Working with audio meters

Anyone working with audio needs a consistent method of aligning audio levels. This white paper discusses popular meter scales and explains the background to their use.

Logarithms and decibels

Audio meters generally use a logarithmic scale so that level changes are related to human aural perception. Logarithmic scales enable successive scale markings to correspond to equal perceived changes in the signal being measured. The standard unit of measurement is based on the decibel, or dB for short, which is used for comparing two levels or power, voltage, current or sound intensity. The decibel is one tenth of a Bel, which is named in honour of Graham Alexander Bell who amongst other things, invented the telephone and founded Bell Telephone Laboratories. Although decibel measurements consist of a single value, the decibel is in fact based on a ratio of two levels. A reference or test signal is always required to make a decibel figure meaningful. For example if an amplifier is said to have a gain of 40dB, then this means that the output is 40dB referred to (in this case larger than) the input. In audio terms a change of 1dB can only just be heard, 3dB is noticeable change and 10dB is a subjective doubling in sound level. However adding two different but equally strong audio signals together only results in a 3dB increase in gain. This is because audio signals tend to add according to their energy or power, not amplitude. Measurement in decibels 0 1 2 3 6 10 20 30 40 Power ratio 1 1.259 1.585 1.995 3.981 10 100 1000 10000 Amplitude Ratio 1 1.122 1.259 1.413 1.995 3.162 10 31.62 100

When telecommunications engineers started working with 600 ohm analogue telephone lines they established a standard reference of 1mW. It is customary to refer to this reference power level as 0dBm which delivers 0.775V into a 600 ohm line. Audio engineers have adopted reference signals that are related to this power level but the requirement for a 600 ohm impedance for the line has been dropped. A reference level of 0dBu refers to a voltage of 0.775V without specifying or needing a characteristic line impedance. The following table summarises some of the main audio measurement units in common use: Measurement unit and typical level specification 0dbm = 1mW 0dBu (or 0dBv)= 0.775V 0dBV = 1V 0dBr = reference level 0dBFS = 18dBu 0dBFS = 24dBu 0dBSPL = 20N/m2 = 20Pa dB(A) Phon = 20Pa @ 1kHz Notes Power into a 600 ohm line 0.775Vreference level equivalent to 0dBm 1V reference level do not confuse with dBv Requires quoted reference level Full Scale Digital level (EBU) Full Scale Digital level (SMPTE) Threshold of hearing for loudness reference dB measurements using A weighting filter Loudness referenced to 1kHz

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Peak and average program meters

The RMS (Root Mean Square) value is usually used as the basis of the average level displayed by a VU meter whilst peak to peak levels are displayed by PPM (Peak Program Meter) scales.

Typical VU scale

Typical PPM (BBC) scale

The BBC PPM scale is designed to be simple to use with 4dBu between adjacent numbered marks. The central position numbered 4 usually represents a line level of 0dBu. When a VU meter complies with American National Standard C16.5-1942, 0VU equates to +4dBu for a sine wave test tone. When fitted to VTRs, the 0 VU marking has been used most to indicate the nominal magnetic flux level required on the tape of around 200 to 250nWb/m for audio recorders and 90 or 125 nWb/m for Betacam recorders. Analogue Betacam SP video tape recorders were available with a PPM metering option. In this case, playback of a 1kHz sine wave recorded at the reference level will indicate 9 in PPM mode or 0 in VU mode. The choice of 9 was made in accordance with European PTT regulations so that the 0 point indicated the onset of tape saturation. VU and PPM meters differ in their ballistics. A VU meter integrates the audio signal over 300 milliseconds whilst a PPM meter integrates the signal over 10ms. This means that peak meters respond 30 times more quickly to changes in level than a typical VU meter. Each meter also has different attack and decay responses. To help the eye register changes, an increase in level is usually responded to much faster than a reduction in level. There is also some 3dB difference between the average or RMS level and the peak level for a pure sinewave. For a typical music or speech signal the difference can be much larger, say 10 or 15 dB. This difference between peak and average (or PPM and VU meter readings) is known as the crest factor.

Peak and RMS (VU) for pure sine wave

Peak and RMS (VU) for speech + music

Note that sustained peaks (> 300ms) experienced when using a standard VU meter will push the needle against the end stop and short duration peaks will be under read (due to the crest factor). For this reason VU meters are never used to monitor audio peaks in preference to peak reading or PPM meters.

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It should be remembered that VU meters were first introduced to ensure that the average signal level remained above the noise on telephone circuits, which had a very restricted dynamic range. Bargraph versions of most level meters are increasingly common and most have a peak hold feature to indicate where the highest peak levels occur. The peak hold bars will fall to the current level after a variable delay period of a few seconds.

Example digital meter with peak hold bars In practice each type of meter requires experience of different types of signal such as music and speech to interpret level correctly. Audio signals vary considerably with time and neither a VU or PPM scale may show how loud a signal actually is, however specialised loudness meters are now available.

Analogue and digital headroom

Level alignment in a system is important for two basic reasons: to ensure that transmitted or recorded material is at the same consistent level to obtain the maximum dynamic range for the signal Dynamic range is the range of useful values between the noise floor and the maximum output level. In analogue systems the upper limit is the clipping point beyond which further increases in signal input fail to produce any increase in the output, without crossing a defined distortion threshold. In the digital domain the term FSD (Full Scale Digital) is used in place of clipping. This is simply the numerical limit beyond which no more digital bits are available to represent a larger output. Unlike analogue systems the onset of distortion beyond FSD is sudden.

Headroom/Dynamic Range in Typical Systems Dynamic range in analogue systems is usually dependent on the quality of the equipment. In digital systems it is proportional to the number of bits, with approximately 6dB being added for every bit. Headroom is often reserved below FSD or clipping to allow for downstream processing such as level compression and some broadcasting organisations may have mandatory regulations stating a peak level above which a signal for transmission must not increase.

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Headroom and reference line up levels tend to be the subject of a certain amount of disagreement and variation in local practice from station to station and from country to country. The above diagram is intended as general guidance only. Local practice guidelines should always be referred to for assistance with gain management.

Phase Meters
Phase meters are used to monitor the phase or relative timing relationship between the left and right channels of stereo signals. Most phase meters uses a scale calibrated to show In-Phase or 0at one end and Anti-Phase or 180at the other with Normal or 90 in the middle. Identical, in-phase signals do not present a stereo image, whilst anti-phase signals tend to indicate wiring or other system errors. Normal stereo signals tend to drive phase meters around the central or 90 area of the display. To save space, the cosine values of the phase angle (cosine 0 = +1, cosine 90 = 0 and cosine 180 = 1 respectively), are almost always used.

Typical Stereo Phase Bar Meter

Loudness
The human ear does not have the same sensitivity to sound at all audible frequencies. This is particularly true at low sound pressure levels and is one reason why Hi-Fi equipment is sometimes fitted with a loudness control to boost low and high frequencies at low listening levels. Much of the original work on establishing equal loudness curves was done by Fletcher and Munson at the Bell Research Laboratory in the 30s. More accurate assessments made in 1956 by Robinson and Dadson have been adopted as ISO 226. However more recent data does not entirely agree with their findings and further research is underway.

The original Fletcher-Munson curves (1933) Each curve represents equal loudness at a particular sound pressure level in terms of phons on a logarithmic scale. A phon has a reference level of 0dB SPL at 1000Hz and is equivalent to 20 micropascals of sound pressure. Practical measuring devices for loudness or noise take the sensitivity of human hearing into account by using weighting curves that essentially follow the findings of Fletcher and Munson. The most common set of weighting curves includes the A, B and C ANSI weighting curves used for sound measurements and the CCIR 468 standard used for noise measurements based on original work by the BBC.

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Note that the weighting curves are essentially the inverse of the equal loudness curves. Weighting shows how human hearing is more sensitive at mid frequencies than high or low frequencies.

Sound Pressure Level weighting curves Research into new and more accurate ways of measuring loudness continue today, spurred on by the need to control and standardise loudness for adverts and commercials in television broadcasting and cinema sound systems where as many as six separate audio channels feed spatially discreet speakers. One of the most important methods of determining loudness was devised by E Zwicker and S S Stephens which has been adopted as ISO 532-1975. It works by dividing the sound into critical frequency bands and can be quite difficult to use in practice. It is claimed that Zwicker/Stephens Loudness methods are much better estimates of perceived sound levels than A-weighted Sound Pressure Level (SPL) measurements. Loudness instruments based on the Zwicker and/or Stephens methods are available for direct reading of loudness. Another loudness measuring technique, known as Dolby Leq(m) is aimed at measuring the perceived loudness of film soundtracks. A Dolby Leq(m) meter monitors loudness over time for the entire length of a trailer, scene or film with a weighting curve similar to CCIR 468. Dolby claim that this approach more closely mimics the varying sensitivity of the ear to sounds at different frequencies than other methods. The new Leq(m) loudness measuring technique has been used to establish a lower loudness level for trailers in American cinemas.

Audio Meters and Alarms in practice

There is a wide range of different meter styles and even though most scale divisions are in decibels, the scales may relate to actual dBu values differently. The following table summarises scale assignments in dBu for some of the most common meters. Meter Scale Max Indication Test Level Typ Min Indication EBU Digital
0dBFS=18dBu -18 = 0dBu -60 = -42dBu

SMPTE Digital
0dBFS=24dBu -20 = 4dBu -60 = -36dBu

VU Meter
+3 = 7dBu 0 = +4dBu -20 = -16dBu

BBC PPM
7 = 12dBu 4 = 0dBu 1 = -12dBu

DIN PPM
5 = 11dBu -6 = 0dBu -50 = -44dBu

Notes: The BBC PPM meter has unnumbered markings that extend the range from that shown here. The scale assignments for the VU scale are for a standard VU meter. In practice, VU meters tend to be set according to national or local regulations. VU meters set so that 0VU = 0dBu and even +2VU = 0dBu may be encountered. Test level need not necessarily be set by all users to 0dBu, for example the DIN scale may be used with a test level of 9dBu in some countries.

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Working with Audio Meters

The Chromatec range of In-Picture Audio Meters allow a wide range of level and loudness meters to be displayed standalone or mixed with background video together with integrated alarm indicators for convenient monitoring.

Examples of Chromatec In-Picture Audio Scales It is useful to be able to designate different areas of the bargraph according to in-house or international standards for under, normal and over audio levels. This enables operators to be able to see at a glance when peak levels are too high or if audio levels are consistently too quiet. It is also helpful to display alarms either on-screen or on dedicated alarms hardware to alert operators when predefined values have been exceeded.

Examples of Chromatec In-Picture Alarms Note that the Chromatec range of In-Picture Audio Meters allow both analogue and digital scales to be used with digital audio signals. This enables operators to work with scales that everyone is familiar with if required. For more information on audio metering: Audio Metering by Eddy Bogh Brixen, Broadcast Publishing ISBN 87-987116-0-1 http://www.bpr.org.uk A useful resource for articles on loudness and metering http://www.dolby.com Dolby Laboratories http://www.itu.int International Telecommunications Union http://www.ebu.ch European Broadcasting Union http://www.chromatec.com Manufacturer of In-Picture Audio Meters

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2005-6 Michael Stevens & Partners Ltd