Formal report

Linear Circuits

Name: Nishant Mangesh Jalgaonkar Matriculation Number: A0074538X Lab Group: 2I2 Date: 7th March 2012

Objectives The objectives of this experiment are to understand the properties of an ideal operational amplifier, to understand the limitations of a practical operational amplifier and to be familiar with typical applications of an operational amplifier. Experiment one We use an inverting op-amp and compare the theoretical and experimental values of gain. We connect the circuit as shown in the following diagram:

Adjust the sine wave generator on the Elite II Circuit design test system to give an output of 1 Vpp at 1 KHz. Monitor Vi and Vo, with the dual channel oscilloscope.

Frequency (kHz) 1.096

Input Peak to Peak Voltage (V) 1.061

Output Peak to Peak Voltage (Vpp) 10.500

Experimental Gain 9.896

Theoretical Gain 10.000

Error % 1.037

Experiment two We vary the frequencies in the previous experimental setup and tabulate the gain for various frequency values. We obtain a graph for gain vs. frequency. The data obtained was as follows:
Frequency (KHz) Input Peak to Peak Voltage (V) Output Peak to Peak Voltage (V) Gain

0.01

0.1

10

20

30

40

50

60

100

1.681

1.641

1.06

1.6

1.64

1.641

1.641

1.641

1.641

1.681

16

16.4

10.616

16

15.8

14

11

8.8

7.4

4.601

9.5181

9.9939

10.0151

10.0000

9.6341

8.5314

6.7032

5.3626

4.5094

2.7371

From observation it is clear that the half power cut off frequency; or the frequency where the gain drops to 0.7071 of the gain at 1 KHz (in this case 6.998) lies between 30 and 40 kHz. The graph obtained is as follows: Gain vs. Frequency Gain
11.00 10.50 10.00 9.50 9.00 8.50 8.00 7.50 7.00 6.50 6.00 5.50 5.00 4.50 4.00 3.50 3.00 2.50 2.00 1.50 1.00 0.50 0.00 0.5

Frequency
2.0 8.0 32.0 128.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.1

Using the above graph and data table we compute that the half power cut off frequency is approximately 39.286 kHz. Experiment three Remove the sine wave generator and short the input Vi, to ground. Measure the D.C. output voltage with the voltmeter. It is non-zero, although ideally it should be zero with no input signal. This non-zero voltage present represents the offset voltage at the operational amplifier inputs. Now, ground the non-inverting, input with a 10 K resistor instead of the straight wire. Measure the d-c output voltage again. Does it decrease? Yes it does. The experimental values that we measured were: Initial Voltage Reading: 0.005 V Final Voltage Reading: -0.002V This is because making the resistance at the non-inverting input equal to R1//R2, (i.e. R1 in parallel with R2) minimizes the differential effects of the input bias currents flowing into the inverting and non-inverting terminals of the operational amplifier (since both the bias currents are now flowing through the same resistance). Experiment four Now we use a non inverting op-amp and compare theoretical and experimental data values. The data table obtained is as follows:

Frequency (kHz) 1.014

Input Peak to Peak Voltage (V) 2.320

Input Peak to Peak Voltage (V) 25.800

Experiment al Gain 11.121

Theoretical Gain 11.000

Error % 1.097

Experiment five The circuit is now connected as shown in the figure. Then the appropriate readings are taken by varying voltages to determine the transfer characteristics.

Transfer Characteristics
6 5 4 DC Output Voltage (V) 3 2 1 0 -10 -5 -1 -2 DC Input Voltage (V) 0 5 10

-15

From -10 to -5 Volts (Input) the zenar diode ensures a constant output of 5 Volts. However, after the Input voltage drops below -5Volts the diode breaks down and an output voltage of roughly -0.7 volts is maintained.

Experiment SIX The following is the circuit diagram of the digital to analog converter.

Digital Input S2 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 S1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 S0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1

Experimental Output Voltage (V) 0.019 0.637 1.257 1.874 2.498 3.114 3.735 4.35

Analog vs Digital Output

5 4.5 4 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0 1 2 3 Digital 4 5 6 7 Analog Output (volts)

Experimental Theoretical

Conclusion

Through this experiment we are now aware of the practical applications of an op-amp and also acutely aware of its physical limitations. We have used it as an inverting, non inverting amplifier and also as a digital to analog converter.