Methods of Psychology

Psychology is, like any science, a branch of knowledge that deals with a body of facts systematically arranged and shows the operation of general laws. Science, at a basic level attempts to answer questions (such as "why are we aggressive and that the life span of left-handed people is significantly shorter than those who are right hand dominant) through careful observation and collection of data. These answers can then (at a more complex or higher level) be used to further our knowledge of us and our world, as well as help us predict subsequent events and behavior. Psychologists and other social scientists regularly propose explanations for human behavior. On a more informal level, people make judgments about the intentions, motivations and actions of others on a daily basis. While the everyday judgments we make about human behavior are subjective and anecdotal, researchers use the scientific method to study psychology in an objective and systematic way. In all sciences, including psychology, a special procedure, the scientific method, must be used to collect data to answer a question or to solve a problem. The scientific method not only answers the question at hand but also is used to construct scientific theories. A theory is systematically organized knowledge applicable in a wide variety of circumstances. (The amount of information available in any science is too vast to be useful unless it is organized through the use of theories.) Theories are also used to predict events or to answer questions in a specific scientific discipline. In psychology, theories are used to organize and predict behavior and mental processes. In psychology basically following steps are used to testify a theory and these steps are: First of all comes the type of studies. There are 3 types of studies that are basically used. 1. Descriptive Studies (naturalistic observations, case studies). 2. Correlational studies (Establishing correlations between non-manipulated variables. Relationships are not necessarily causal.) 3. Experiments. (Manipulating variables and testing cause and effect relationships.) 4. Theory Construction. 5. Non-experimental methods 6. Ethical Consideration

Descriptive Study
Any scientific process begins with description, based on observation, of an event or events, from which theories may later be developed to explain the observations. In psychology, techniques used to describe behavior include case studies, surveys, naturalistic observation, interviews, and psychological tests.

Case studies:
A case study is a method of obtaining information from the detailed observation of an individual or individuals. Much information about behavior and mental processes has been obtained through such studies of individual clinical cases. (Sigmund Freud, for example, formulated psychoanalytic theory after many years of treating and studying patients with emotional problems.) Although valuable information about certain types of problems may be obtained by this method, the procedure is time consuming, and it is difficult to obtain data from a broad sampling of people.

Surveys:
In a survey, people from a wide sample are asked questions about the topic of concern. The Kinsey survey on sexual behavior is a well-known example. Surveys can supply useful information, but they have their problems and limitations. For example, the people who respond may not be representative of the population in general, or those polled may be reluctant to respond to questionnaires or to answer them accurately.

Naturalistic observation:
In another approach to gathering information, naturalistic observation, people or animals are observed in their everyday behaviors, and their behaviors of interest are documented. For example, valuable information on wild animals, such as lions, has come from studying them in their natural habitats as opposed to observing them in a zoo because their zoo behavior may be quite different from their natural behavior. Similarly, the behavior of a human in a home environment may differ considerably from that in a laboratory.

Psychological testing:
Many standardized procedures (tests) have been developed to measure specific behaviors or characteristics of organisms. Most of us have been subjected to such testsfor example, the intelligence, aptitude, and achievement tests used to predict behaviors. To be useful, tests must be both reliable and valid. Here comes the second part i.e Correlational Research

Correlational Study
Correlation is a statistical measure of a relationship between two or more variables, gives an indication of how one variable may predict another. The descriptive techniques discussed above permit a statement, in the form of correlations, about that relationship. However, correlation does not imply causation; that is, simply because two events are in some way correlated (related) does not mean that one necessarily causes the other.

Experimental Research
The experiment is one of several research methods. It is valuable source of information because it is the only method that allows us to make causal statements: statements about what makes something happen; statements about what factor influences another; statements like "That behavior occurs because.... The basics steps of Experimental research are:

Formulation of the problem:

In formulating the problem in a psychological study, the researcher raises a question about behavior or mental processes. Perhaps the investigator wonders whether certain environmental conditions improve or adversely affect motor performance. The investigator might operationally define the environmental condition of interest as background music and the motor performance as typing speed. Next, the investigator proposes an answer to the research question (What is the relationship between typing speed and background noise?), an answer called a hypothesis. A hypothesis postulates a relationship between two variables, an independent variable (that which the experimenter manipulatesin this case, the background music) and a dependent variable (that which changes as a consequence of manipulation of the

independent variablein this case, the typing speed). The experimenter hypothesizes that an increase in loudness of background music will produce a decrease in typing speed.

Design of the study:

Once the problem to be investigated has been selected, the experimenter must decide how to conduct the study. Much of the information used in psychology and other sciences has been collected in laboratory situations because they facilitate the use of many controls during data collection. In the background music/typing speed study, for example, all subjects would be taken to a laboratory for testing and would use the same typewriters to take the typing tests. The experimenter would have to decide whether to use two groups of subjects with comparable typing skills and expose one group to a music loudness level different from that used with the other ( a between-subjects design) or sequentially expose the same subjects to music of two loudness levels (a within-subjects design). Each procedure has advantages and disadvantages. (Decisions concerning the procedure to use depend on many factors, which are studied in experimental design courses.)

Collection of data:
The experimenter collects data (typing speed at different loudness levels) to test the hypothesis according to the selected experimental design.

Analysis of data:
The data are analyzed by appropriate statistical methods. In this case, mean scores of the two sets of typing speed/loudness level data would be compared to see if differences are significant or could be due to chance.

Conclusions drawn from the data:

Based on analysis of data, conclusions may be drawn about the hypothesized relationship between the independent and dependent variables. The hypothesis, that an increase in loudness of background music will produce a decrease in typing speed, may be supported by the data (the increase in loudness of background musicmanipulation of the independent variable did produce a decrease in typing speedthe dependent variable) or may not be supported by the data (the increase in loudness did not produce a decrease in typing speed).

Reporting results:

The process used in and the results obtained from the study are gathered and written. If the study results are of sufficient significance, they may be published in a scientific journal (as mentioned above, allowing the study to be replicated or refuted by another researcher) and may eventually be used quite pragmatically. For example, if a study determines that background music (or perhaps background music of a certain loudness level) improves typing performance, certain employers would be likely to make use of the findings in their businesses. Scientific knowledge in all sciences grows as a result of information collected through the scientific method.

Basic and applied research:

The goal of basic research in psychology is primarily to describe and understand behavior and mental processes without immediate concern for a practical use. Such research, usually conducted in university settings, is essential to the expansion of scientific knowledge and the development of theories. Applied research uses scientific studies to solve problems of everyday life. In reality, there is crossover between the two types of research.

Non-Experimental Methods
There are non experimental methods also that describe behavior, but do not let us identify the causes or reasons for the behavior. Unlike experiments, they don't let us explain why the behavior occurs. Still, they provide solid, scientific data--when correctly executed and interpreted. People mostly dont like the non-experimental method because of :

1. Common misuse of the term "experiment" to mean any scientific study. Remember, "Non-experimental" does not mean nonscientific! 2. Our society's emphasis on causal explanations: We like experimental methods because we want to know why things happen and how to change things. However, nonexperimental methods also tell us important things--what people do and think. Non-experimental methods are useful when you 1. Can't do an experiment because you can't manipulate the predictor variable. Ex: You can't manipulate participants' gender or age. 2. Can't ethically do an experiment because you can't ethically manipulate the predictor variable (e.g., illness, poverty) 3. Want to describe or predict behavior.

Ethical Considerations
Ethical considerations are taken into account when an experiment is planned. In most academic institutions, the proposed experimental protocol is reviewed by an institutional review board to ensure that experimental procedures are appropriate (if they are not, federal funds will not be granted for the research). In dealing with human subjects, psychologists follow a code of ethical principles published by the American Psychological Association, which requires investigators to

obtain informed consent from all subjects protect subjects from harm and discomfort treat all experimental data confidentially explain the experiment and the results to the subjects afterward

Similarly, when research is conducted with animals, the project is reviewed by an institutional animal care and use committee (IACUC) to be certain that it is necessary to use animals as subjects to test the hypotheses and that other procedures are not feasible. It also determines that appropriate sample sizes and procedures are used in the experiment and that animals will be given proper care. The IACUC also periodically visits all of the animal colonies to ensure that the research animals are appropriately cared for.