The following data was tabulated using the motors lab LabVIEW equipment.

Independent of Load Criteria Dylan Goertz and Ambika Shah

To achieve independent of loading we used the PIC microprocessor to monitor the output and send a signal to the AC controller to raise or lower the output voltage. The maximum voltage difference between the desired output voltage and the actual output voltage was 6.2 volts at maximum output voltage. This worst case voltage drop occurred at maximum output voltage because when the load is decreased, the voltage drops. The PIC monitors this voltage drop but cannot increase the signal to the AC controller because it is already at maximum output. The average voltage drop induced by decreasing the load by a factor of two was 2.2 V. Ideally the PIC could control this voltage to within 1.37 volts, however due to noise and calibration issues this value was determined reasonably close to meet independent of loading specifications. Table 3 and Figure 13 show the independent of load data.

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Load (Ohm) 300

Ac Input Current ( Amps) 4.11 2.66 2.767 2.3754 2.1232 4.371 2.6418 2.3422 2.7128 2.2946 4.67 2.8412 2.7333 2.7583 2.3576 4.9176 2.8946

AC Input Voltage (Volts) 119 120 120.26 121 121.322 120.475 121.14 121.814 121.7 122.456 119.022 120.45 120.703 120.666 122.53 118.536 121.126

Output Current (Amps) 1.135 0.9976 0.9058 0.7072 0.55 1.3889 1.1928 1.084 0.8729 0.5767 1.6509 1.4443 1.3041 1.0716 0.8268 2.1227 1.8488

Output DC Voltage (Volts) 314.6 274 248.76 196.03 152.56 316.397 272.689 247.884 194.093 130.94 310.667 273.565 246.291 202.247 153.418 307.362 269.9

Positive DC Voltage (Volts) 158.42 139 126.041 100.38 78.4506 159.542 137.723 125.124 99.2381 66.8699 156.983 138.531 124.561 102.722 78.7 155.486 136.322

Negative DC Voltage (Volts) -160 -139.9 -126.49 -99.181 -77.452 -161.39 -139.41 -126.87 -99.862 -68.672 -157.66 -139.23 -124.99 -100.42 -80.817 -155.97 -137.56

250

199.6

150

Table 3 Independent of Loading and Bipolar Data

Independent of Loading Data

330 310 290 270 250 230 210 190 170 150 300 250 200 150 Load Resistance (Ohms) Actual Output Voltage (V)

350 V 250 V 200 V

Figure 13 Independent of Loading Data

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Bipolar Voltage Dylan Goertz

We used two 680 F capacitors in series with a zero reference in the middle to obtain a bipolar DC output. Table 3 shows our data collected for bipolar output. This table shows that the maximum difference between positive and negative DC outputs was 2.6 V and the average voltage difference was 0.092 volts. Unequal division of the output voltage between positive and negative outputs can be attributed to numerous factors. The main reason for this fluctuation is the differences in the capacitance of the two bipolar capacitors. Ideally, these capacitors should be of equal capacitance, but due to small inaccuracies the output voltage divides unevenly. Secondly, there are more voltage drops induced on the positive rail due to the presence of the filter inductor and the rectifying diodes used in the bi-phase rectifier. This results in an unbalanced system, however, this cannot be avoided. Since the division between positive and negative voltages was in the range of the specifications, no additional steps were taken. Figures 14 and 15 show the positive DC voltage and the absolute value of the negative DC voltage in comparison with each other. The graphical results shown in Figure 14 show that the division of the positive and negative voltages are nearly ideal, as the lines overlap nicely.
Bipolar Voltage at 300 Ohm
180

160

140 Positive Voltage Negative Voltage

120

100

80

60 315 275 250 200 150

Figure 14 Bipolar Data at 300

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Bipolar Voltage at 200 Ohm

180

160

140 Positive Voltage Negative Voltage

120

100

80

60 315 275 250 200 150

Figure 15 Bipolar Data at 200

Efficiency Randy Bowler

During the testing process, data was retrieved from LabVIEW (Table 4), to calculate the efficiency of the circuit measured with a resistive load of 300 .
Vac 119.56 Iac 4.11 Vdc Idc PF 315.204 1.1331 0.9 Table 4 LabVIEW Data for Efficiency +Vdc 158.42 -Vdc -160.0

The efficiency was calculated as follows using measured values.

Pdc = Vdc I dc = 315.204 1.1331 = 357.16 W PF = 0.9 Pac = Vrms I rms PF = 119.56 4.11 0.9 = 442.25 W

(36) (37) (38) (39)

Pdc 357.16 = 100% = 80.8% Pac 442.25

However, utilizing various readings made from LabVIEW and having them verified by the head motors T.A., Qamar H. Arsalan, the calculations determined that the power supply was producing more output power than input power. This is of course impossible.

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Attached in Appendix G is a copy of the LabVIEW print outs, as well as the data shown in Table 5. The efficiency calculations for this data are shown below. Vac 120.7 Iac Vdc Idc 2.73 246.3 1.3 Table 5 LabVIEW Data for Efficiency 2 PF 0.7789 (40) (41) (42) (43)

Pdc = Vdc I dc = 246.31.3 = 320.19 W PF = 0.7789 Pac = Vrms I rms PF = 120.7 2.73 0.7789 = 256.66 W

Pdc 320.19 = 100% = 125% Pac 256.66

Measurements were also made with the Fluke and hand-held meters to verify the voltage and current readings that were obtained from LabVIEW. These readings were almost identical. A power meter was not available to confirm the power input and power output, making it virtually impossible to verify the calculations used to obtain the efficiency of the system. However, Qamar confirmed what was being read and calculated was correct and also impossible as was indicated previously. Further testing would be required to confirm or deny the readings and calculations that were used to calculate the efficiency of the power supply.

Ripple Calculations Dylan Goertz

We used motors lab LabVIEW interface to get an accurate reading from our power supply. At maximum DC output and load, we obtained our measurements for current and voltage ripple specifications. These can be seen in Figures 16 and 17. Moreover, the experimental and graphical calculations are shown below.

Current Ripple Dylan Goertz

Current ripple at full load and maximum output voltage was experimentally calculated at 0.19%, thus meeting specifications. This is shown in Figure 16.

I peak I min I ave

1.051 1.049 = 0.19% 1.0495

(44)

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Figure 16 Ripple Current Graph

Voltage Ripple Ambika Shah

Voltage ripple at full load and maximum output voltage was experimentally calculated at 0.4%, thus meeting specifications. This data is shown in Figure 17.

V peak Vmin Vave

315.6 314.1 = 0.4% 314.85

Figure 17 Voltage Ripple Graph

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Conclusions Daniel Humbolt

The DC power supply pushes the envelope on both current and voltage capabilities in the motors lab. Other than the integration of our own LabVIEW system, all other specifications were verified experimentally using the motors lab equipment. Efficiency specifications were deemed inconclusive based on experimental calculations yielding efficiencies greater than 100%. From an overall perspective, the DC power supply accomplished its goal of converting a single-phase AC voltage to a variable DC output voltage at the maximum capabilities available in lab. Had the motors lab been capable of handling more than 10A input and 4A on the output resistive load, our team would have been better able to fully test the DC power supply. While commercial feasibility for the DC power supply design is limited, its distinct advantage over professionally manufactured products is its small weight and mobility by not implementing a large scale transformer.

Future Work Ambika Shah and Dylan Goertz

Given more time, many additional improvements could be made to our DC power supply. Perhaps the most notable improvement in our design would be the implementation of our own AC controller as opposed to purchasing one. From a manufacturability standpoint, this would greatly reduce the overall cost of the system in the future. Once a new AC controller design was implemented, the power supply design could be integrated in order to allow for a three phase input. Since testing the power supply was extremely limited due to motors lab current restrictions, future work would also involve acquiring a highly inductive load, or some sort of DC motor to test our system. Additional minor improvements could be made by reducing the overall size of the casing, thus further reducing manufacturing costs if our design was to be mass produced. Finally, given enough resources our own LabVIEW system would be implemented for all testing and calibration purposes using a much more accurate DAQ card capable of reading higher currents and voltages.

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REFERENCES
[1] Muhammad Rashid, Power Electronics. New Jersey: Pearson Prentice Hall, 2004. [2] International Rectifier, IR1150, International Rectifier, 2005. [3] International Rectifier, Appl. Note 1077, pp. 18-20. [4] Internationals Rectifier, "International Rectifier - The Power Management Leader:," April 2006, http://www.irf.com/indexsw.html [5] Dr. Cheville (private communication), 2006. [6] P. Horowitz and W. Hill, The Art of Electronics. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1980, 1989 [7] Dr. Yumin Zhang (Fischer) (private communication), 2006. [8] Society of Robots, "Society of Robots: How to Build a Robot Tutorial for Beginners and Advanced.:,"April 2006, http://www.societyofrobots.com/microcontroller_tutorial.shtml [9] National Instruments, Low-Cost E Series Multifunction DAQ, National Instruments, 2004. [10] Allegro MicroSystems, Current Sensor: ACS750xCA-075, Allegro MicroSystems, 2005. [11] National Instruments, NI PCI-6024E , April 2006, http://sine.ni.com/images/products/us/0dqc247al.jpg [12] International Rectifier, 40HF(R) Series-Standard Recovery Diodes, International Rectifier, 2004. [13] Wikimedia Foundation, Inc, "Automated external defibrillator - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia:," April 2006, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automated_external_defibrillator [14] Microchip, PIC16F87XA Data Sheet, Microchip Technology Inc., 2003.

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Appendix A Status Reports

Status Report #1

31

32

Status Report #2

33

34

Status Report #3

35

Appendix B Advisor Meeting Minutes

36

37

38

39

40

41

42

43

44

45

46

47

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Appendix C - Budget

Power Supply Budget

Safety Connectors Filter Capacitor Other Capacitors PC plate AC Controller IRll50 AC/DC Power Supply Current Sensor Voltage Reg Fan AC current meter DC current meter Case Materials Fuse Block Relay Pic Microprocessor IGBT Gate Driver Qty. Unit Price Shipping 8 2.16 0 1 12 34 4 0 0 3 10 0 1 225 17 6 2.62 0 1 50 0 4 0 0 2 1 0 1 0 0 1 13.81 7.07 1 16.49 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 12 0 0 8 2 0 2 7 0 Total 17.28 46 0 30 242 15.72 50 0 2 0 20.88 16.49 0 0 0 0 16 14

TOTAL

470.37

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Appendix D DC Power Supply Specifications

Project Designers: Randy Bowler, Dylan Goertz, Daniel Humbolt, and Ambika Shah
Current Ripple Specifications Ripple Current must not exceed 20% of average load current. Input Specifications

Current Voltage Frequency

Output Specifications

Minimum Value 10A 208/120 VAC 59.9 Hz

Maximum Value 30A * 208/120 VAC 60.1 Hz

Voltage (no load) Voltage Ripple

Power Specifications

Minimum Value - 150 at full input N/A

Maximum Value +150V at full input +10% of output voltage at full voltage

Power Output Efficiency

Logic Power Supply

Single-phase full load 1.2kW nominal 95%

Minimum Value Voltage Input 100VAC Power Output N/A Frequency 60 Hz nominal Everything is based on ambient temperature of 25 C

Maximum Value 240VAC 7.5W N/A

* Theoretically possible although motors lab is incapable of supplying this current.

LabVIEW Measurements Recorded Output voltage Output current Output Power

Signatures:

____________________

__________________

____________________ ____________________

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Appendix E PIC Code

// DC power supply PIC code #include <16F876.h> #use delay(clock=40000000) // The clock is set at 40 MHz to double the wait time because the actual clock runs at 20 MHz. #fuses HS,NOWDT,NOBROWNOUT,NOLVP // This directive tells the compiler to use PORTC. The input/output state of each pin is set later. #use fast_io(C); void main() { // declare variables to be stored digitally int vdivider_in; int knob_in; int LabVIEW_in; int control_out; // set PORTA to all inputs // set PORTC to all outputs for simplicity set_tris_a(0xFF); set_tris_c(0x00); // setup A/D converter setup_adc(ADC_CLOCK_INTERNAL); // Sets up the analog to digital converter to use the input from PORTA bit 0 setup_adc_ports(AN0); // Loop always while(true) { set_adc_channel(0); delay_us(250); // sets up the pulse width modulation functions in the hardware setup_ccp1(CCP_PWM); // The pulse width modulation period is set up to be 2.44 kHz [40MHz/(4*16*256)] setup_timer_2(T2_DIV_BY_16, 255, 1); // An analog input is read from the AN0 pin and is converted into a binary number:

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Va = Vref*(#binary)/(2^8) vdivider_in = read_adc(); set_adc_channel(4); delay_us(250); knob_in = read_adc(); set_adc_channel(2); delay_us(250); LabVIEW_in = read_adc(); if (input(PIN_A1)) { control_out = LabVIEW_in; } else { control_out = knob_in; } if (control_out < vdivider_in) { control_out=control_out+1; } else { control_out = control_out-1; } // Sets the pulse width for the proper output voltage set_pwm1_duty(control_out); // A delay is added to steady the output delay_us(250); } // End of while loop } // end main

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Appendix F Other Figures

DAQ Card Connections

LabVIEW Code

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Appendix G LabVIEW Graphs

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