Photography

What is a SLR camera? The single-lens reflex, known on the market as the SLR camera, is one of the most popular digital cameras in the world. It uses a movable mirror placed between the lens and film to transmit the image through projection to the focusing screen. The use of a pentaprism allows you to see the image via the viewfinder or add other accessories to view the image in a different light. The SLR utilizes a focal-plane shutter which sits in front of the focal plane. Some models do not set up their SLR cameras like this and additional devices are used to ensure that light does not reach the film between exposure. Shutter blinds, such as those used in the Hasselblad models, keep light out between exposures. This is beneficial in situations where too much light might be a problem for your shots.

How does it work? SLRs are built based on the following design: Lens, mirror, shutter, film or sensor matrix, focusing screen, condensding lens, pentaprism and the viewfinder. These are typical of most SLR models and vary depending on the brand and model. Basically, when you take a picture, the light passes through the lens is reflected by the mirror and then transmitted onto the focusing screen. From there, the condensing lens and internal pentaprism reflects the image as it appears in the viewfinder. When you take the picture, the mirror structure moves, the focal plane shutter expands open and then the image is taken and presented onto either film or a set of sensors in the inner workings of the camera as you see it in the viewfinder. The SLR was developed in the late 1800s. Exakta introduced the first 35 mm SLR during World War II. They included waist-level viewfinders and were influential for taking some of the most well-known shots of the time throughout Europe and the front lines. Eye-level viewfinders were introduced in Hungary in the 1940s by Jeno Dulovits. It also utilized the first instant-return type mirror to see what you were taking at the time it was being taken. Light metering, from a process known as through-the-lens, came in the 1960s. The Topcon RE Super and the Pentax Spotmatic utilized that technology. Auto-exposure came in Savoyflex cameras in 1965. With the introduction of miniaturization of computer and electrical components in the 1960s, SLR cameras became smaller and smaller, as did most technological devices during the time. The idea of auto-focus came through Pentax's ME-F SLR camera. Minolta's Maxxum 7000, introduced in 1985, used a motorized auto-focus system that also allowed you to advance film through the use of a winder. Since the auto-rewind had already been created, being able to skip ahead was a new advance for SLR and cameras in general. Light metering, especially electronically, developed throughout the 1980s and into the mid-90s. Most companies had to completely scrap their camera designs to rework how to integrate the auto-focus concept into working models. User interfaces and viewfinders were the next parts of the SLR camera to be developed and reconfigured. LCD displays replaced LED displays allowing for a crisper view of what was being taken. Wheels, buttons and easier click-wheels replaced point-and-shoot stereotypes on most cameras. This made it easier for photographers to change settings, take pictures and change set-ups if needed. Even anti-shake features were introduced to reduce the need for a steady hand and a tripod.

Canon, Nikon and Samsung in particular began developing digital SLRs as early as 2000. Pentax, Minolta and Sony also began introducing SLR models in recent years but continued to work the technology before that. SLR cameras now come in film or digital models, but the digital SLR has taken over the market as one of the premiere types of cameras to own even for the novice photographer. Film SLR cameras still rely on 35 mm film but still produce crisp and sharp images like their digital counterparts. Digital SLRs use memory cards and some even have built-in hard drive space to store photos. Depending on the digital SLR, you may use one or more types of memory to store your images.

metering system in camera ? Semi-automatic exposure capabilities While auto-exposure was commonly used in the early 1960s with various 35 mm fixed lens rangefinder cameras such as the Konica Auto 'S', and other cameras such as the Polaroid Land cameras whose early models used selenium cell meters, auto-exposure for interchangeable lens SLR's was a feature that was largely absent, except for a few early leaf-shutter SLR's such as the Kowa SE-R and Topcon Auto 100. The types of automation found in some of these cameras consisted of the simple programmed shutter, whereby the camera's metering system would select a mechanically-set series of apertures with shutter speeds, one setting of which would be sufficient for the correct exposure. In the case of the abovementioned Kowa and Topcon, automation was semi-automatic, where the camera's CDs meter would select the correct aperture only. Autoexposure, technically known as semi-automatic exposure, where the camera's metering system chooses either the shutter speed or the aperture, was finally introduced by the Savoyflex and popularized by Konishiroku in the 1965 Konica Auto-Reflex. This camera was of the 'shutter-priority' type automation, which meant that the camera selected the correct aperture automatically. This model also had the interesting ability to photograph in 35 mm full-frames or half-frames, all selected by a lever. Other SLR's soon followed, but because of limitations with their lens mounts, the manufacturers of these cameras had to choose 'aperture-priority' automation, where the camera's metering system selects the correct shutter speed. As one example, Pentax introduced the Electro Spotmatic, which was able to use the then considerable bulk of 42 mm screw-mount lenses produced by various manufacturers. Yashica, another screw-mount camera manufacturer, soon followed. Canon, which produced the FD lens mount (known as the breech-mount; a unique lens mounting system that combines the advantages of screw-mount and bayonet-mount) introduced their shutter priority 35 mm SLR, the Canon EF in 1976 or so. This camera's build quality was almost the equal of their flagship camera, the Canon F1, and featured a copal-square vertically-travelling focal plane shutter which could synchronize electronic flash at shutter speeds up to and including 1/125 of a second, thus making this a good secondbody camera for the professional photographer. Nikon at first produced an aperture-priority camera, but later made subtle changes on the inside of their bayonet mount which allowed for shutter-priority automation without obsoleting the photographers lenses.

What Is The Best Way To Take Advantages Of Diff Metering System? Digital SLR cameras are defined by their reflex viewfinder. DSLRs are the most efficient when using such a viewfinder. Some DSLR cameras also feature live-view which uses the rear LCD to show an approximation of the scene. At this time, live-view either means slow autofocus or a cropped preview, plus it is also not WYSIWYG nor does it allow access to all functions. A DSLR viewfinder sees through the lens. It is easy to judge focus - but not exposure - through it. You can't see how bright or dark a picture will come out before taking it. Optical zoom depends on the attached lens. It makes no sense to specify optical zoom when describing a digital SLR camera. Lenses which do not zoom are called prime lenses. A DSLR's focal-length multiplier is determined by the size of its image sensor. The angle-of-view of a lens mounted on a particular sensor is calculated using the focal-length-multiplier. The connector between an SLR camera and a lens is called a mount. Only SLR cameras and lenses with the same mount-type can be attached to each other. SLR lenses are zoomed and manually focused by hand. This is faster, more precise and much more responsive than typical electronic zooms. All DSLR cameras have full manual controls, manual focusing, custom white balance, high-ISO sensitivities, a hot-shoe for an external flash and can produce RAW images. Available apertures are limited by the attached lens. Available shutter speeds are determined by the camera.In fall 2008, Nikon with deliver the world's first DSLR with movie-mode. Until now, no DSLR had movie-recording capability. Soon after, Canon announced the first full-frame DSLR with movie mode. Battery life on a DSLR is significantly longer than most fixed-lens digital cameras unless live-view is used. Image quality produced by a DSLR is higher than most fixed-lens digital camera although it is strongly affected by the choice of lens. A combination of low image noise and high retention of details, particularly at higher ISO settings, places DSLR ahead of fixed-lens. DSLRs can also capture more dynamic range than the vast majority of fixed-lens cameras. However, both types of cameras are equally capable in terms of color, white-balance and exposure. The most significant performance advantage of a DSLR is in terms of speed. Compared to fixed-lens cameras, a DSLR focuses faster and shoots faster for longer. Most other DSLR timings are noticeably faster too, including startup time and shot-to-shot delay. Focusing speed is important when capturing a moving subject. The faster a camera can focus, the faster it will take a picture. Shot-to-shot times and burst speed are also faster at maximum resolution on every DSLR than any camera which is not the Casio Exilim EX-F1. Burst-mode is mostly used in action and fashion photography where capturing a precise moment is paramount. Not only do DSLRs shoot faster but they can take more shots in a single burst at a constant speed. This increases the chances of capturing a decisive moment.

what is the differance between anlog and digital photoghaphy ? Cameras from appearance dont let one knows what is the difference between the functioning and working of the analogue or digital camera. Both of the types of the cameras, digital and film have great many differences among them. Cameras from both categories have to perform same functions especially in letting in the sufficient light and focusing the gathered light. All of this gathering and focusing need special co-ordination among the functional parts, mentioned below are the difference both sort of camera exhibit. Shutter The function of the shutter is to keep light from entering the camera and it replaces for just a thousandth of a second. It is maintained in such a way in the Analogue camera that it doesnt take too long to over expose or too short to under expose the object. While some of the digital cameras dont use shutters. While combining the digital and mechanical technology tends to come up with higher quality photos. Aperture The aperture of an analogue camera helps the entrances of controlled light for the photo which is not over exposed. Digital cameras have mechanical openings to adjust the light. Lens Lens operates for focusing the object through the refraction process. In analogue cameras the lens actually moves for the adjustment. Digital cameras can override the fixed focus for special shots. Film Speed Films speed describes the sensitivity to light, the more the film sensitive the faster is the reaction as it comes in contact with light in analogue camera. Digital cameras use image sensor other then film. All of these functions are fully automatic in the digital as well as analogue cameras. Recording light Black and white film is coated with what is called an emulsion layer, which when exposed results in the chemical change of halide crystal. Which after passing through the developing and printing process transforms into, photograph. This way of capturing photos on a film is adopted by analogue cameras. In digital cameras the image sensor are made up of photo sites which turn the light entering in to the camera as digital information. This information is then processed by combining hues and intensities giving rise to specific color to each pixel. Creation of Image in the cameras In the process of the film development from the Analogue cameras, is bathed in chemicals which convert it into pure silver. The past which had the least exposure to the light are transparent while those which are exposed to much light are dark and dense. This is the same for both black and white and colored films. The only exception with the colored film is the inclusion of dye couplers in the process of development. The film, from the analogue cameras, are fixed to prevent further chemical or energy reaction creating a negative. To print the photograph, very radiant light is passed through the negative on the photographic paper, which is covered with an emulsion layer which is similar in composition with the chemical on the photographic film. The negative image after this process becomes a photograph. While in digital cameras the light is recorded electrically. Microchip inside the camera converts the digital reading from each sensor and combines it with the stored info. Camera assigns a particular pixel.

What Is The Advantages Of Digital Photoghaphy ? 1. Compact and Light These all-in-one cameras are compact and light, an important consideration when you're in a game-drive vehicle, often with limited space. The pro wildlife photographer will have three or four camera bodies, each with a different lens, spread around the vehicle within easy reach. But when you're sharing a vehicle with others, who are also paying a premium for being driven around a game park by an experienced guide, you usually won't have this luxury. As in any group situation, some consideration for the comfort of your co-passengers is essential. No one will resent you carrying a small bag containing your digital camera, spare batteries, spare memory card and possibly some filters. The only addition I'd recommend is a small beanbag to use as a support for your camera. This can lie at your feet when not in use. 2. No film and processing costs On a wildlife safari, you should not have to worry about how much film you use. Yet many of us tend to hold back, not wanting to "waste" pictures because of the cost. In fact, you should be shooting like crazy. Frame your pictures both horizontally and vertically; zoom in as close as possible, then zoom out to put the subject in perspective, showing some of the surrounds. If the light is tricky, for example backlighting or surface reflections from water, don't be scared to bracket take a couple of shots under-exposed and some over-exposed. The pictures below of the hippo walking out of a lake at Ndumo Game Reserve in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, illustrate this. Although it was overcast, the surface of the lake was highly reflective, influencing the camera's light reading, so under-exposing the dark-toned hippo. I tried to compensate for this by exposing for the hippo, using the camera's spot meter, but this went too far the other way, over-exposing the hippo and blowing out any detail in the water. I also took a few vertical shots, including some background to place the hippo in its true location. This shot provides additional information - a couple of water birds plus trees and hills tells you that this is not a zoo picture. But the texture of the water is still blown out, emphasising the hard line where the lake ends, splitting the picture into distinct halves. I should have shot from a lower angle, showing less water and more of the trees and mountains. The hard line separating water and land would then have divided the image into thirds rather than two halves. More Reasons Not to Hold Back Sometimes the subject will be lying there motionless, as lions in particular are prone to do. The temptation is to hold back, hoping for some activity. But you won't often see lions close enough to photograph, so don't wait for activity, it might not come. Rather shoot a couple of pictures anyway - this could be your only chance. But once done, don't let these

frames be your "limit" for that particular subject. Often the slightest movement - a flick of the tail, a change of head angle - will offer a better picture, so be prepared to shoot again. 3. No Wastage with Digital With a digital camera, there is no "wastage" - simply delete what you don't want to keep. You can also preview your pictures and rectify errors. There's nothing worse than taking 10 rolls of precious film while on safari and only later finding some camera setting (e.g. ISO rating) was wrong or the shutter was defective. Making the Most of Your Digital Images Okay, so you take some great wildlife pictures with your digital camera - what can you do with them afterwards? They're already in digital format, so after some resizing can be emailed to envious friends when you get home - or maybe even from your laptop and mobile phone while you're still in the bush. But you don't want to be limited to showing your pictures on a computer screen. Easy - save your best shots to CD and have genuine photographs printed at your local photo lab. This way you're only paying for the good prints and not wasting money on reject prints destined for the bin. If you take wildlife pictures with one of the new digicams offering 12x zoom capability and 4 or more megapixel resolution, you should be able to have photographs printed up to A3 size (16" x 20") and above.

Controlling the Exposer

In order for an image to be captured on film, it must be exposed to light. The camera has two settings that control light, and they work very similar to the human eye. The shutter blocks all light from exposing the film UNTIL you press the button. Then it quickly opens and closes, giving the film a brief flash of light. You can control the length of time the shutter remains open by setting the SHUTTER SPEED.
Longer shutter speeds = more light shorter shutter speeds = less light

Aperture : Before light reaches film, it must pass through an opening called an "Aperture". The aperture
is like a pupil. You can control the aperture by setting the "Aperture Opening", as an F-Stop. also known

Smaller F-stops numbers = larger openings, larger openings = more light

Shutter Speed: Determines HOW LONG the shutter stays open. The longer exposures (like 1 second) give much more light to the film than a 1/1000 of a second exposure. So even though the number may look bigger, don't be deceived.
Examples: A half second exposure is ONE STOP darker than a one second exposure. A 1/125 exposure is TWO STOPS brighter than a 1/500 exposure. A 1/1000 exposure is THREE STOPS darker than a 1/125 exposure.

Aperture Setting: the pupil in a human eye, the aperture on a camera controls light. It does so by
closing up to restrict light and opening up to let it through. Examples: moving from f16 to f8 is: TWO STOPS brighter. moving from f5.6 to f8 is: ONE STOP darker moving from f4 to f2.8 is: ONE STOP brighter Exposure is about different combinations of shutter and f-stop settings. These combinations can drastically affect the finished picture. For example, the following three pictures have been given an equal amount of light, but the f-stop and shutter combinations make each one unique.

Why is the background all blurred in the right picture, and sharpest in the left? Because if the exposure is made with a wide aperture (like f2.8), then objects farther away from the subject are thrown farther out of focus. This effect is referred to as "depth of field"

So. If the aperture is small (like f22) then objects in the background (and foreground) will appear sharper. However, since more light was required to make the exposure on the left (1/4 Second) the subjects became blurred from MOTION. At 1/250th of a second, the shutter is fast enough to freeze motion

The independence to change lenses based on your needs gives a lot of freedom to a photographer. But what are these different types of lenses. Various lenses are suited for specific application. Lets have a look at some common names and what they do.

Normal/ Standard Lenses These are lenses provided by the camera manufacturers along with the camera as a part of the kit. These are generally of the 18 55mm focal length for a normal 35mm camera. Telephoto lenses These are the lenses with focal length longer than the standard lens. Also called as Long focus Lens. These lenses are generally used to take photographs from a distance. Especially for nature and wildlife photography where you can not go near to the subject but want to fill the frame with the subject from a distance. Normally, 70 300mm lens is recommended for such purpose though different combination can be used based on your requirement. Mirror Lenses This is a special design of a long focus lens in which some of the lens elements are replaced with the mirrors. These lenses are generally lighter than the normal lens of the same focal length but they come with fixed aperture. Wide Angle Lenses These lenses have lower focal length than the standard lenses which helps in getting more area of view in the frame from the same distance. Typically used for landscape photography. These lenses can increase the perspective distortion. So, caution is recommended. Zoom Lenses These are the lenses with variable focal lengths. In these lenses the positive and negative elements of the lens are put together in such a way that by moving them you can get varied focal lengths. You can also find telephoto lens with zoom lens capabilities. Do not get confused between the two. Macro Lenses These lenses are designed to do close up photography like flowers, insects, etc. Basically the macro lenses have very high focusing movement than the normal lenses. Aspherical & Fluorite Lenses These lenses with special purpose. Fluorite lens uses one or more elements of calcium fluoride (CaF 2 ) made from synthetic crystals. This lens has a very high color correction. Aspherical lens elements help to compensate for distortion in wide-angle lenses, and compensate or eliminate spherical aberrations in lenses with a large maximum aperture. They also allow manufacturers to produce more compact lenses than was previously possible using only spherical lens elements. These are costly lenses.

Resolution:

A digital image, just like the image you see on your computer monitor or television, is made up tiny dots called pixels. The term "Resolution", when used to describe a digital camera refers to the size of the digital image the camera produces, and is usually expressed in terms of "megapixels" or how many million pixels it can record in a single image. The number of pixels a camera captures is called the camera's resolution. For example, a camera that captures 1600 x 1200 pixels produces an image with a resolution of 1.92 million pixels and would be referred to as a 2.0 megapixel camera. You get to 1.92 million pixels by multiplying the vertical and horizontal dimensions. That number is then rounded off to 2 for marketing purposes.

Types of Light
Everything in photography revolves around light. Specular == Spectacles == BAD Specular light is what we generally think of as harsh light. It occurs in the form of direct sunlight or a bright flash pointed directly at someone or something. Some nasty side-effects to specular light are squinting and nasty shadows under peoples eyes, neither are too appealing in a portrait. Specular just means that the light has very little angle to it, its coming directly at the subject. When I think specular, I think about spectacles and burning, uh, leaves as a kid. You can use spectacles to channel light into a very direct source. Diffused == Dispersed == GOOD Diffused light is light that is coming at the subject from many different angles. It occurs in the form of (usually) something in between the light source and the subject, causing the light to break up and become less direct (or specular). What happens when someone diffuses the situation? They disperse the problem, or make it (seem at least) less direct, right? You get the picture (HA! Get it??), oh boy Big Light Source == Diffused == GOOD! So we get to my goal for you today. There is an easy way to think about lighting when you are trying to find a spot to take your next portrait. The bigger the light source, the more diffused the light, and therefore better the quality of the light will be. Dont believe me? Lets look at some examples: 1. Overcast day. What happens in an overcast day? Instead of the sun shining directly at

the Earth, there is a layer of clouds diffusing the sun, thus creating a bigger light source! 2. Bounce flash. When you bounce the flash off of the ceiling or a wall, you are transforming the light source from those few inches of flash to an entire wall or ceiling, thus creating more diffused light! 3. Umbrellas and soft boxes in the studio. The last time you went to Wally World, did the photographer have the flash pointed directly at your kid? No, they bounced it off of an umbrella or shot the flash through a soft box. Both of those techniques create a bigger light source and thus softer, more diffused light. What we need is not only light. It is quality light. Scott Mcleay often spoke not of light but of the quality of light. Light, is not enough. Quality light is what we seek. But which quality of light do we need as landscape photographers? Ansel Adams said God created light and he divided it into ten zones. Adams tongue-incheek statement shows that it isnt just light that we need. It is light of such nature as to fit our needs as photographers. Light with an artistic quality. Light that we can, if not control, then at least learn how to work with so that it is controllable through photographic means. What quality of light is for each of us depends on what we want to photograph and what we are looking for. However, traditionally, and when photographing large vistas or the grand landscape, the best light is found at sunrise and at sunset. To take advantage of this light you must be at the location before sunrise and before sunset. The extra time is necessary for you to choose a location, set up your equipment and get ready to photograph. At sunrise a headlamp is a must to see what you are doing in the pre-dawn darkness. Additionally, if you photograph sunrise at a given location for the first time, I recommend you visit this location the day before so that you can find a suitable composition. Finding a composition will be very difficult in the dark and you may waste the best light trying to find a composition as the sun rises. Clearly, you will be much better off knowing what you want to use as a foreground, for example, by scouting the location the day before during daytime. When photographing sunset I recommend you explore the location during the afternoon, find a good composition, and then either wait or return to this location for sunset. Again, being there approximately an hour before sunset will maximize your chances of getting a good photograph as you will be able to see and photograph the landscape as the light is progressively changing and the sun getting lower in the sky. At both sunset and sunrise it can be very challenging to decide when is the best time to photograph since the light changes constantly during one hour after sunrise and before sunset. The best is to be there early and photograph continuously without being overly critical of your efforts and without trying to find out when the light is at its peak. Once back in your studio you can then study the results of your efforts and decide which image(s) you like best. Equipped with this knowledge you will be in a much better position to gauge the quality of the light when you next photograph at sunrise or at sunset.

Do not overlook the possibilities offered by pre-dawn and past-dusk light. Up to about 30 minutes before sunrise, and up to about 30 minutes past sunset, the landscape basks in soft colorful light which is extremely propitious to photography, both in black and white and in color. At those times shadows are nonexistent, greatly simplifying contrast problems, and the colors vividly saturated. Your eye may not notice these colors but film certainly will, especially if you use a high contrast, high color-saturation film such as Fuji Velvia. No need to worry about excess contrast except for the sky which will most likely be the brightest part of the scene at those times. If you need to lower the brightness of the sky simply use a graduated neutral density filter to lower its brightness by one or two stops, as needed.

Focal Length: When parallel rays of light strike a lens focused at infinity, they converge to a point called the focal point. The focal length of the lens is then defined as the distance from the middle of the lens to its focal point. The focal length of a lens is usually displayed on the lens barrel. Below is a picture of a Canon lens with a focal length of 50mm. The maximum aperture is f/1.8. Lenses are usually categorized as having a wide-angle, normal or telephoto

focal length. A normal SLR lens covers a 24x36mm film frame with a field of view that corresponds approximately to our normal vision; a lens with a focal length of 50mm (55mm is also popular) is considered as normal.
Any lens with a focal length less than 50mm (or 55mm) can be considered as wide-angle; any lens with a focal length greater than 50mm (or 55mm) can be considered a telephoto. A zoom lens offers a range of focal lengths. This table lists some of the more popular focal lengths: Lens Wide-angle Normal Telephoto Popular Focal Lengths for 35mm cameras 18mm, 20mm, 28mm, 35mm 50mm, 55mm 90mm, 135mm, 200mm, 300mm <