1

0. SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
Definition of Sustainable Development: The conservation/supporting of the essential qualities of life (such as clean air and water, productive soil, natural areas with abundant wild-life, freedom from hazardous waste) which are not being depleted or degraded but are maintained and renewed so that they will be available in the future in at least the same abundance as they are now. Features of the contemporary industrial development (1960 2000) The world today produces and consumes more than ever before. The yearly growth of the world economy has been a little above 4 %. Services and manufactured goods amounting to $30 trillion (being 5 in 1950 and forecasted to be 130 in 2050. Timber production increase 3 times (paper production 6 times) Catch of fish 5 times Production of grain 3 times Extraction of fossil fuels 4 times This increase is related to the demographic explosion the doubling of the Earths population for the recent 40 years and the increased duration of life (from 47 to 64 years). One quarter of humanity has now joined the consumer classadopting the diets, transportation systems, and lifestyles once limited to the rich nations of Europe, North America, and Japan. But amongst this wealth, great poverty persists, with nearly three billion peopletwo out of every fivebarely surviving on less than $2 a day. Private consumption expendituresthe amount spent on goods and services at the household levelhave increased fourfold since 1960, topping more than $20 trillion in 2000. The 12 percent of the world's people living in North America and Western Europe account for 60 percent of this consumption, while the one-third living in South Asia and sub-Saharan Africa account for only 3.2 percent. The world economy can no further expand in this manner of industrial revolution and exploit its natural resources without finally self-destructing. If Earths biosphere is perceived as a single living organism, then such a growth for the growth itself resembles the ideology of the cancer cell so called Cancer on the Earth. A. Carrying Capacity and Destruction of the Ecosystems Our progress is based on the availability of easily obtainable natural resources (fossil fuels and raw materials). More customers demands for goods and services stimulate the introduction of new technologies and further increase of production. At the same time human damage to the environment ultimately will limit the worlds carrying capacity. When the carrying capacity of a natural system is exceeded, the consumption may only increase t the expense of using up the basis of the resources and thus the elements of the ecosystem are being destroyed. The carrying capacity of the soil is related to the production it may yield. When we misuse the soil, we reach a stage of exhaustion of its fertility and degradation of the surface humus layer, which had been formed for millions of years by the prevailing soil-forming processes of accumulation of organic substances. Plants exist and feed on the thin surface layer of the soil, at the same time preventing its erosion. I.

Water consumption is tripled (70% for irrigation purposes) and results in reduction of the flowrate of the sources or completely exhausting some of them. The latter is observed in grain-growing Earths regions with artificial irrigation (agriculture at improper conditions Kazakhstan, Syria, Saudi Arabia). During the last century the Earth has lost 50% of its forests. The net production of oxygen has declined; the balance evaporation/precipitation has been broken. Unique forest ecosystems have been destroyed. Despite the claims that the oceans will in the future ensure worlds food, the catch of fish is at its limiting capacity (approx. 90 million tons yearly) and cannot be raised in the future. In recent years worlds fishing regions have been operated to (or even beyond) their capacity. The artificial breeding of fish is related to ensuring its feeding and increase of the price of the production. The increased emission of CO2, based on fossil fuels results in an altered climate and thinned ozone layer. The seasons have shifted and changed; there is an increased probability for storms, floods; the weather is unpredictable in the long run; hot and cold waves succeed each other. The existing equilibrium in the natural ecosystems has been destroyed, and "a rapidly spreading invasion of exotic plants and animals is destroying our nation's biological diversity". 1 100 out of 10 000 species of birds are in danger of or completely extinct; 25% of the 4 400 species of mammals as well as 1/3 of all fresh-water and sea fish are in danger of extinction. Forests and valleys are no longer densely inhabited with the populations that had lived there for centuries. The loss of species weakens life itself and destroys the accumulated and reserved genetic information. The vacancies in the ecosystems are occupied by improper and alien to them exotic species, which further change and eventually destroy them. B. Pollution The Air in large regions is polluted with substances of industrial origin; pollutants are transferred at large distances; acid rains are observed over extensive areas; the atmosphere over big cities is a mixture of poisonous substances; children suffer chronic asthma and lungs variations. Overheating of the surface and an abrupt greenhouse effect are present. Sunrays become increasingly dangerous due to the rising amount of ultraviolet radiation. The natural cycle of water is destroyed and the larger rivers are polluted by numerous industries (Western Europe, China, India, etc.). Underground waters are polluted by the poisonous chemicals used in industry and intensive agriculture. A large portion of the population do not have access to good quality drinkable water; springs dry-up and rivers flowrate is reduced. Arable lands are degraded, salted or with reduced fertility. Pastures are destroyed or have eroded due to improper agriculture. The proportions of humus and organic substances have dropped in the soil. A significant portion of the arable land is misused for building, industrial or infrastructure purposes.

C.

The Demographic Explosion (Overpopulation) At present the worlds population is over 6 billion (1 in 1800, 3 in 1960 and 6 in 1999), with a yearly increase of about 77 million and doubling of the population every 40 years. Every second 5

people are born and 3 die, leading to an increase rate of 2 per second. All forecasts for 2050 say the population would be over 9 billion (a minimum of 7.9 and a maximum of 10.9 billion people). The rate of population increase in the developing countries is 2.5-3% (4% for Africa). In 2050 60 % of the population will be in Asia, while that of Africa will have doubled. The population increase is related to shortage (or increase in the prices) of food supplies. The protein production is in a process of transition to entirely artificial growing of some species, this being liable to infections and epidemics. The use of fertilizers on exhausted and polluted soils is up to the sensible limit; the agricultural production is rich in chemicals and pesticides. Rural economy is based on classical varieties of monocrop agriculture, suited to the old methods of soil cultivation. Genetic engineering is making its way into agriculture, thus introducing a new element of risk. The increase in the prices of food supplies results in an increase in the number of starving and under-fed people, particularly in developing countries. Nations now tend to group themselves by social level (rich/poor), rather than by ideological or racial features. The tension between these levels builds up and leads to large-scale displays of hatred (local fanatism, terrorism, etc.) by the poorer or a tendency of isolation in the wealthy nations (visas, immigration control, etc.). Meeting basic human needs, slowing the unprecedented growth in human numbers, and protecting vital natural resources such as fresh water, forests, and fisheries are all prerequisites to healthy, stable societies. Working together to solve global social and environmental problems, we can also reduce the conditions that too often lead people and nations to resort to violent solutions. The human kind is divided and has different conceptions of the future of the world and the values of life. The governments promise further growth (even in the developed democracies). They postpone unpopular decisions for the following generation when the choice will be limited and the problems harder to resolve. No one observes the changes in the environment or when the carrying capacities are reached/exceeded; only events of catastrophic destruction of the natural systems provoke a reaction. Sustainability, Carrying Capacity, and Overconsumption
World population would not be a problem if there were unlimited land, unlimited water, unlimited resources. Unfortunately, with overpopulation, there is the problem of sharing the same sized pie with smaller and smaller portions. People in developed countries who have been accustomed to a better quality of life are reluctant to give it up. In many cases, more efficient use of resources has come along hand-in-hand with improved quality of life. But there are still problems of overconsumption, exploitation, the short-sighted search for an ever-higher quality of life, and the greed of companies and individuals in cutting corners resulting in pollution and reckless use of raw materials. Less-developed countries that, in the past, had smaller populations such that slash-and-burn agriculture had less impact, cities had fewer vehicles to send pollution into the air, and industries were not as attracted by cheap labor and thus polluted rivers and the air less. This is a difficult subject. Should people have less children or should people use less resources, pollute less? Or both? Should one problem have priority over the other? The world population has doubled in the last forty years. Who has contributed the most to overconsumption and pollution? The more developed nations with a relatively stable population growth, but who use 5-50 times the resources of the poor, or the less developed nations whose populations will double again in 30 years, who will run out of food and water first, and whose pollution due to agricultural burning, coal burning, lack of emission controls, mis-use of pesticides, and toxic waste from under-regulated industries, will only worsen with the increase of population? And then there is the question of ownership and distribution of resources, do the rich exploit the poor, and to what extent? As I said, this is a difficult subject. There is a delicate balance here: we want the poor countries to improve their economic situation and to improve the family's quality of life. This has been know to lower the birth rate. But we want the rich countries to consume less, perhaps lower the quality of life. We need to balance the quality of life between the rich and the poor, at the same time, hoping to balance the family size between the rich and the poor.

4 Key Emerging Environmental Threats - from the UNEP - United Nations Environmental Program, Dec 8, 1998 - Freshwater supply and quality both surface and groundwater, assessment of watersheds; Risk and thereat to human health due to collapse of ecosytem health; Pollution of the lower atmosphere due to combustion of fossil fuels and biomass burning; Land/marine interaction (e.g. eutrophication); Environmental flashpoints/security, transboundary issues; Nuclear waste issues; Long-term and inter-annual climate change issues; Habitat loss and forest fragmentation; Endangered species and link with food security and economic impacts; Sanitation and waste due to urbanization; Crosscutting issues of urbanization; i.e., related to megacities; Quality of life (technologies to monitor, say, human health impacts from pollution in urban areas); Chemical and toxic substances; Critical environmental zones; e.g., identification and early warning of problems like Aral Sea. Common global environmental issues are: Global climate Change; Stratospheric ozone depletion; Loss of biodiversity; Freshwater degredation; Desertification and land degradation; Deforestation and the unsustainable use of forests; Marine environment and resource degradation; Persistent organic polluntants. Staggaring statistics from a March 2000 report entitled World Resources 2000-20001, by the United Nations Development Program: Half of the world's wetlands were lost last century. Logging and conversion have shrunk the world's forests by as much as half. Some 9 percent of the world's tree species are at risk of extinction; tropical deforestation may exceed 130,000 square kilometers per year. Fishing fleets are 40 percent larger than the ocean can sustain. Nearly 70 percent of the world's major marine fish stocks are overfished or are being fished at their biological limit. Soil degradation has affected two-thirds of the world's agricultural lands in the last 50 years. Some 30 percent of the world's original forests have been converted to agriculture. Since 1980, the global economy has tripled in size and population has grown by 30 percent to 6 billion people. Dams, diversions or canals fragment almost 60 percent of the world's largest rivers. Twenty percent of the world's freshwater fish are extinct, threatened or endangered. RICHER, FATTER, AND NOT MUCH HAPPIER Around 1.7 billion people worldwidemore than a quarter of humanityhave entered the "consumer class," adopting the diets, transportation systems, and lifestyles that were limited to the rich nations of Europe, North America, and Japan during most of the last century. In China alone, 240 million people have joined the ranks of consumersa number that will soon surpass that in the United States. "Rising consumption has helped meet basic needs and create jobs," says Worldwatch Institute President Christopher Flavin. "But as we enter a new century, this unprecedented consumer appetite is undermining the natural systems we all depend on, and making it even harder for the world's poor to meet their basic needs." "Higher levels of obesity and personal debt, chronic time shortages, and a degraded environment are all signs that excessive consumption is diminishing the quality of life for many people. The challenge now is to mobilize governments, businesses, and citizens to shift their focus away from the unrestrained accumulation of goods and toward finding ways to ensure a better life for all." Private consumption expendituresthe amount spent on goods and services at the household levelhave increased fourfold since 1960, topping more than $20 trillion in 2000, reports State of the World 2004. The 12 percent of the world's people living in North America and Western Europe account for 60 percent of this consumption, while the one-third living in South Asia and sub-Saharan Africa account for only 3.2 percent. Consumption among the world's wealthy elites, and increasingly among the middle class, has in recent decades gone beyond satiating needs or fulfilling dreams to become an end in its own right, note State of the World 2004 project directors Lisa Mastny and Brian Halweil. At the same time, consumption is rising rapidly in the developing world, as globalization has introduced millions of people to consumer goods, while providing the technology and capital to produce and disseminate them. "Nearly half of all global consumers now live in the developing world," says Mastny. "While the average Chinese or Indian consumes much less than the average North American or European, China and India alone now boast a combined consumer class larger than that in all of Western Europe." Consumption is not in itself a bad thing, adds Halweil. "The almost three billion people worldwide who barely survive on less than $2 per day will need to ramp up their consumption in order to satisfy basic needs for food, clean water, and sanitation. And in China, the rush to meet surging consumer demand is stimulating the economy, creating jobs, and attracting foreign investment." There is little evidence that the consumption locomotive is brakingparticularly in the United States, where most people are amply supplied with the goods and services needed to lead a good life. In the United States today, there are more private vehicles on the road than people licensed to drive them, the Worldwatch report points out. The average size of refrigerators in U.S. households increased by 10 percent between 1972 and 2001, and the number per home rose as well. New houses in the U.S. were 38 percent bigger in 2000 than in 1975, despite having fewer people in each household on average. As a result of these consumption patterns, the United States, with just 4.5 percent of the world's population, releases 25 percent of global carbon dioxide emissions. Yet increased consumption has not brought Americans happiness. About a third of Americans report being "very happy," the same share as in 1957, when Americans were only half as wealthy. Americans are also some of the most overworked people in the industrial world, putting in the equivalent of nine more weeks on the job each year than the average European.

5 This rising consumption in the U.S., other rich nations, and many developing ones is more than the planet can bear, reports State of the World 2004. Forests, wetlands, and other natural places are shrinking to make way for people and their homes, farms, malls, and factories. Despite the existence of alternative sources, more than 90 percent of paper still comes from treeseating up about one fifth of the total wood harvest worldwide. An estimated 75 percent of global fish stocks are now fished at or beyond their sustainable limit. And even though technology allows for greater fuel efficiency than ever before, cars and other forms of transportation account for nearly 30 percent of world energy use and 95 percent of global oil consumption. At the same time, however, growing dissatisfaction with current consumption trends has led consumer advocates, economists, policymakers, and environmentalists to develop creative options for meeting people's needs while dampening the environmental and social costs of mass consumption. State of the World 2004 points to a range of opportunities that are already available to governments, businesses, and consumers to curb and redirect consumption: Ecological tax reform. By shifting taxes so that manufacturers have to pay for the harm they do to the environment, and by introducing production standards and other regulatory tools, governments can help minimize negative impacts on natural resources. Take-back Laws. Now being adopted by a growing number of governments around the world, these laws require companies to "take back" products at the end of their useful lives, and typically ban the landfilling and incineration of products. Durability. Industries can take shared responsibility for their ecological impacts by finding ways to reduce the amount of raw material needed to create products and by making goods more durable and easy to repair and upgrade. Personal responsibility. Changes in consumption practices will also require millions of individual decisions that start at the grassrootsabout everything from our use of energy and water to our consumption of food. "It would be foolish to underestimate the challenge of checking the consumption juggernaut," concludes Flavin. "But as the costs of unbridled appetites grow, the need for innovative responses becomes clearer. In the long run, meeting basic human needs, improving human health, and supporting a natural world that can sustain us will require that we control consumption, rather than allow consumption to control us." GROWING DISPARITIES: LUXUR: In 2002, 1.12 billion householdsabout three quarters of the world's peopleowned at least one television set. Some 41 million passenger vehicles rolled of the world's assembly lines in 2002, five times as many as in 1950. The global passenger car fleet now exceeds 531 million, growing by about 11 million vehicles annually. Consumers across the globe now spend an estimated $35 billion a year on bottled water. NECESSITY: In 1999, some 2.8 billion peopletwo in every five humans on the planetlived on less than $2 a day. In 2000, one in five people in the developing world1.1 billion totaldid not have reasonable access to safe drinking water. 2.4 billion people worldwidetwo out of every fivelive without basic sanitation. Providing adequate food, clean water, and basic education for the world's poorest could all be achieved for less than people spend annually on makeup, ice cream, and pet food.

II.

The Concept of Sustainable Development

The most difficult question to be answered is whether further growth in either population or economic activity is tolerable. On one hand many environmental scientists warn that human activities are overwhelming the basic life-support systems of the biosphere. They call for a steady state economic system that will minimize our impact on the environment. On the other hand economic growth is a way to bring the underdeveloped nations up to a higher standard of living. Economic Growth is also necessary to provide funds to clean up the environmental damage caused by earlier, more primitive technologies and misguided resource uses. An intermediate position between no growth vs. unlimited growth is sustainable development, based on the use of renewable resources in harmony with the ecologic systems. III. Establishing a new economy

The way a sustainable economy should function, as well as its major principles are known. This is a system, which: does not exceed the carrying capacity of the natural resources

A.

relies on renewable energy sources is supplied with raw materials from recycling and multiple use is not involved with the release of dangerous substances and waste copies the structure from the natural ecosystems Principles for Achieving Sustainable Development 1) A demographic transition to a stable world population through reaching equilibrium between low birth rates and low death rates. This must involve an effective birth control (family planning, education, changes in traditions and culture). Otherwise changes will occur not only in the number, but also in the demographic profile and the minority proportions of the population in the individual countries. 33 countries have achieved stabilizing their population (Western Europe 0-1%, Japan, USA about 1%, the former socialist countries negative population growth). 2) Transition to renewable energy sources as soon as these become sufficiently sophisticated and affordably cheaper. New technologies are to be introduced, reducing energy and raw material consumption (cellular phones, information storage and transfer on/through electronic media), rejection of heavy infrastructure, transport avoiding fossil fuels (bicycles, electric and other non-polluting cars, airships replacing airplanes, etc). 3) Utilizing of recycled raw materials copying the model of the natural systems. The waste materials of a production are used by other productions until the full transformation of the former into final products. All household and industrial machines and appliances must be recyclable too. 4) Introduction of industrial technologies and raw materials, which do not release pollutants. Rejection of the end of pipe emission processing related technologies. Introduction of waste-free productions and avoidance of technologies associated with generation of hazardous waste at any stage. 5) Changes in the structure of agriculture. Replacement of the monocrop agriculture and the use of chemicals; introduction of new varieties of crops; transition to lower food levels. Transition to biological forms of protection; maintaining the amount of organic substance in the arable soil. Reduction of the number of concentrated and artificially bred animals. Transition to local, typical for the particular region crops. Genetic modification, or any other new agricultural technology must be done with great care and caution, applying the Precautionary Principle to Genetically Modified Crops. 6) Conservation of the natural arals and ecosystems over sufficiently large areas, ensuring their reproduction and recovery. Creation of a system of protected regions existing without external interference (humans, infrastructure, external species, etc.). Discontinuation of the loss of animal and plant species. Recovery and recultivation of devastated terrains and regions. 7) Developing and enforcing political and governmental resolutions. Implementation of a system of benefits and taxes encouraging sustainable development in all fields of industry; fines or full recovery of damages done to the environment or yield of raw materials exceeding the carrying capacity.

Enviromentalism for the 21st Century - Patrick Moore

All social movements evolve from an earlier period of polarization and confrontation during which a minority struggles to convince society that its cause it is true and just, eventually followed by a time of reconciliation if a majority of the population accepts the values of the new movement. For the environmental movement this transition began to occur in the mid-1980s. The term sustainable development was adopted to describe the challenge of taking the new environmental values we had popularized, and incorporating them into the traditional social and economic values that have always governed public policy and our daily behavior. We cannot simply switch to basing all our actions on purely environmental values. Every day 6 billion people wake up with real needs for food, energy and materials. The challenge for sustainability is to provide for those needs in ways that reduce negative impact on the environment. But any changes made must also be socially acceptable and technically and economically feasible. It is not always easy to balance environmental, social, and economic priorities. Compromise and co-operation with the involvement of government, industry, academia and the environmental movement is required to achieve sustainability. It is this effort to find consensus among competing interests that has occupied my time for the past 15 years. Not all my former colleagues saw things that way. They rejected consensus politics and sustainable development in favor of continued confrontation and ever-increasing extremism. They ushered in an era of zero tolerance and left-wing politics. Some of the features of this environmental extremism are: Environmental extremists are anti-human. Humans are characterized as a cancer on the Earth. To quote eco-extremist Herb Hammond, "of all the components of the ecosystem, humans are the only ones we know to be completely optional". Isn't that a lovely thought? They are anti-science and technology. All large machines are seen as inherently destructive and unnatural. Science is invoked to justify positions that have nothing to do with science. Unfounded opinion is accepted over demonstrated fact. Environmental extremists are anti-trade, not just free trade but anti-trade in general. In the name of bioregionalism they would bring in an age of ultra-nationalist xenophobia. The original "Whole Earth" vision of one world family is lost in a hysterical campaign against globalization and free trade. They are anti-business. All large corporations are depicted as inherently driven by greed and corruption. Profits are definitely not politically correct. The liberal democratic, market-based model is rejected even though no viable alternative is proposed to provide for the material needs of 6 billion people. As expressed by the Native Forest Network, "it is necessary to adopt a global phase out strategy of consumer based industrial capitalism." I think they mean civilization. And they are just plain anti-civilization. In the final analysis, eco- extremists project a naive vision of returning to the supposedly utopian existence in the garden of Eden, conveniently forgetting that in the old days people lived to an average age of 35, and there were no dentists. In their Brave New World there will be no more chemicals, no more airplanes, and certainly no more polyester suits. What are the main features off a rational environmental policy for the 21st century? Some points to consider are as follows: Wherever possible, we should move towards an economy that is based on renewable energy and material resources. Sustainability is not synonymous with renewability but it is strongly linked to it. Where we do use nonrenewable resources they should be used wisely and recycled whenever practical. We should learn to manage our population voluntarily. The UN Conference on Population, held in Cairo in 1994, concluded that the most effective way to manage population growth is the education and empowerment of women. This leaves no place for patriarchy, religious fundamentalism, or dictatorships. We should develop a more globally unified analysis off the relationships among land use, energy and resource consumption, forests and biodiversity, and population. Policies that have global implications must not be logically inconsistent one with the other. We should learn to be better gardeners at both local and global scales. With 6 or 8 billion mouths to feed this will require more intensive agricultural production including the use of fertilizer, synthetic pesticides, and biotechnology. It is a simple fact of arithmetic that the less land we need to grow our food the more is available for forest and wilderness. Urban sprawl must be brought under control. We have allowed the automobile to determine urban form by default. 300,000 hectares of forest are lost in the United States every year, all of it due to 200 cities spreading out over the land. Denser, more livable, cities must be designed if population continues to grow. Deforestation in the tropics must eventually be stabilized or reversed. This can be accomplished by the transfer of intensive agricultural practices, the establishment of fast-growing, sustainable fuel-wood plantations, and the management of population growth. Chapter 1 - The Challenge for Johannesburg: Creating a More Secure World - Gary Gardner Ten years after the 1992 Earth Summit, an assessment of the state of the world indicates that neither environment nor development has fared well. While awareness of environmental issues has increased and remarkable progress can be

8 cited in niches such as wind power and organic farming, nearly all global environmental indicators continue to be headed in the wrong direction. Many social issues advanced slowly, with some of the gains offset by other setbacks. But the decade saw decreases in deaths for infectious diseases such as pneumonia and diarrhea, a sixfold increase in deaths from HIV/AIDS more than cancelled all of these advances. People in wealthy countries were living longer than ever, but some 14,000-30,000 people continued to die each day from water-borne diseases. World Summit priorities: Building on the small gains of the 1990s and accelerating the movement toward a sustainable world. Goals may range from ending the progressive shrinking of natural forest area, to achieving universal completion of primary school. Chapter 2 - Moving the Climate Change Agenda Forward - Seth Dunn and Christopher Flavin Going into Johannesburg, scientists have stronger evidence that most of the world's warming of the past 50 years is attributable to human activities. But with the Bush Administration in the U.S. and European ministers once again readying to square off on global warming, one may wonder whether Johannesburg in 2002 will be simply a repeat of Rio in 1992, when the first Bush administration refused to embrace mandatory commitments to counter climate change. Despite the slow start, the world has not stood still in the decade since the signature and ratification of the U.N. Framework Convention on Climate Change. The science, economics, business, and politics of the climate issue have all evolved in ways that may help to move the agenda forward. A growing number of multinationals, such as BP, DuPont, and Nike, have taken on commitments to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, and recent government studies in the U.S., Europe, and Japan suggest a significant potential for low- to no-cost emissions cuts via the use of cleaner and more energy-efficient technologies. World Summit priorities: Bringing the Kyoto Protocol into force before the Summit is of critical symbolic importance; setting forth a blueprint for post-Johannesburg climate negotiations, emphasizing the need to reengage the United States; considering a second period of emissions cuts; and expanding the group of countries with emissions targets will also further negotiations. Chapter 3 - Farming in the Public Interest - Brian Halweil Delegates at the 1992 Earth Summit envisioned farming systems that ensure an adequate and accessible food supply, provide stable livelihoods for rural communities, and help build ecological health. Today, however, even as our farms have become more technologically sophisticated, they have become ecologically dysfunctional and socially destructive. In addition to contributing to some of our most threatening environmental problems-from global warming to the spread of toxic chemicals-farm families are suffering. Roughly 100 million families-about 500 million people-lack ownership rights to the land they cultivate. Fortunately, farmers and agricultural scientists in many parts of the world are beginning to learn how to restructure the way we produce food to better serve the multiple functions outlined at Rio, focusing less on purchased chemicals and technological fixes and more on taking advantage of the ecological processes occurring in the field. World Summit priorities: Shifting agricultural subsidies to support ecological farming practices; taxing pesticides, synthetic fertilizers, and factory farms; and assuring women equal rights and support in agriculture. Chapter 4 - Reducing our Toxic Burden - Anne McGinn The 2001 signing of the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs), which holds countries accountable for the regulation of 10 of the most hazardous intentionally produced pollutants, was one of the key environmental achievements in the decade since the 1992 Earth Summit in Rio. The impact of toxic chemicals is already widespread-the average person today carries levels of lead that are 500-1,000 times higher than our pre-industrial ancestors, and worldwide some 300-500 million tons of hazardous wastes are generated each year. Post-Stockholm, the global community faces a dual challenge: reforming an enormous sector of the industrial economy while also taking action on the toxic materials that exist now either as waste or as commodities circulating in the economy. World Summit priorities: Phasing out leaded gasoline; ratifying the three major global toxics treaties (Stockholm, Basel, and Rotterdam); taxing emissions of metals and toxic byproducts from industrial sources; eliminating persistent compounds in dissipative uses, such as farming and cleaning; and funding research on safer materials and environmentally sound methods of waste disposal. Chapter 5 - Redirecting International Tourism - Lisa Mastny Today's travelers are trading in over-commercialized mass tourism for new cultural and nature-based experiences, many of which are found in the developing world. One in every five international tourists now travels from an industrial country to a developing one, up from one in 13 in the mid 1970s. In the last decade alone, international tourism arrivals worldwide have increased by nearly 40 percent. This tourism boom has generated much-needed revenue and employment at many destinations. But it has also brought a host of environmental, social, and cultural problems. On average, half of the tourism revenue that enters the developing world "leaks" back out, going to foreign owned companies or to pay for imported goods and labor. Many participants in the tourism industry-including businesses, governments, local communities, and tourists-are beginning to take important steps to redirect tourism, from implementing regulations to boosting tourist awareness.

9 World Summit Priorities: Formulating comprehensive, multi-stakeholder plans for tourism development; balancing large tourism investments with smaller-scale, locally-run tourism initiatives; and developing stronger regulations and policies to protect destinations against unsustainable tourism developments. Chapter 6 - Rethinking Population, Improving Lives - Bob Engelman Rapid growth of the world's human population is one of the trends underlying persistent poverty and the degradation of the natural environment. Although the global rate of population growth peaked at 2.1 percent a year in the 1960s and has declined to under 1.3 percent today, the planet still adds about 77 million people each year, the equivalent of 10 New York Cities. Ultimately, reversing this trend depends on building and maintaining the political will to support family planning and related health services that allow couples and individuals to make their own decisions about both the timing of pregnancy and broader reproductive health matters. As the largest generation of young people in human history-1.7 billion people aged 10-24-reaches reproductive age, recasting population policy as a venture in social development and greater gender equality will be essential. World Summit priorities: Funding universal access to reproductive health care; closing the gender gap in education; increasing female participation in all levels of politics; and enacting and enforcing strong laws to protect women from gender-based violence. Chapter 7 - Breaking the Link Between Resources and Repression - Michael Renner In several countries around the developing world, abundant natural resources are at the root of the matter-either triggering violent conflict or financing its continuation. In fact, about a quarter of the 49 wars and armed conflicts waged during 2000 had a strong resource dimension. And many of them are taking place in areas of great environmental value. In some cases, groups initiate violence to gain and maintain control over lucrative resources. In others, the pillaging of oil, minerals, metals, gemstones, or timber allows wars to continue that were initially caused by other factors, such as unresolved grievances or ideological struggles, as seen in Sierra Leone (diamonds) and Afghanistan (emeralds, lapis lazuli, heroin). Conflict has also erupted in countries such as Columbia (oil) and Indonesia (timber, natural gas), where the benefits accrue to a small elite while the social and environmental burdens are borne by local communities. World Summit priorities: Developing stronger global certification systems for diamonds, timber, and other resources to make it easier to screen out those produced and traded illicitly in conflict areas. And securing better compliance with U.N. sanctions against illicit resource trafficking by improving the capacity of the United Nations, regional and international organizations, and governments to monitor and enforce embargoes. Chapter 8 - Reshaping Global Governance - Hilary French The Rio Earth Summit resulted in several major developments in international governance, including new treaties on climate change and biological diversity, the creation of the U.N. Commission on Sustainable Development, and sections of Agenda 21 dedicated to broader questions of institutional reform, financing, and public participation. But a few years later, the World Trade Organization was created with a starkly different vision of the future global economy. Ten years after Rio, there are more than 500 environmental treaties and agreements, but few of them contain specific targets and timetables and most are weak on provisions for monitoring and enforcement. At the same time, the U.N Environment Programme and other key ecological initiatives are strapped for cash, and overall aid spending has declined substantially. Despite this lackluster track record, at the World Summit in Johannesburg nations will have another chance to shift the course of the global economy and the institutions that underpin it away from destruction and toward ecological and social integrity. World Summit priorities: Partnering with NGOs, businesses, governments, and international institutions are key to ensuring a successful outcome at Johannesburg; promoting greater cooperation and coherence between the United Nations, the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund, and the World Trade Organization; and respecting the goals and provisions of international environmental, human rights, and labor treaties and standards.

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1. ECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS: BASIC CONCEPTS, STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

A. Definitions Ecology: is the study of the environment and the interactions that occur among the organisms and between organisms and the environment. The word ecosystem is derived from the Greek oikos for home, coupled with the concept of a system. At the global level, these life support systems include the: - transfer of energy from sunlight to plant and its distribution throughout food web; - storage, release and distribution of carbon - an essential building block of all live forms by forests, oceans and atmosphere; - cycling of nutrients nitrogen and phosphorus, between air, water, soil and living organisms; - water cycle which purifies and distributes Earths fresh water; - oxygen cycle through which plants and animals exchange carbon dioxide and oxygen. Biosphere: biosphere consists of the layer of living things interacting with air (atmosphere), water (hydrosphere), and earth surface (lithosphere). All ecosystems on earth (including human ecosystems) are interconnected and interdependent and make up one single entire entity, the biosphere. Species: specific kind(s) of plants, animals, and microbes that possess the ability to interbreed. Members of the same species will breed to reproduce their kind, while members from different species can breed only with their kind to do so. Subdivisions of species are referred to as different races or varieties. Our planet is literally crawling, not to mention swimming and flying, with life. Scoop up a handful of soil from your backyard, and you could have thousands of species right there in your palmand many of these might well be unknown to science. Today, scientists estimate that there are between 15 and 100 million species and almost 1 million of these are insects. (The larger figure account for the unexplored diversity of microscopic live forms). Population: consists of all the members of the same species that live in the same area at the same time; represent the number of species either as a whole or in a given area. It represents the birth rate/death rate relationships of the given species as well. Biological community: All population of living organisms that live and interact in the same area. Ecosystem: a grouping of various species of plants, animals and microbes interacting with each other and with their environment or distinctive plant community of grouping of particular plants which support a particular array of animals and microbes. The interrelationships between them are such that the entire grouping may perpetuate itself, perhaps indefinitely. Each grouping along with its environment is an ecosystem. An ecosystem is defined as place having unique physical features, encompassing air, water, and land, and habitats supporting plant and animal life. They are the functional units of the biosphere, as sells are functional units of living organisms. Biomes: very large terrestrial ecosystems (forests, prairies, etc.). Each biome generally contains a number of smaller but related ecosystems within it. All ecosystems are interconnected and interdependent so that they are not isolated. The landscape division of different ecosystems is rather arbitrary, since they seldom have boundaries. One ecosystem (biome) blends into the next through a transitional region that contains many of the species and characteristics of the 2 adjacent systems. This may create unique environments that support distinctive plants and animals as well as those that are common to the adjoining ecosystems, thus the transitional regions may also be considered as ecosystems. Biodiversity
Many people believe that biodiversity should be preserved not just because it is valuable to us in some way, but simply because it exists. People who hold this opinion believe that each species should be respected and protected because it is

11 the product of many thousands or millions of years of evolution, and we have no right to interrupt the evolutionary process. They also argue that we have no right to destroy something we did not create and that future generations deserve a natural world that is rich and varied. Because we have the power to destroy species and ecosystems, they say, humans have a moral obligation to be careful stewards of the Earth. Biodiversity the live diversity on the planet Earth and could be expressed through the: - genetic variability within a species (e.g. the differences in body size, the colours etc.); - diversity of populations of a species in both the number of individuals within a local group and the distribution of their geographic range (e.g. the size and presence of the populations); - diversity of species within a natural community (abundance of species in the ecosystems); - wide array of natural communities and ecosystems throughout the world (e.g. tropical rain forests, tallgrass prairies, etc.). These cycles shape the climate, providing us with a survivable temperature range and an atmosphere in which we can breathe. Along with these cycles, ecosystems also provide more subtle, but equally essential services. For example they decompose and biodegrade our waste and generate and renew the soils, that produce our food crops. Within ecosystems, species play particular roles that enhance our survival and quality of life. Some species provide particular beneficial services to humans. Wetlands filter toxins, provide clean water and control floods. Estuaries act as seafood nurseries and forested watershed supply fresh water and control erosion. These services are provide by the combined actions and relationships of many species within an ecosystem. A loss of biodiversity, measured as a reduction in the number of species or populations, diminished the rate and capacity of the cycles that produce ecosystem services. When biodiversity declines within a habitat or geographic area, greater fluctuations in ecosystem cycles tend to occur and the eco system as a whole tends to become less stable. Instability increases a systems vulnerability to extreme conditions and catastrophic events, such as floods and droughts, and also reduces the sustainability and productivity of the region. In addition such natural disasters are enormously costly to human life and economies. Conversely, as biodiversity increases in an ecosystem so too does the stability and resilience of that ecosystem. Our children will inherit the planet with whatever biodiversity we pass on to them. The decisions we make as individuals and as a society today will determine the diversity of genes, species, and ecosystems that remain in the future. Many of these decisions are not easy, especially when they involve balancing the immediate needs, rights, and desires of individuals and communities with the measures necessary to protect nature for the long term. Understanding what biodiversity is and how different people value it is an essential first step to designing strategies for long-term conservation.

B. Biotic Structure of Ecosystems Biota: all organisms in one ecosystem (plants, animals and microorganisms) in the ecosystem are referred to as the biota (bio = life). Biological (biotic) factors are the organisms and their products (secretions, wastes and remains) that are components of the environment. Biotic Structure: refers to the way categories of organisms fit together. Despite their diversity, all ecosystems have a similar biotic structure. That is, they all have the same basic categories of organisms that interact together in the same ways. The major categories of organisms are producers, consumers, detritus feeders and decomposers. Producers: mainly green plants, which carry on photosynthesis. Photosynthesis is the process in which green plants use light energy to convert CO2 and water into sugar (C6H12O6) and release O2 as a byproduct. Plants can manufacture all additional complex molecules (organic complex chemicals such as protein, fats and carbohydrates which make up tissues of plants and animals) for their bodies from sugar and some mineral nutrients (from soil and water). The molecule that is used to capture light energy is chlorophyll, which has a green pigment. Hence plants that can carry on photosynthesis are easily identified by their green color. Plants are not necessary in green in color as some other pigments can change additionally the color of the plant. They support the rest of the organisms in the ecosystem. But we should not forget that not all plants are producers. Consumers: Organisms that consume organic material as a source of energy and nutrients. They are divided into various subgroups according to their food source as primary, secondary and so on. Primary consumers feed directly on the producers. Secondary consumers feed on primary consumers. Tertiary consumers feed on secondary consumers and so on. Certain organisms can occupy more than one position on the consumer scale (humans).

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Herbivores: primary consumers that eat only plant material. Carnivores: secondary or higher order of consumers that eat animals only. Omnivores: feed on both plants and animals. Parasites: defined as organisms that become intimately associated with their prey and feed on it over an extended period of time, typically without killing it, but causing to it some harm. Scavengers: animals that feed on dead plant and animal bodies. Detritus feeders: organisms specialized to feed on detritus (dead plant and animal material) and break it down in the process back into inorganic material. As with regular consumers we can identify primary, secondary etc. detritus feeders (earth worms wood beetles, ants, termites etc.). The rotting or decomposition in the ecosystems is a result of the feeding activity of decomposers. Decomposers: a subcategory of detritus feeders, which includes fungi & bacteria. Fungi include moulds, mushrooms, coralfungi. Divided as such because of their distinctiveness - they have reproductive cells called spores and are present everywhere; - they feed upon organic materials if suitable conditions of temperature and moisture prevent; - they are primary detritus feeders as a subcategory from them. Soil
The top layer of decomposed rock and organic matter, which usually contains: air, moisture and nutrients, and can therefore support life. Soil type includes sand, clay, loam (a sand-clay) mixture and peat (which contains a large proportion of decaying plant matter) and is a dynamic interaction between mineral partials, dead plant and animal wastes and detritus feeders and decomposers. Humus is the residue of undigested organic matter, which remains after the bulk of detritus, has been consumed. Bacteria, fungi, protozoas, insects, earthworms and other burrowing animals reduce the detritus to nondigestible humus compounds. Humus is not permanent despite its resistance to digestion and its subject to decomposition at a rate of 20 to 50% volume per year. Without periodic addition of ample detritus humus is gradually decompose and process is called mineralization. Degraded soil can be remediate but it requires several decades or even hundred of years.

Feeding Relationships: relationships in which one species benefit while others are harmed to a greater or lesser extent. They include various food chains that form in their turn food webs. Food chain: a pathway where one organism is eaten by a second, which is eaten by a third and so on. Food chains seldom exist as isolated entities. All food chains are interconnected, thus forming a complex food web (a complex pattern of incorporated food chains). Trophic Levels: trophic literally means feeding, hence trophic levels are feeding levels. All producers belong to the first trophic level, primary consumers to the second, organisms feeding on them to the third, etc. The total combined weight or biomass at each trophic level is 90-99% less than on the preceding one, thus forming a biomass pyramid. The reason of that is that much of the food that is consumed is broken down for energy at each trophic level and relatively little is converted into body mass of the consumer, consequently a large biomass cannot be supported at the end of a long food chain. All food chains must start with a producer. Non-Feeding relationships: these are usually mutually supportive relationships. Can be: Mutualism: mutual benefit to both species (flowers and insects - pollination, coral and fish cleaning, etc.). Symbiosis: refers to any intimate relationship between two organisms (birds and trees, predator - prey, etc.). Hence it includes parasitism as well as mutualism. Mutually supportive relationships that go far beyond close kinds of relationships. They can be found even in the predator-prey relationships (killing the prey, which is usually weak or diseased, helps keeping the population healthy). Competitive Relationships: occur when species (mostly plants) compete for common water, nutrients, light and space. It is quite common for both plants and animals. The competition has a significant effect in determining the character of the ecosystem. However, animals in natural ecosystems seldom (if ever) are in direct competition since they are adapted to feeding on different things.

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C. Abiotic Structure Abiotic Structure: the nonliving, chemical and physical factors of the environment, such as light, temperature, water, wind, chemical nutrients, acidity, saltiness and fire. Organisms are affected simultaneously by all of these factors. The degree to which each factor is present or absent affects the ability of the organism to survive. Different species are affected differently. That is so, because they thrive under different conditions. Optimum: the point that supports the maximum growth of the species. Actually it may be a range (rather than point) consisting of several degrees, thus there is rather an optimal range. Range of Tolerance: the entire range from minimum to maximum, which supports any growth. Limits of Tolerance: the points at the high and low ends of the range of tolerance. Zones of Stress: situated between the optimal range and the limits of tolerance, there is increasing stress or zones of stress, and so until the limit of survival tolerance is precluded. Each species has an optimum, zones of stress and limits of tolerance with respect to every environmental factor. Law of Limiting Factors: Only one factor being outside the optimal range will cause stress and limit the organism. Such a factor is termed as a limiting one. Population density of species will be greatest where all conditions are optimal. Temperature and Precipitation: Water and temperature are the main reasons preventing the ecosystems from taking over each other. For example water is the main factor responsible for the separation of biomes into forests, grasslands and deserts. Temperature also plays a major role in demarcating major ecosystems. However, the effect of temperature is largely superimposed on that of rainfall. Temperature also exerts some influence as it effects on the evaporation of water. Water evaporates faster at higher temperature. D. Organization of Elements in living and Non-Living Systems Organization of Elements in Living & Non-Living Systems: There are about 20 elements that constitute all living organisms. The most significant of which are: C, H, O, P, S, N. The most important chemical feature that distinguish the living from the non-living things is the molecule. These carbon-based molecules, which comprise the tissue of all living things, are called organic. Organic molecule is every molecule that has any C-C and/or C-H bonds. Organic Compounds: they do not exist in the air, in water or minerals to any appreciable extent except where they have been introduced as a result (from pollution or natural processes) of the activities of living organisms. Inorganic Compounds: consist of all other compounds that do not possess C-C and/or C-H bonds. The life processes of growth and reproduction of producers can be seen as taking C, H, O, P, S and N from simple inorganic compounds in the environment & rebonding them into complex organic molecules. Consumers do the same thing staring with molecules present in food. The processes of burning and decay involve a breakdown of organic molecules and their rearrangement into simple inorganic molecules. Law of Conservation of Matter: In chemical reactions atoms are never created, destroyed or changed, they are only rearranged to form different molecules and compounds. Energy: energy is divided into 2 categories: kinetic (energy of action or motion) & potential (energy in storage). First Law of Thermodynamics: energy is neither created nor destroyed, but it may be converted from one form to another. Second Law of Thermodynamics: In any energy conversion you will end up with less useable energy than you start with because of the inevitable loss of heat that occurs during the process.

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Energy and Organic Matter: All organic molecules contain more than the atoms of C, H, O, P, S and N but also potential energy. This is evident by the simple fact that they burn. The heat and light of the flame is their potential energy released as kinetic energy. Matter and Energy Changes in Organisms: Producers producers take C and O atoms from carbon dioxide (absorbed from the air or water solution for aquatic plants) and H from water molecules and with the help of the photosynthesis construct the molecules of glucose and release O. They are also only 15% efficient in converting light energy to stored potential chemical energy. Consumers they exhibit a considerable output of kinetic energy; the process through which they break organic molecules to release the stored potential energy is called cell respiration (opposite of photosynthesis). Detritus Feeders & Decomposers detritus possesses high potential energy and nutrients and is a good food source for the organisms that can digest them. The major portion of it is broken down through cell respiration to release energy for their life functions while another portion is used as raw materials for the actual growth of tissues.

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2. ECOSYSTEMS BALANCE AND CHANGE

A. Principles of Ecosystems Function First Basic Principle of Ecosystems Function: Resources are supplied and wastes disposed of by recycling all elements. Nutrient Cycling: Organic material and oxygen produced by photosynthetic are what consumers need for eating and breathing. The waste from consumers, CO2 and minerals excreted in the urine, are the needed nutrients by the plant producers. Carbon cycle: Through photosynthesis, C atoms are incorporated into glucose & then into the other organic molecules that make up the plant tissues. Through food chains they move into and become part of the tissues of all other organisms (consumers). When the organic molecules are used in cell respiration the C atoms are released back to the environment as CO2, thus completing one cycle and of course ready to start another. Phosphorus cycle: P exists in rock and soil minerals, as ion phosphate, which dissolves in water, but doesn't enter air. Plants absorb it from soil or water solutions and incorporate it into organic compounds. Then through food chains it is passed to all other organisms. If the compounds containing it are oxidized in cellular respiration, it is released back in the environment through urine or waste, where it may be absorbed by the plants to start another cycle. Nitrogen cycle: it has got both a gas and a mineral phase. The main source for N is the atmosphere. However, plants can not utilize it directly from there. For that purpose it must be in a mineral form as ammonium or a nitrate. Fortunately, a number of bacteria and certain blue-green algae can convert N gas to the ammonium form, a process called nitrogen fixation. As organic compounds containing N are broken down in cell respiration, N is excreted, generally in the ammonium form. Additional bacteria may convert it to nitrate form, but any plant may reabsorb it in either form. B. Energy Flow and Decreasing of Biomass Energy flow: In the ecosystems, energy flow is in full harmony with the laws of thermodynamics. It is converted from light (by photosynthesis) in stored chemical energy and this energy is reconverted to various forms though food chains. At each step, a portion of the chemical energy (food) is broken down to release its potential energy and, as this energy is used to perform the organisms functions or work, it is gradually converted to and lost as heat. Thus we observe a flow of energy though ecosystems entering as light, performing work, and exiting as heat. Second Basic Principle of Ecosystems Function: Ecosystems run on solar energy, which is exceedingly abundant, nonpolluting, relatively constant and ever lasting of which they utilize only a small portion. Decreasing biomass at higher trophic levels: As each consumer, detritus feeder or decomposer breaking down only a fraction of its food to release energy, the total biomass at higher trophic levels is also reduces by that fraction (for example 0.1). Third Principle of Ecosystems Function: Large biomasses can not be supported at the end of long food chains. Increasing population means moving closer on the food chain to the source of production. C. Population Balance & Dynamics The most important concepts of population dynamics is that different strategies regulate density, depending on the niche occupies by species in the ecosystem and its stability. The suddenly growth or decline of population are called population explosion and crash. Ecosystem balance depends on the population within a community staying constant (how birth rate is balanced with death rate) using different mechanisms that regulate population size, distribution and growth rate.

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Such an equilibrium in which the maximum numbers of individuals of any species can be suported on a long term basis by a particular ecosystem is the carrying capacity of the environment. Biotic Potential and Environmental Resistance. Biotic Potential that is all the factors that contribute to a species increasing its numbers or the maximum reproductive rate. Factors that lend to increasing a population include: - reproductive rate - ability to migrate - ability to adapt and invade other habitats - defense mechanisms and resistance to adverse conditions Every species has sufficient biotic potential to increase rapidly its population if all environmental factors are favorable population explosion. In the ecosystems there are limits to growth depending on its carrying capacity. When a population exceeds the carrying capacity is called overshoot or explosion which followed by population crash (Maltusian growth). Population may go through repeated oscillating cycles of exponential growth and catastrophic crashes. Environmental Resistance the combination of abiotic plus biotic factors which limit the population growth such as pH, temperature, amount of water, lack of food, predators, diseases and so on, is termed environmental resistance. Regulatory factors of environmental resistance are density dependent (as population density increases, environmental resistance become more intense) or independent (abiotic components of the ecosystem). Conversely if population density decreases, environmental resistance is generally mitigated allowing the population to recover. Principle of Population Change: a change in population of a species is the result of the dynamic balance between biotic potential and the environmental resistance it faces. Maltusian "Strategies" Organisms with such patterns often tend to occupy low trophic levels in their ecosystems or to be pioneers in succession. They move quickly into disturbed environment, grow rapidly, mature early and produce many offspring. They usually are able to do little care for their offspring or cannot protect them from predation. Normally they ensure some offspring survival to adulthood using sheer numbers and dispersal mechanisms. If the internal factors that normally control their population are inoperative they tend rapidly to overshoot the carrying capacity of the environment and then dieback catastrophically. Theoretical unlimited growth is presented by so called "J" curve. Logistic "Strategies" They tend to occupy higher trophic levels in their ecosystems and reproduce at slower rate. These organisms are usually larger, live longer, mature slowly, produce fewer offspring in each generation and have fewer natural predators. These species provides more care and protection for its offspring. Theoretical growth an stabilization with environmental resistance is presented by so called "S" curve Critical Numbers: if a population is pushed below a certain critical number necessary to support the group, biotic potential fails and extinction is virtually assured. Mechanisms of Balance Factors that regulate population growth could be: - intrinsic (between organisms in the same species) and extrinsic (imposed from outside the population); biotic (caused by living organisms) and abiotic (caused by non-living components of the environment); - density dependant (in a higher proportion of the population is affected as its density increases) and density independent (weather and climatic conditions, water availability and drought, fires, geological hazards etc.). Species diversity provides ecosystem stability. . By Predator-Prey Relationship as population increases it runs into increased environmental resistance in the form of limited food and shelter and increased predation. As a result, the population begins to fall. As it falls environmental resistance is lowered and the population increases again, repeating the cycle. Predatorpray balance is not automatic, they have been developed over many millions of years. By Host-Parasitic Relationship parasitic organisms act in the same way as large predators. As the population density of the host organism increases, parasites have little trouble finding new

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hosts and infection rates increase causing population decrease. Conversely if host population density decreases there is a reduction in infection levels and the population is recovered again. Competition among Plants and Plant-Herbivore Balance plants species compete even on apparently uniform areas for light, nutrients, and water. A factor that plays an important role in maintaining this diversity in a plant community is herbivore. Herbivory that is plants being fed upon by any of numerous kinds of herbivores. The relationship between plants and herbivores is very similar to the one between predator and prey. (Up Down). Territoriality a behavioral adaptation that tends to keep a population within resource limits as a territory. Prevention of breeding without territory. Defend as a pack not as an individ. D. Ecosystems Change Primary Succession the process of initial invasion and then progression from one ecosystem to another (gradual succession from moss, through small plants and finally trees). Secondary Succession the reestablishment of an ecosystem that was originally present on it currently abandoned area (from abandoned agricultural field back to broadleaf forest) Climax Community when an ecosystem reaches a point when all present species continue to reproduce in proportion and no further change occurs. Degree of Imbalance and Rate of Change. Succession slow, gradual change, such that the degree of imbalance at any time is not great. There exists orderly and gradual displacement of some species by other, such that a diverse ecosystem is maintained throughout. Ecological Upset sudden changes that lead to a population explosion of one species at the expense of most other species in the system (introduction of foreign species) the opposite to succession. Collapse of Ecosystem when changes are so drastic that almost nothing survives. Usually later the collapse of the ecosystem is followed by succession from species that can tolerate the new condition. Natural changes are generally gradual, leading to succession. On the other hand human induced changes are often sudden and/or drastic, leading to upsets or collapse. Human Ecosystems: Agriculture is essentially a process of taking particular species out of the wild clearing space and providing other condition to grow them preferentially. The truth is that yet 90% of the worlds food is derived from only 15 species of plants. In total, humans use only about 150 species of plants for food, out of 80 000 potentially edible plants. Humans began to create their own distinctive system apart from natural ecosystems. Such systems are unable to overcome the usual limiting factors, but some of them (nutrient supply, water, predator, parasites, and competition) could be overcome by: - producing abundant food - mono agricultural systems replaced original ecosystems; - introducing new more productive exotic species - destroying natural biota; - creating water reservoirs and irrigation - wet land extinction, soil destruction, salt desert; - overcoming predators - polluting soil with using chemicals for killing them; - constructing their own habitats - making different ecosystems equal demolishing wild diversity; - overcoming competition - creating non-competitive and extremely unstable species/systems. E. Adaptation & Change or Extinction of Ecosystems Genetic Variation. Sexual Reproduction the genetic makeup of virtually all organisms consists of two complete sets of genes. As cells divide in the process of body growth, each new cell receives an exact copy of both sets of genes. However, a different cell division process occurs in the formation of ova (eggs) and sperm cells. Egg and sperm cells end up with just one set of genes. This set is a random assortment of the genes of the corresponding parent, so that each egg and sperm cell will

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differ from the other egg and sperm cells in terms of the particular members of the gene pair of the corresponding parent they have got. Mutations additional genetic variation may come into the picture through mutations. They are random accidental changes in the DNA, and they may involve any gene or genes. They can occur spontaneously (with no apparent cause). Change through Selective Breeding gene pools may be changed in desired ways through selective breeding. Breeders first envision the characteristic that they would like to achieve into given species; for example a dog with short, squat legs. Then, examining the existing population of dogs, they select individuals that show the desired traits a little more then others, and use them as the parents for the next generation. The offspring tend to be as the parents, but some express the particular traits more then the parents. Those individuals that show the trait the most are selected as the parents for another generation. This process called the selective breeding is repeated over and over again until gradually the desired traits are fully developed. Change through Natural Selection in nature every generation of every species is subjected to an intense selection for survival and reproduction. Individuals that manage to survive and reproduce pass their alleles on to the next generation, while the alleles of those that do not survive are eliminated from the pool. Thus the gene pool for every species is constantly undergoing a process of natural selection, in which new alleles that provide a trait which aids survival and reproduction will become increasingly widespread in the population. Simultaneously, genes that are less effective in promoting survival are gradually weeded out of the population as individuals carrying them fail to survive or reproduce. It is hardly surprising then, that virtually all traits of all organisms serve in one way or another to support the survival and reproduction of that species. Evolutionary Succession - Through natural selection a species may become increasingly well adapted to coping with predators, parasites, climatic conditions, and other abiotic and biotic factors present. As any biotic or abiotic factor is changed, each species that is ill adapted to the new situation faces three possibilities. Migration. Part of the population may be able to migrate and find an environment where the conditions are still optimal, and thus continue to exist in the new location. Adaptation. Depend of two factors: - amount of genetic diversity in the genepool of the species; - degree of change. The gene pool of the species may contain sufficient variation so that some individuals will tolerate the new conditions, survive and reproduce. Natural selection over succeeding generations will lead to population that is increasingly well adapted to the new condition. Extinction. If none of the individuals in the population can escape the new condition by migration and the new conditions are outside the limits of tolerance for all individuals, then extinction of the population and the gene pool it represents is the inevitable result. Indeed, the fossil record is replete with now extinct species. Dinosaurs are only the best known. Survival of the species depends on maintaining its genetic diversity and on minimizing changes.

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3. AIR RESOURCES: ATMOSPHERE, CLIMATE & WEATHER

A. Basic Atmosphere properties The atmosphere is a mechanical mixture of gases, not a chemical compound. Four gases account for 99.98% of the air by volume - nitrogen - 78.08%, oxygen - 20.94%, argon - 0.93% and carbon dioxide - 0.032%. These gases are mixed in remarkably constant proportion up to about 80 km. In addition the atmosphere is made up of a mixture of gases with numerous aerosols (solid and liquid suspended particles) plus water vapor. Composition: Active gases: N2, O2, H2; Inert gases: Ar, Ne, He, Kr, Xe, Rn; Variable gases: CO2, O3, H2O (vapors). Water may be present as gas, solid or liquid. Water vapors, though, are always present. The smaller particles within the atmosphere, which are too small to fall out rapidly (size 10-110-3 m) form aerosols. Without aerosols clouds, rain and snow could not form. Mechanical properties Air is highly compressible, such that its lower layers are much more dense than those above. Fifty percent of the total mass of the air is found below 5 km and the average density decreases from 1.2 kg/m3 at the surface to 0.7 kg/m3 at 5 000 m. Pressure is measured as a force per unit area - 1 mb being equal to a force of 100 newtons acting on 1 m2. The atmosphere is able to support 760 mm mercury column or 1 atm is equal to 1013 mb. This sea level pressure decreases with height about 1 mb per each 8 m. Structure - layering of the atmosphere The atmosphere is layered into six distinct well marked zones of contrasting temperature due to differential absorption of solar energy. The pattern consists of three relatively warm layers. The Lower Atmosphere Troposphere this is the lowest layer of air immediately adjacent to Earths surface (918 km height). It is in this zone that most weather events occur. It contains about 75% of the mass of the whole atmosphere. Its composition is relatively uniform as it is constantly stirred by winds. Air temperature drops rapidly with increasing altitude (6.25OC/km) in this layer reaching -60C at the top. A sudden reversal of this temperature creates a sharp boundary (tropopause) that limits mixing between the troposphere and upper zones. Stratosphere this zone extends from the troposphere from 16-18 km up to about 50 km. Air temperature in this zone is stable or even increases with higher altitude. It has similar composition as troposphere except for two components water (1000 times less) and ozone (1000 times more). The stratosphere contains much of the total atmospheric ozone from 22 up to 25 km (it reach a peak density at approximately 22 km). The ozone absorbs the most of the incoming solar ultraviolet radiation from the sun. Unlike the troposphere, the stratosphere is relatively calm there is very little mixing in it. The Upper Atmosphere Mesosphere from 50 up to 80 km - in this zone the temperature diminishes even more the minimum temperature here is -90C. At altitude of 80 km another abrupt temperature change occurs showing the beginning of the next zone. Noctilucent clouds are observed over high altitudes in summer due to meteoric dust particles which act as nuclei for ice crystals. Pressure is very low from 1 mb/50 km to 0.01 mb/90 km. Thermosphere from 80 to 500 km. The lower part of the thermosphere rich of highly ionized gases started from 100 km up to 300 km is called ionosphere. The temperature in this zone is very high as molecules are constantly being bombarded by high-energy solar and cosmic radiation (x-rays, and ultraviolet radiation) which cause ionization. The density of the molecules and ions here is very low as well.

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Exosphere from 500 up to 750 km - atoms of oxygen, hydrogen and helium form the tennous atmosphere. Helium is produced by action of cosmic radiation on nitrogen, hydrogen - by breakdown of water vapor and methane. Magnetosphere over 1 000 to 60 000 km Electrons and protons are derived from the solar wind. The charged particles are concentrated at above 3 000 and 16 000 km height as radiation belt and are result of trapping by the Earths magnetic field. Plasmasphere and radiation belt are layers of the magnetosphere.

Destruction of Stratospheric Ozone. The Antarctic ozone hole recurs every springtime. Unfortunately network and data used evaluating the changes in O3 layer are available only for limited geographical regions. Substantial uncertainties remain in defining changes in the vertical distribution of O3, because satellite data record is so short (less than 1 cycle) so it is not possible to distinguish between solar induced and human influenced contributions to the changes in O3 concentrations. In the future, any changes concerning the stratospheric ozone depend mainly on future emissions of CFCs, CH4, N2O, and CO2.
EFFECTS OF THE STRATOSPHERIC OZONE DEPLETION Ozone is a gas found throughout the atmosphere, but most highly concentrated in the stratosphere, between 10 and 50 km above sea level, where it is known as the 'ozone layer'. Without the ozone layer, life on the Earth's surface would not be possible: it protects us from the damaging ultra-violet radiation of the sun; in particular it filters out UV-B radiation. Recent evidence has shown that certain parts of the ozone layer are becoming thinner, ozone 'holes' have developed. The discovery of the ozone hole was the first evidence that human activities are changing the global environment The consequence of any thinning of the ozone layer is that more UV-B radiation reaches the Earth's surface. UV-B radiation affects DNA molecules, causing damage to the outer surface of plants and animals. In humans it causes skin cancer, leads to eye disease, and is a general immuno-suppressant.. Formation of the ozone layer Two billion years ago life on Earth was confined to a few micro-organisms living underwater. These organisms had the ability to photosynthesise - they existed on the basis of sunlight. As a by-product of the photosynthesis, oxygen was released into the atmosphere. Some of this oxygen reached the stratosphere, where it began to react with incoming ultraviolet radiation from the sun to form ozone. Over a period of several million years, the ozone layer was formed. Depletion of the ozone layer Atmospheric ozone is continually broken-down and reformed; until recently this process has been in a state of natural balance. This balance has been upset as a result of human activity; specifically, the manufacture and use of a group of synthetic chemical substances known as CFCs and HCFCs. These chlorine-containing compounds, used in aerosols, refrigeration, solvents and foam insulation, have drifted up into the stratosphere. Through a complex series of chemical chain-reactions, small amounts of these compounds are able to destroy very large quantities of ozone. The result is that ozone is being broken down more quickly than it is forming; parts of the layer are becoming thinner - 'holes' are developing .There are two ozone holes, one each above the North and South pole. These holes result from the fact that for each pole, for half of the year, the Earth is tilted so that the pole is constantly being bombarded with UV light. UV light is needed to cause CFCs or Methyl Bromine to release a Cl or Br atom. Due to this constant bombardment, more atoms of these two elements are released which allows holes to be made. During the other half of the year, the pole is exposed to lower levels of UV light and thus can regenerate its ozone, which causes the holes to act cyclically. Effects of ozone layer depletion The potential consequences for humans, animals, plants, and even building materials are serious: Human health - the greatest threat to human health is an increase in the incidence of skin cancer; each 1% loss of total ozone leads to a 3% to 5% increase in skin cancer cases. In addition, eye disease, including temporary disorders such as 'snow blindness', and more permanent conditions, such as cataracts, become more common. These problems are compounded by the fact that UV-B suppresses the immune system. Skin Cancer: Melanoma Melanoma, the most serious form of skin cancer, is also one of the fastest growing types of cancer in the world. Many dermatologists believe there may be a link between childhood sunburns and melanoma later in life.

21 Nonmelanoma Skin Cancers Nonmelanoma skin cancers are less deadly than melanomas. Nevertheless, left untreated, they can spread, causing disfigurement and more serious health problems. There are two primary types of nonmelanoma skin cancers. Basal Cell Carcinomas are the most common type of skin cancer tumors. They usually appear as small, fleshy bumps or nodules on the head and neck, but can occur on other skin areas. Basal cell carcinoma grows slowly, and rarely spreads to other parts of the body. It can, however, penetrate to the bone and cause considerable damage. Squamous Cell Carcinomas are tumors that may appear as nodules or as red, scaly patches. This cancer can develop into large masses, and unlike basal cell carcinoma, it can spread to other parts of the body. With proper protection from UV radiation, however, most premature aging of the skin can be avoided. Cataracts and Other Eye Damage Cataracts are a form of eye damage in which a loss of transparency in the lens of the eye clouds vision. If left untreated, cataracts can lead to blindness. Research has shown that UV radiation increases the likelihood of certain cataracts. Although curable with modern eye surgery, cataracts diminish the eyesight. Other kinds of eye damage include pterygium (i.e., tissue growth that can block vision), skin cancer around the eyes, and degeneration of the macula (i.e., the part of the retina where visual perception is most acute). All of these problems can be lessened with proper eye protection from UV radiation. Immune Suppression Scientists have found that overexposure to UV radiation may suppress proper functioning of the body's immune system and the skin's natural defenses. All people, regardless of skin color, might be vulnerable to effects including impaired response to immunizations, increased sensitivity to sunlight, and reac-tions to certain medications. Marine environment The phytoplankton and algae are the main producers in the world. They(a) absorb CO2 from the atmosphere, helping to stave off global warming, and (b) form the base of the marine food chain. They live near the top of the ocean and absorb a lot of the UV light. This often kills them, resulting in decreased production. Further up the food chain, this means a reduction in fish stocks, marine animals, and seabirds. Animals rely on these organisms for food and die off when there is a decrease in the plankton and algae population. An example of this is penguins in Antarctica. For whales, creatures that spend the greatest time at the ocean surface and upper layers, increased UV exposure could eventually lead to genetic damage and cancer. Effects on Biogeochemical Cycles Increases in solar UV radiation could affect terrestrial and aquatic biogeochemical cycles thus altering both sources and sinks of greenhouse and chemically-important trace gases e.g., carbon dioxide (CO2), carbon monoxide (CO), carbonyl sulfide (COS) and possibly other gases, including ozone. These potential changes would contribute to biosphereatmosphere feedbacks that attenuate or reinforce the atmospheric buildup of these gases. Agriculture and plant life Physiological and developmental processes of plants are affected by UVB radiation, even by the amount of UVB in present-day sunlight. Despite mechanisms to reduce or repair these effects and a limited ability to adapt to increased levels of UVB, plant growth can be directly affected by UVB radiation. In some cases it causes the plants to further develop its waxy cuticle which results in decreased water loss and increased growth. UV light degrades the pigments responsible for photosynthetic reactions and thus photosynthetic organisms like plants unable to preform photosynthesis which results in decreased production. Indirect changes caused by UVB are changes in plant form, how nutrients are distributed within the plant, timing of developmental phases and secondary metabolism. UV light can also effect the organisms that live on plants, like insects, and thus in different cases, UV light has led to decreases and increases in disease. Effects on Frogs and other Amphibians Amphibians have been effected a lot by the increase in UV light. Their eggs are transparant and the UV light penetrates the eggs and causes genetic mutations and ususally is fatal. There has been a huge amphibian population due to this. There has also been increased numbers of mutations among living frogs. Material degradation Synthetic polymers, naturally occurring biopolymers, as well as some other materials of commercial interest are adversely affected by solar UV radiation Photochemical reactions cause the properties of such materials to change, thus shortening their useful lives.

22 . Today's materials are somewhat protected from UVB by special additives. Therefore, any increase in solar UVB levels will therefore accelerate their breakdown, limiting how long they are useful outdoors. Measures to protect the ozone layer International concern over the seriousness of the problems associated with ozone layer depletion lead to the adoption of the Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone layer, in 1985. This was followed up with the formation of the Montreal Protocol, to which over 140 countries agreed to the reduction and eventual phasing-out of the manufacture and use of most of the ozone depleting substances

B. Energy Outputs & Inputs Solar Radiation the sun provides 99.975% of the energy used at the Earths surface. The human economy today uses mainly solar energy to run as fossil fuels contain solar energy, stored in plant tissue as a result of photosynthesis in the past. Solar radiation is constant. The highest radiation intensity occurs at wavelength 500 nm, with most of the power contained in the range 200 5000 nm. This is called short-wave radiation because its wavelength is shorter than earths radiation. Incoming solar radiation (9% UV 0.01/0.39 m; 47% Visible 0.39/0.76 m; 44% Infrared 0.76/3000 m) is distributed as follows: - 17% absorbed by clouds, water vapor, CO2, heating the atmosphere directly. - 30% reflected back to space from clouds and atmosphere gases and particles. - 53% reaches the ground as 2/3 of this amount is in the form of direct sunlight and 1/3 as diffused light Terrestrial radiation Eventually all energy absorbed by Earth in the form of heat is sent back in the form of terrestrial radiation with wavelength between 4 000 and 50 000 nm (long-wave). There is an important change in the properties (wavelength) between the incoming and the outgoing energy. This long-wave emitted radiation is absorbed at the lower levels of the atmosphere, trapping much of the heat close to Earths surface. Surface balance The rate of net radioactive heating or cooling at the earths surface is called net radiation or radiation balance. Its the sum of all gains and losses of radiant power at the Earths surface. Wind and Climate Wind Air currents play an important role in shaping the weather and climate. As the sun heats the surface some of that heat is transferred to the adjacent air layers causing them to expand and become less dense. Lighter air rises and is replaced by the cooler, heavier air, resulting in vertical convection currents that stir the atmosphere and transport heat from one area to another. Weather a description of all physical conditions in the atmosphere (temperature, humidity, pressure, winds and so on) Frontal weather the boundary between two air masses with different temperature and intensity is called a front. Since cold air tends to be more dense than warm air, a cold front will push under a warm front as it advances. As warm air is force upward, it cools adiabatically and its cargo of water condenses and precipitates. Climate the pattern of weather over a long period of time in a given region. Greenhouse effect Short-wave solar radiation can pass through the clear atmosphere, but the long-wave terrestrial radiation emitted by the warm surface is partially absorbed and then re-emitted out to space by a number of trace gases in the cooler atmosphere above. This adds to the net energy input to the lower atmosphere and the underlying surface thereby increasing their temperature this is the basic greenhouse effect. The main greenhouse gases are water vapor, CO2, methane (CH4), N2O and CFC. An important consequence of a rise in global temperature would be an increase in sea level.
Our Changing Atmosphere Energy from the sun drives the earth's weather and climate, and heats the earth's surface; in turn, the earth radiates energy back into space. Atmospheric greenhouse gases (water vapor, carbon dioxide, and other gases) trap some of the outgoing energy, retaining heat somewhat like the glass panels of a greenhouse. Without this natural "greenhouse

23 effect," temperatures would be much lower than they are now, and life as known today would not be possible. Instead, thanks to greenhouse gases, the earth's average temperature is a more hospitable 60F. However, problems may arise when the atmospheric concentration of greenhouse gases increases. Since the beginning of the industrial revolution, atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide have increased nearly 30%, methane concentrations have more than doubled, and nitrous oxide concentrations have risen by about 15%. These increases have enhanced the heat-trapping capability of the earth's atmosphere. Sulfate aerosols, a common air pollutant, cool the atmosphere by reflecting light back into space; however, sulfates are short-lived in the atmosphere and vary regionally. Why are greenhouse gas concentrations increasing? Scientists generally believe that the combustion of fossil fuels and other human activities are the primary reason for the increased concentration of carbon dioxide. Plant respiration and the decomposition of organic matter release more than 10 times the CO2 released by human activities; but these releases have generally been in balance during the centuries leading up to the industrial revolution with carbon dioxide absorbed by terrestrial vegetation and the oceans. What has changed in the last few hundred years is the additional release of carbon dioxide by human activities. Fossil fuels burned to run cars and trucks, heat homes and businesses, and power factories are responsible for about 98% of U.S. carbon dioxide emissions, 24% of methane emissions, and 18% of nitrous oxide emissions. Increased agriculture, deforestation, landfills, industrial production, and mining also contribute a significant share of emissions. In 1997, the United States emitted about one-fifth of total global greenhouse gases. Estimating future emissions is difficult, because it depends on demographic, economic, technological, policy, and institutional developments. Several emissions scenarios have been developed based on differing projections of these underlying factors. For example, by 2100, in the absence of emissions control policies, carbon dioxide concentrations are projected to be 30-150% higher than today's levels.

Changing Climate Global mean surface temperatures have increased 0.5-1.0F since the late 19th century. The 20th century's 10 warmest years all occurred in the last 15 years of the century. Of these, 1998 was the warmest year on record. The snow cover in the Northern Hemisphere and floating ice in the Arctic Ocean have decreased. Globally, sea level has risen 4-8 inches over the past century. Worldwide precipitation over land has increased by about one percent. The frequency of extreme rainfall events has increased throughout much of the United States.

24 Increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases are likely to accelerate the rate of climate change. Scientists expect that the average global surface temperature could rise 1-4.5F (0.6-2.5C) in the next fifty years, and 2.2-10F (1.4-5.8C) in the next century, with significant regional variation. Evaporation will increase as the climate warms, which will increase average global precipitation. Soil moisture is likely to decline in many regions, and intense rainstorms are likely to become more frequent. Sea level is likely to rise two feet along most of the U.S. coast. What Are Greenhouse Gases? Some greenhouse gases occur naturally in the atmosphere, while others result from human activities. Naturally occuring greenhouse gases include water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and ozone. Certain human activities, however, add to the levels of most of these naturally occurring gases: Carbon dioxide is released to the atmosphere when solid waste, fossil fuels (oil, natural gas, and coal), and wood and wood products are burned. Methane is emitted during the production and transport of coal, natural gas, and oil. Methane emissions also result from the decomposition of organic wastes in municipal solid waste landfills, and the raising of livestock. Nitrous oxide is emitted during agricultural and industrial activities, as well as during combustion of solid waste and fossil fuels. Very powerful greenhouse gases that are not naturally occurring include hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs), and sulfur hexafluoride (SF6), which are generated in a variety of industrial processes. Each greenhouse gas differs in its ability to absorb heat in the atmosphere. HFCs and PFCs are the most heat-absorbent. Methane traps over 21 times more heat per molecule than carbon dioxide, and nitrous oxide absorbs 270 times more heat per molecule than carbon dioxide. Often, estimates of greenhouse gas emissions are presented in units of millions of metric tons of carbon equivalents (MMTCE), which weights each gas by its GWP value, or Global Warming Potential.

25

4. RENEWABLE ENERGY RESOURCES

Renewable Energy energy that is obtained from continuing or repetitive currents of energy occurring in the natural environment while non-renewable energy is obtained from static stores of potential energy that remains bound unless released by human intervention, and which is of limited amount. There are 5 sources of useful energy: the incoming sun radiation; the motion and gravitational potential of the sun, moon, earth; geothermal energy from cooling, chemical reactions and radioactive decay in the earth; nuclear reactions on Earth; chemical reactions from mineral sources. Renewable energy is derived from the first 3 sources, while finite energy from 1st (indirectly), 4th and 5th. Scientific Principles of Renewable Energy. - Energy current - it is essential that a sufficient renewable current is already present in the local environment; - Dynamic characteristics of renewable energy sources, periodic variations varying from highly predictable (tidal power) to highly unpredictable (wind power); - Quality (or the proportion of an energy source that can be converted to mechanical work) of energy supply is as a whole low (except hydro 60%, wave and tidal energy 75% efficiency); - Dispersed versus centralized energy - renewable energy is most easily harnessed in dispersed locations and is expensive to concentrate; - Renewable energy sources require usually complex interdisciplinary solutions - Renewable energy systems are situation (location) dependent Solar Heating passive or active. The solar spectrum can be divided into 3 regions: UV region (9%), Visible (45%) and Infrared (46% of irradiance). Passive Heating direct heating by sunlight and the purpose is to trap as much of the heat and to improve insulation in order to loose as little of the heat as possible. Grop dryers and water desalination. Active Heating air heating or water heating (flat plate collectors radiation is absorbed and energy transferred to the fluid) for end temperature below 100C. Solar ponds several layers of salty water. Solar concentrators collector/receiver as the optical system that direct beam radiation. Photovoltaic Generation - is caused by radiation separating + and charge carriers in absorbing material. If an electric field is present they can produce a current for use in an external circuit (solar photovoltaic cells). Variations in cell construction are stacked cells, series linked, parallel linked, thin film, reflecting or textured surfaces, concentrating devices, etc. Hydro Power Generation of power from falling water. Used for direct mechanical purposes or to drive electric generators, which generating electricity. Turbines are two types and have 90% efficiencies. Devices included prepared water source/dam wit pipes to the turbines with electric generators and also a control/wiring for distribution of electricity. Wind Power used to rotate blades of a rotor that drives an electric generator that produces electricity. Capacity from a few kilowatt to several megawatt. Only about half from the power from the wind can be extracted because the air has to have kinetic energy to leave the turbine region.

26 1. INTRODUCTION Wind can be used to do work. The kinetic energy of the wind can be changed into other forms of energy, either mechanical energy or electrical energy. When a boat lifts a sail, it is using wind energy to push it through the water. This is one form of work. Farmers have been using wind energy for many years to pump water from wells using windmills like the one on the right. In Holland, windmills have been used for centuries to pump water from low-lying areas. Wind is also used to turn large grinding stones to grind wheat or corn, just like a water wheel is turned by water power. Today, the wind is also used to make electricity. Blowing wind spins the blades on a wind turbine -- just like a large toy pinwheel. The blades are attached to a hub that is mounted on a turning shaft. The shaft goes through a gear transmission box where the turning speed is increased. The transmission is attached to a high speed shaft which turns a generator that makes electricity If the wind gets too high, the turbine has a brake that will eep the blades from turning and being damaged. 2. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND DESCRIPTION Windmills, like waterwheels, were among the original prime movers that replaced animal muscle as a source of power. They were used for centuries in various parts of the world, converting the energy of the wind into mechanical energy for grinding grain, pumping water, and draining lowland areas. ANCIENT TIMES The first known wind device was described by Hero of Alexandria (c. 1st century AD). The earliest known references to wind-driven grain mills, found in Arabic writings of the 9th century AD, refer to a Persian millwright of AD 644, although windmills may actually have been used earlier. Each mill drove a single set of stones without gearing. MEDIEVAL AGES Windmills with vertical sails on horizontal shafts reached Europe through contact with the Arabs. A heavy lever then had to be raised to release the brake, an early example of a fail-safe device. Mills of this sort first appeared in France in 1180, in areas of Syria under the control of the crusaders in 1190, and in England in 1191. The large effort required to turn a post-mill into the wind probably was responsible for the development of the so-called tower mill in France by the early 14th century. Such improved mills spread rapidly throughout Europe and later became popular with early American settlers. The Low Countries of Europe, which had no suitable streams for waterpower, saw the greatest development of windmills. Dutch hollow post-mills, invented in the early 15th century, used a two-step gear drive for drainage pumps. At first both post-mills and the caps of tower mills were turned manually into the wind. Later small posts were placed around the mill to allow winching of the mill with a chain FROM 18-TH CENTURY TILL 20-TH CENTURY Cast-iron drives were first introduced in 1754 by John Smeaton. Little is known about the actual power produced by these mills. In all likelihood only from 10 to 15 horsepower was developed at the grinding wheels. A 50-horsepower mill was not built until the 19th century. The maximum efficiency of large Dutch mills is estimated to have been about 20 percent. A major problem with all windmills was the need to feather the sails or reduce sail area so that if the wind suddenly increased during a storm the sails would not be ripped apart. Even though further improvements were made, especially in speed control, the importance of windmills as a major power producer began to decline after 1784, when the first flour mill in England successfully substituted a steam engine for wind power The primary exception to the steady abandonment of windmills was resurgence in their use in rural areas for pumping water from wells. The first wind pump was introduced in the United States by David Hallay in 1854. Wind-driven pumps remain important today in many rural parts of the world. They continued to be used in large numbers, even in the United States, well into the 20th century until low-cost electric power became readily available in rural areas. Although rather inefficient, they are rugged and reliable, need little attention, and remain a prime source for pumping small amounts of water wherever electricity is not economically available. 3. WIND POWER NOWADAYS WIND TURBINES Description Modern wind turbines extract energy from the wind, mostly for electricity generation, by rotation of a propeller-like set of blades that drive a generator through appropriate shafts and gears. The older term windmill is often still used to describe this type of device, although electric power generation rather than milling has become the primary application. As was noted earlier, windmills, together with waterwheels, were widely used from the Middle Ages to the 19th century during the course of which they were supplanted by steam engines and steam turbines. Though they continued to be used for pumping water in rural areas, wind turbines practically disappeared in the 20th century as the internalcombustion engine and electricity provided more reliable and usually less expensive power. Interest in wind turbines for electricity generation was rekindled by the oil crisis of the mid-1970s. High initial costs, intermittent operation, and

27 maintenance costs, however, have prevented wind turbines from becoming a significant factor in commercial power production. Way of operation. Wind farm. Wind turbines capture the wind's energy with two or three propeller-like blades, which are mounted on a rotor, to generate electricity. The turbines sit high atop towers, taking advantage of the stronger and less turbulent wind at 100 feet (30 meters) or more aboveground. A blade acts much like an airplane wing. When the wind blows, a pocket of low-pressure air forms on the downwind side of the blade. The low-pressure air pocket then pulls the blade toward it, causing the rotor to turn. This is called lift. The force of the lift is actually much stronger than the wind's force against the front side of the blade, which is called drag. The combination of lift and drag causes the rotor to spin like a propeller, and the turning shaft spins a generator to make electricity. Wind turbines can be used as stand-alone applications, or they can be connected to a utility power grid or even combined with a photo-voltaic (solar cell) system. Stand-alone turbines are typically used for water pumping or communications. However, homeowners and farmers in windy areas can also use turbines to generate electricity. For utility-scale sources of wind energy, a large number of turbines are usually built close together to form a wind farm. Several electricity providers today use wind farms to supply power to their customers. Types. Modern wind turbines are divided into two major categories: horizontal axis turbines and vertical axis turbines. Oldfashioned windmills are still seen in many rural areas. Horizontal Axis Turbines (HAWT) Horizontal axis turbines are the most common turbine configuration used today. They consist of a tall tower, atop which sits a fan-like rotor that faces into or away from the wind, the generator, the controller, and other components. Most horizontal axis turbines built today are two- or three-bladed, although some have fewer or more blades. Vertical Axis Turbines (VAWT) Vertical axis turbines fall into two major categories: Savonius and Darrieus. Neither turbine type is in wide use today. Darrieus Turbines The Darrieus turbine was invented in France in the 1920s. Often described as looking like an eggbeater, this vertical axis turbine has vertical blades that rotate into and out of the wind. Using aerodynamic lift, these turbines can capture more energy than drag devices. The Giromill and cycloturbine are variants on the Darrieus turbine. Savonius Turbines First invented in Finland, the Savonius turbine is S-shaped if viewed from above. This drag-type VAWT turns relatively slowly, but yields a high torque. It is useful for grinding grain, pumping water, and many other tasks, but its slow rotational speeds are not good for generating electricity. Windmills Windmills have been used by humans since at least 200 B.C. for grinding grain and pumping water. By the 1900s, windmills were used on farms and ranches in the United States to pump water and, later, to produce electricity. Windmills have more blades than modern wind turbines, and they rely on drag to rotate the blades. Wind turbine use. Wind turbines are used around the world for many applications. Wind turbine use ranges from homeowners with single turbines to large wind farms with hundreds of turbines providing electricity to the power grid. Some common uses are: Small wind turbines - generate electricity for homeowners, power villages, pump water, and perform mechanical tasks. Homeowners - can generate their own electricity or charge batteries using the wind, and in some cases, sell excess electricity to the utility, a practice called net metering. Before buying a system, homeowners should check into local zoning regulations. A number of turbine manufacturers serve the home energy market. Some homeowners choose to build their own systems. Hybrid Systems - wind turbines are used in hybrid systems with other technologies like photovoltaic panels, batteries, and diesel generators. Village Systems - In remote villages without access to electricity, wind turbines can charge batteries or power small electric grids, improving the quality of life. Water Pumping - Wind turbines are still used today to pump water. Battery Charging Farms and Ranches Telecommunications Green Power - Green power is electricity generated by clean, renewable energy sources. Some consumers now have the option to buy green power instead of electricity from conventional power plants. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES Disadvantages Limitations - not all the kinetic energy of the wind can be extracted, because there must be a finite velocity as the air leaves the blading. It can be shown that the maximum efficiency (energy extracted divided by energy available in the captured wind area) obtainable is about 59 percent, although actual wind turbines extract only a portion of this amount. Currently, the maximum efficiency obtainable with a propeller-type windmill is roughly 47 percent; this occurs when the propeller-tip speed is between five and six times the wind velocity.

28 For a given rotor speed, it drops rapidly as the wind velocity decreases. The power obtainable varies as the square of the rotor diameter and the cube of the wind velocity. Thus the theoretical maximum energy obtainable from a rotor with a diameter of 30 metres in a wind with a speed of 14 metres per second would be about 690 kilowatts. If the wind speed decreases to 7 metres per second, the theoretical maximum drops to about 86 kilowatts. At this lower wind speed, it would require more than 17,000 wind turbines (with rotors of 30 metres across) operating at an efficiency of 40 percent to match the output of a single large one-millionkilowatt central power station. Aesthetics and Visual Impacts - elements that influence visual impacts include the spacing, design, and uniformity of the turbines. Birds and Other Living Resources - preconstruction surveys can indicate whether birds or other living resources are likely to be affected by wind turbines. Noise - like all mechanical systems, wind turbines produce some noise when they operate. In recent years, engineers have made design changes to reduce the noise from wind turbines. TV/Radio Interference - in the past, older turbines with metal blades caused television interference in areas near the turbine. Interference from modern turbines is unlikely because many components formerly made of metal are now made from composites. Advantages Wind energy is considered a green power technology because it has only minor impacts on the environment. Wind energy plants produce no air pollutants or greenhouse gases. However, any means of energy production impacts the environment in some way, and wind energy is no different. Economics - the cost of energy from the wind has dropped by 85% during the last 20 years. Incentives like the federal production tax credit and net metering provisions available in some areas improve the economics of wind energy. The rate the utility pays to purchase wind-generated electricity, called the buy-back rate, often determines the economic feasibility of a project. Wind energy is often attractive when life-cycle costs are compared with other generation technologies. Global Warming - wind energy can help fight global warming. Wind turbines produce no air emissions or greenhouse gases. Wind resource - the wind is the fuel source for wind energy. The United States has many areas with abundant winds, particularly in the Midwest and Great Plains. Understanding the wind resource is a crucial step in planning a wind energy project. Detailed knowledge of the wind at a site is needed to estimate the performance of a wind energy project

Biofuels Biomass is organic material from plants and animals carbon based material that reacts with oxygen in combustion and natural metabolic processes to release heat. The initial material may be transformed by chemical and biological processes to produce intermediate biofuels (methane gas, ethanol liquid ar charcoal solid). There are several ways to receive energy: - Thermochemical: Direct combustion for immediate heat (dry input is preferred since evaporation of water requires lots of energy. Pyrolysis biomass heated either in the absence of air (burning without O2), or by partial combustion of some of the biomass in a restricted air or oxygen supply. The products vary and consist of gasses, vapors, liquids and oils, and solid charcoal. If output of combustible gas is the main product the process is called gasification. - Biochemical: Alcoholic fermentation receiving of ethanol or methanol. Such volatile liquid fuel that may be used in place of refined petroleum. It is manufactured by the action of microorganisms and is therefore a fermentation process. Anaerobic digestion in the absence of oxygen certain microorganisms can obtain their own energy supply by reacting with carbon compounds of medium reduction level to produce CO2 and the fully reduced carbon fuel methane CH4. The process is called digestion because of the similar process that occurs in the digestive tracts of the ruminant animals. - Biophotolysis (receive H2) - Direct fuel extraction from biomaterials: Liquid and solid fuels may be obtained directly from freshly cut plants. Some of them produce hydrocarbons of lower molecular weight, which may be used as petroleum substitutes. Agrochemical fuel extraction use natural oil and solvents: seeds (sunflower), nuts (oil palm), fruits (olive), leaves (eucaliptus), harvested plants (rosin, terpentine), etc.

29 Why the Interest in New Fuels? The recognition that fuels are significant opened up an interesting debate about the relative merits of petroleum and nonpetroleum fuels. Petroleum fuels have many advantages as vehicle fuels. Oil can still be discovered and pumped from the ground in many parts of the world for as little as ten or twenty cents per gallon. Gasoline and diesel fuel pack more energy per gallon than other fuels. Most important, our country's vast transportation infrastructure (refineries, pipelines, service stations, vehicle assembly plants, etc.) has been designed and optimized for petroleum fuels. On the other hand, petroleum fuels have certain drawbacks. Emissions of reactive hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, and oxides of nitrogen from gasoline and diesel vehicles contribute significantly to the air pollution that plagues most large American cities. Carbon dioxide emissions from petroleum fuel combustion add to the atmospheric buildup of greenhouse gases and the potential for global warming. The United States consumes far more oil than it can produce domestically, leading to concerns over our energy and national security. There are several alternative (i.e., nonpetroleum) fuels, such as methanol, ethanol, natural gas, propane, electricity, and hydrogen, that could reduce vehicle emissions of conventional and greenhouse pollutants and could be produced from domestic feedstocks. Unfortunately, to varying degrees, a transition to one or more of these fuels could decrease vehicle range and increase the overall cost of the U.S. transportation system, particularly during the transition when infrastructure modifications would be necessary. What are Clean Fuels? The most familiar transportation fuels in this country are gasoline and diesel fuel, but any number of energy sources are capable of powering motor vehicles. These include alcohols, electricity, natural gas, and propane. Some vehicle fuels, because of physical or chemical properties, create less pollution than do today's gasolines. These are called "clean fuels." Why Switch to Clean Fuels? Cars operating on today's gasolines emit complex mixtures of compounds that lead to the formation of ground-level ozone; many of these compounds are also toxic. A lot has been done to reduce automobile pollution, from development of innovative emission control technologies to establishment of Inspection and Maintenance programs. But each year sees more cars on the road, traveling more miles, and the pollution control measures taken so far have not been sufficient to solve the ozone problem in many large cities. Summary Table of Alternative Fuel Advantages & Disadvantages:

Clean fuels have a number of inherent properties that make them cleaner than conventional gasoline. In general, these fuels emit less hydrocarbons, and the hydrocarbons they do emit are less reactive (slower to form ozone) and less toxic. Emissions from electricity, natural gas, or alcohol-powered vehicles can be as much as 90 percent lower in toxics and ozone-forming hydrocarbons than emissions from vehicles fueled with conventional gasoline. New gasoline formulations ("reformulated gasoline") are expected to reduce these emissions up to 25 percent over today's gasoline. Use of clean fuels could also help slow atmospheric buildup of carbon dioxide, a "greenhouse gas" that contributes to the potential for global warming. Combustion of any carbon-based fuel produces carbon dioxide. But the overall impact

30 of a given fuel on global warming depends on how the fuel is made. In general, fuels produced from biomass (crops, trees, etc.) and from natural gas result in less carbon dioxide accumulation than fuels made from petroleum or coal. Clean fuels have benefits that reach beyond their air quality advantages. New fuels in the marketplace give consumers new choices and could decrease our dependence on imported oil. ELECTRICITY Battery-powered vehicles give off virtually no pollution and offer one of the best options for reducing motor vehicle emissions in polluted cities. Power plants that produce electricity do pollute. But these plants are often in rural areas where the emissions do not drive pollution levels above health standards. Also, efficient emission controls can be installed and maintained more easily on individual power plants than on millions of vehicles. The driving range of today's electric cars is limited by the amount of power the battery can provide. Current batteries take hours to recharge and the cost of electric vehicles is high. Recent developments in electric vehicle technology show much promise for the future. ETHANOL Ethanol ("grain alcohol") is the primary automotive fuel in Brazil, and ethanol/gasoline blends (known as "gasohol") have been used in the United States for many years. Pure ethanol fuel offers excellent performance, plus low hydrocarbon and toxic emissions. It can be produced domestically from corn or other crops, as well as from cellulosic materials such as wood or paper wastes, potentially minimizing the accumulation of greenhouse gases (since these "renewable" feedstocks draw carbon dioxide out of the atmosphere as they grow). With current technology and price structures, ethanol is more expensive than gasoline. New technologies offer the hope of significantly reduced costs. METHANOL Methanol ("wood alcohol"), like ethanol, is a high-performance liquid fuel that emits low levels of toxic and ozoneforming compounds. It can be produced at prices comparable to gasoline from natural gas and can also be produced from coal and wood. All major auto maufacturers have produced cars that run on "M85," a blend of 85 percent methanol and 15 percent gasoline. Cars that burn pure methanol (M100) offer much greater air quality and efficiency advantages. Many auto manufacturers have developed advanced M100 prototypes. Methanol has long been the fuel of choice for race cars because of its superior performance and fire safety characteristics. NATURAL GAS (METHANE) Natural gas is abundant and is widely used for home heating and industrial processes. It is easily transported through pipelines and costs about the same or slightly less than gasoline. Compressed natural gas (CNG) vehicles emit low levels of toxics and ozone-forming hydrocarbons. But CNG fuel must be stored under pressure in heavy tanks, and the cost of accommodating these tanks must be considered. There are significant tradeoffs for CNG vehicles among emissions, vehicle power, efficiency, and range; however, natural gas is already used in some fleet vehicles and appears to have a bright future as a motor vehicle fuel. PROPANE Propane, or liquefied petroleum gas, is a by-product of petroleum refining and natural gas production. It burns more cleanly than gasoline but is limited in supply. Propane-fueled vehicles are already common in many parts of the world. REFORMULATED AND OXYGENATED GASOLINE Oxygenated Fuels The oxygenated fuels provision affects 31 metropolitan areas that have high levels of carbon monoxide pollution (see chart).Since November 1992, gasoline sold in the winter in these areas must contain a minimum of 2.7 percent oxygen. The oxygen helps vehicles burn fuel more completely. this program has reduced vehicle carbon monoxide emissions by 15 to 20 percent. Fuel additives supply the extra oxygen for oxygenated gasolines. The most common additives are ethanol and methyl tertiary butyl ether (MTBE), a methanol derivative. These additives are being used in about a third of the nation's gasoline, displacing 100,000 to 200,000 barrels per day of oil. The oxygen additive added a few cents per gallon to the cost of gasoline. Reformulated Gasoline The reformulated gasoline requirement applies to gasoline sold year-round in the nine metropolitan areas with the most severe ozone pollution (see chart). Beginning in 1995, reformulated gasoline specifications include a minimum oxygen content of 2 percent and a maximum 1 percent benzene content. Heavy metal additives are prohibited. Overall emission performance standards for reformulated gasoline call for at least 15 percent hydrocarbon and toxic emission reductions by 1995 and at least 20 to 25 percent reductions of hydrocarbons and toxic emissions beginning in the year 2000. In addition to the use of oxygenates to boost fuel oxygen content, it is expected that refineries will have to restrict or delete certain high-volatility compounds, aromatics, olefins, and sulfur from gasoline. The nine-city base requirement will reformulate 22 percent of the country's gasoline supply and displace between 100,000 and 350,000 barrels per day of oil. However, the Clean Air Act permits other polluted cities (up to 87 across the country) to voluntarily join the program, which could result in reformulating more than half of the nation's gasoline. Again, the price of gasoline is projected to rise by a few cents per gallon.

31 The petroleum industry is beginning to market gasoline formulations that emit less hydrocarbons, nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, and toxics than conventional gasoline. These new gasolines can be introduced without major modification to existing vehicles or the fuel distribution system. The Clean Air Act requires some gasoline modifications to reduce carbon monoxide emissions beginning in 1992 and use of reformulated gasoline in certain polluted cities beginning in 1995. Are Clean Fuels Feasible? Clean-fueled vehicles are here today and widespread use in the near future is feasible. To enable the transition, technologies must be refined so vehicles can achieve optimum performance and emissions characteristics. Consumers must accept the new vehicles and fuels, and government and industry must cooperate to ensure their availability. It will take a concerted effort by all sectors of society, but a switch to clean fuels may be the most viable way for many cities to attain clean and healthy air.

Wave energy Very large energy fluxes can occur in deep water sea waves. Power in the wave is proportional to the square of the amplitude and to the period of the motion. Waves are used to actuate generators of electricity. Therefore the long period ( 10 s) large amplitude ( 2 m) waves have considerable interest for rower generation. High quality energy (75%), good predictability. Difficulties facing are: wave patterns are irregular in amplitude, phase and direction (devices should be able to extract power over the wide range of variables); probability of extreme gases or hurriganes (the devices must be able to withstand 100 times more power intensity); fixing devices in position and of transmitting power to land; wave periods commonly from 5 to 10 s (frequency about 0.1 Hz). It is difficult to couple this irregular slow motion to electrical generators. Tidal Power level of water in large oceans rises and falls according to predictable patterns. Periods 24 h or 12.25 h. The change in height between high and low tides is about 10 m. The movement of the water produces tidal currents which may reach speed of 5 m/s in coastal channels. Has been used for small and large mechanical power devices. Their behavior may be predicted accurately. Disadvantage is the changing tidal range and flow over a 2 week period and highest capital costs of most potential installations, as well as potential ecological harm. Geothermal geothermal energy is obtained as a result from nuclear disintegration in the earths interior. Temperature differences between surface and the earth in depth can provide a continuous replenished store of thermal energy. The inner core of the earth reaches a max temperature of about 4000OC. Heat pass out trough solid submarine and land surface mostly by conduction. The temperature gradient of geothermal heat is of 30OC. However at certain specific locations increased geothermal gradient occur (about 150 OC depths of 5 km). These are classes of geothermal regions: - hyperthermal with OC gradient 80 OC/km (tectonic plate boundaries); semithermal with OC gradient 40 OC/km and normal. Obtaining heat could be classified as: Natural hydrothermal circulation in which water percolates to deep aquifers to be heated to dry steam, vapor/liquid mixures or hot water/geysers; Hot igneous system heat from semimolted magma that solidifies to lava; Dry rock fracturing poor by conducted dry rock (e.g. granite stores heat millions of years) artificial fracturing from boreholes enable water to be pumped through the rock to extract the heat. A working fluid circulates in a closed cycle and takes up heat from the warmer depths through a heat exchanger. As fluid expands it drives a turbine, which in turn drives a generator. The working fluid is cooled by the cold water and the cycle continues. Major disadvantages are cost and scale.

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5. AIR POLLUTION
A. Sources of Air Pollution Natural and Anthropogenic Sources of Pollution Air pollution may be defined as any atmospheric condition in which substances are present as concentrations high enough above their normal ambient level to produce measurable effect on man, animals, vegetation or materials. Some guide of permissible exposure to chemical compounds concentration is available through the threshold limit value concept. These maximum permissible concentrations refer to the maximum tolerated level assumed an 30 / 60 min or 24 hours exposure. Volcanoes erupt ash, spray acid mists, hydrogen sulfide, and other toxic gases. Sea spray and decaying vegetation reactive sulfur compounds. Forest fires create clouds of smoke. Trees and bushes emit millions of tones of volatile organic compounds. Pollen, spores, viruses, bacteria, cause widespread suffering from allergies and infections. Storms raise dust clouds. Bacterial metabolism in certain areas gives raise to two-thirds of the methane in the air. Some of the differences between the air pollution and the reactions of classical chemistry are: - the concentrations of reactants may be extremely low (less than mg/m3)] - concentrations change as a result of emissions variability; - strong meteorological effects; - depending upon the pressure, temperature, sun radiation, vapor content, etc; - changes type of the pollutants; pollutants removal by several chemical and meteorological factors. The chemical composition of pollutants from natural and human-related sources is often identical, and their effects are inseparable. Some pollutants are considered harmless at naturally occurring levels, but when humans add to these levels, overloading of natural cycles or disruption of balance in the nature can occur. It may be the total amount of substance in the air that causes trouble, or it may be that the location or timing of human-caused emissions. While natural sources of suspended particulate matter in the air outweigh human sources ten times, in many cities more than 90% of the airborne particles are anthropogenic (human-caused). Primary Pollutants Primary pollutants are those released directly into the air in a harmful form. They are typified by high concentration of pollutants and low influence by atmospheric conditions. Secondary Pollutants Secondary pollutants, by contrast, are modified to a hazardous form after they enter the air, or are formed by chemical reactions with the air mix after interactions among primary pollutants and normal atmospheric constituents. Solar radiation often provides energy for these reactions. Photochemical oxidants and atmospheric acids are probably the most important secondary pollutants in terms of health and environmental damage. Fugitive emissions are those that do not go through a smokestack. Massive sources are dust from soil erosion, strip mining, rock crushing, building construction (destruction). Leaks around valves and pipe joints contribute as much as 90% of the hydrocarbons and volatile organic chemicals emitted from oil refineries and chemical plants. B. Classification of Air Pollutants There are some major groups of pollutants: particulates and heavy metals aerosols, sulfur and nitrogen containing compounds, ozone and photochemical oxides, carbon containing compounds and hydrocarbons. Particulate Material an aerosol is any system of solid particles or liquid droplets suspended in a gaseous medium larger than molecular dimensions. This particulate material includes dust, ash, soot, lint, smoke, pollen, spores, algae cells, and many other suspended materials (except pure water and vapor). A full description of atmospheric particulates requires specification of not only their concentration but also their size, chemical composition, phase and morphology. Particles less

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than 2.5 m in diameter are generally referred to as "fine" and over 10 m as "coarse". Penetration depend of the particles size. Carbon Oxides predominantly CO2 and is usually considered nontoxic and harmless, but increased levels cause greenhouse effect. CO highly toxic, colorless, odorless, produced by incomplete combustion of fuel or biomass. Sulfur Compounds natural sources (volcanoes, erosion, biogenic emission, organic sulfur containing compounds). Anthropogenic sources 1/4th of world emissions, but are 90% of atmosphere over urban areas. Predominantly SO2, sometimes oxidized to SO3 (+ water vapor = sulfuric acid = acid rain) or S04 which enters the lungs and is very damaging. Nitrogen Compounds highly reactive gases formed during combustion or when bacteria in soil (or water) oxidize nitrogen-containing compounds. The initial NO further reacts in air to NO2. NOx react with water to make nitric acid (HNO3) = acid rain. Metals and Halogens many toxic metals are mined and used in manufacturing or are found in fuels. Suspended as metal fumes or particulates. Biggest harm Pb, but others are Hg, Ni, Cd, uranium, cesium, plutonium. Halogens (fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine) are highly reactive and generally toxic. CFCs contribute to the greenhouse effect. Photochemical Oxidants they are products of secondary atmospheric reactions driven by solar energy. By releasing O atom through splitting O2 or NO2, ozone is created. It damages vegetation, building materials and sensitive tissues. Hydrocarbons in the air contribute to accumulation of ozone by removing NO in the formation of given compounds. C. Meteorological Conditions & Air Pollution Inversions temperature inversions occur when a stable layer of warmer air overlays cooler air, reversing the normal temperature decline with increasing height and preventing convection current from dispersing pollutants. Several mechanisms create inversions: - when a cold front slides under an adjacent warmer air mass - when cool air subsides down a mountain slope to displace warmer air in the valley below Then an inverted temperature gradient is established. These inversions are usually unstable and tend to break up fair quickly, mixing the air layers. More stable inversions are usually created by a rapid nighttime cooling in a valley or basin where air movement is restricted. A classical example of conditions that create temperature inversions and photochemical smog is Los Angeles. The city is surrounded by mountains on three sides and the climate is dry and sunny. The pollution levels generated during the day are high. During the night the skies are generally clear, thus surface air cools down quickly by conduction and upper layers remain warm. Density difference retards vertical mixing. At night cool breeze slides under the contaminated air and squeezes it against the cap of warm air concentrating the pollutants accumulated during the day. Morning sunlight is absorbed by the concentrated aerosols and chemicals. As the surface warms up the convection currents break up the cap and the pollutants are carried down to the surface. Dust Domes and Heat Islands even without mountains to block winds and stabilize air layers many large cities create an atmospheric environment quite different from the surrounding conditions. High levels of concrete and glass allow rainfall to run off quickly (not permitting it to cool down the surface) and create high rates of heat absorption during the day and radiation during

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the night. The temperature in the centers of big cities are normally 35C higher than the surrounding countryside. Stable air masses created by this heat island over the city concentrate pollutants in a dust dome. Long-Range Transport Air pollutants can be carried long distances by wind currents. Some of the most toxic and corrosive materials delivered by long-range transport are secondary pollutants, which are produced by chemical and physical reactions as contaminants mix and interact in an air mass. It is difficult to identify the sources of secondary pollutants or to devise simple control strategies. Acid Rain Rainwater pH problems in the atmosphere have been described by the general term acid rain. Major organic and inorganic ions are hydrogen H+, sulfate SO42-, nitrate NO3-, formic and acetic acids. Precipitation with a pH value lower than 5.6 is termed acid rain. The low pH have been observed during rain storms with a pH value of 2.4. The term acid refers to an access of hydrogen ions (H+) in water solutions, which are normally balanced at least in part by the major acid anions suphate, nitrate and chloride.
What is Acid Rain and where does it come from? Acid Rain, also known as acidic deposition, is formed from the combustion of fossil fuels. In the United States, Acid Rain primarily originates from emissions produced by power plants, the Industrial sector, and the Transportation sector. Factories, utilities, and automobiles all need fuel to produce work, heat, and electricity. Luckily, Fossil Fuels have potential energy and can produce work, heat, and electricity when burned. Unfortunately, the production of carbon dioxide, sulfur oxide and nitrogen oxide creates many deleterious side effects of burning fossil fuels. Some of these harmful side effects are the formation of lowlevel ozone, acid rain, as well as the possibility of global warming with the release of green house enhancing gases. The Effects of Acid Rain in the Forests. "Acid rain, acid fog and acid vapour damage the surfaces of leaves and needles, reduce a trees ability to withstand cold, and inhibit plant germination and reproduction. Consequently, tree vitality and regenerative capability are reduced." How Acid Rain Hurts the Forest? Fertilizing Rain; The Nitrogen Oxide Problem Although nitrogen deposition is formed from dangerous pollutants, it first acts as a fertilizer to the trees, helping to stimulate growth. However, acid rain, snow or fog doesnt contain all the other nutrients needed to be helpful. Instead, according to the Norwegian Minister of the Environment, the heavy metals like cadmium, lead, and mercury have a deleterious effect on the nutrient turnover in the forest soil, causing both direct damage to the trees' root systems and indirect damage by leaching the trees' needed nutrients. Nitrogen oxide and nitric oxide, also components of acid rain, can force trees to grow even though they do not have the necessary nutrients. As well, the trees are sometimes forced to grow well into late autumn when it is actually time for them to prepare for severe frosts in the winter. Chemical Reactions in the Soil When acid rain seeps into the forest soil, it leaches and dissolves many of the nutrients that trees depend on out of the soil. The acidic rain also dissolves solid toxins like Aluminium. The Aluminium, soluable in acidic conditions, melts into the acidic water in the soil. Aluminium dissolves rapidly once the soil waters pH is at 4.0; it will slowsometimes severely--the trees uptake of vital nutrients, practically stopping growth. Depending on how good the soil is at buffering the change in acidity, the trees may be all right; the soils in the Adirondacks are especially poor buffers at diminishing the effects of acid rain. Consequently, the local spruces are dying. On the other hand, soil containing Limestone forms a good buffer against the effects of acid rain. The effect of acid rain on the forests is dependent upon the behaviour of ions. Most of the good ions that are needed by the trees are cat ions, like Ca2+, Mg2+ and H+. As mentioned before, there are toxic ions like aluminium, lead, cadmium, and mercury that severely hurt the trees uptake of vital nutrients. Normally, these toxic particles are sedentary because theyre solid and bound to the soil. However, like Aluminium, Acid Rain frees the toxic substances while dissolving the good ones through a complex combination of chemical reactions. As a result, the trees, already hindered in absorbing nutrients, experience a paucity of important nutrients that have been leached out of the soil such as Potassium, Calcium, Magnesium, and Sodium. This leaves the tree with little nutrients to function properly.

35 As mentioned before, Acid Rains effect on different soils is not the same. Soils high in calcium containing lime are very resistant to acid rains effects while soils that contain a lot of granite, (glaciated soils) along with many other types, are very vulnerable to acidic depostion. The soil's buffering ability is mainly dependent upon the underlying bedrock. Also, human land use policies play a big role in acidic deposition's effect. For example, logging increases acidity as living trees, containing countless nutrients absorbed from the soil, are removed. Once the trees are removed, the nutrients are not allowed to reenter the soil like when uncut trees release their nutrients upon death and decay. This causes the slightly acidic forest soil to have no way to neutralize itself. Thus, farmers and even foresters use limestone to help bulk up their soils resistance to acidity. Effect on Leaves Leaching of the foliage can also occur. When anthropogenic nitrogen settles on a leaf, it will be absorbed by the leaf surface. Once mixed with the leaf cells, a chemical reaction takes place where important nutrients such as calcium, magnesium and potassium are leached out of the leaf and washed away by rain. They are replaced by useless hydrogen atoms and this inhibits photosynthesis. Acid Fog and Vapor Surprisingly, even if the soil is good at buffering the effects of acid rain, the forests in the mountains are still more vulnerable to acidic deposition. This is because the forests are often bathed in acid fog or low level clouds which are much more acidic than plain acid rain. As a result, the leaves in contact with the acidic water droplets are hurt as the wax is destroyed. As in the picture above, the damaged leaves may turn yellow or brownish. Long Term Effects Usually, after acid rain starts to leach the soils nutrients, defoliation wont show up until much later. But once the leaves are hurt, the capacity of the tree to photosynthesise light for food (and remain healthy) is limited. The severity of the trees inability to photosynthesise depends on the extent of the leave damage. And weakened trees are especially prone to dying as a result from diseases, insects plagues, droughts, and cold weather. Effects of Acid Rain on: Health Acidic deposition has very real health implications for mankind. Exposure to acid aerosols like Sulfuric acid, Nitric acid and different size particles can result in damaged lung tissue, development of asthma, and chronic bronchitis over an extended period of time. The elderly and children are usually the most vulnerable. In fact, in the eastern US, sulfate aerosols make up 25% of the inhalable particles we breath! Recent studies at Harvard and NYU show that increased incidence of sulfate aerosols leads to sickness and lung disorders like asthma and bronchitis. Acid deposition is also harmful to wildlife. It is responsible for abnormally high mercury levels in fish and their predators: loons, mink, otter, and eagles. Acid rain seems to bring toxic methyl mercury into the food chain. In turn, the health of people, especially children and infants as well as mothers unborn babies are at high risk due to contaminated fish consumed from acidic lakes. Mercury exposure can cause severe damage to our brain and central nervous system as well as to our kidneys. It may also cause hidden neurological abnormalities in children, like abnormal reflexes and slower motor skills. Acid rain also causes toxic metals to become soluable--thus being absorbed by the fruit and vegetables we eat. Environment Acid Rain can have an extremely harmful effect on Terrestrial and Aquatic Ecosystems. Lakes and other waterways depend upon the underlying soils buffering capability against acid rain and can become very acidic with certain types of poor buffering soils. The intense acidity can kill much of the marine life and have a great impact on recreational fishing. For example, some fish species in the Adirondacks, like the Brook Trout, have been nearly eliminated due to Acid Rain induced habitat degradation. Likewise, some terrestrial ecosystems have good buffer soil while others have poor buffer soil. The good buffering soils are able to absorb the acidic water with very few ramifications. The poor buffering soils though, especially in glaciated areas, cannot counteract the effects of acid rain. In these cases, forests can be severely damaged. For example, the high elevation spruce forests of the Appalachian Mountains are especially vulnerable to the effects of Acidic Deposition. The spruces have been weakened by the combined leaching of the soil's nutrients and the exposure to toxic metals--both a result of Acid Rain. Buildings & Structures Needless to say, with both the natural and man-made environment, visibility aesthetics can be hurt by the impact of acid rain. Acid rain can damage building components such as stone, mortar, paint, and metals. Moreover, acid deposition can cause accelerated weathering and wear of statues and historic

36 objects. Financially, Acid Rain has already cost the railroad and airplane industry countless dollars in repairing acid rain-induced damage. Structures primarily composed out of limestone and marble are especially vulnerable to destruction. Limestone and marble are torn apart and chemically altered as a result of acidic deposition and are transformed into a brittle substance called gypsum. This causes great deterioration in certain buildings and statues. PLACES THAT HAVE BEEN AFFECTED BY ACID RAIN. Scandinavia In Norway, the loss of soil nutrients caused by acid precipitation is hurting the trees' health. Acid rain can displace nutrients such as calcium and magnesium from the soils. Scientists have modeled these processes, and estimate that in forested areas in southern Sweden and Norway, acid rain may have leached out 20 to 70 per cent of the most important minerals. Sulphur doxide in the acid smoke from the nickel refineries on the Kola Peninsula have caused burns on pine needles and the foliage of deciduous trees. Finland Acidic Deposition has not been as much of a problem. There have not been any signs of general acidification damage to Finnish forests. Check out this graph to see where Sulphur Deposition in the year 2000 is expected to exceed Finland's limit. Black Forest Early in the 1960s, more and more dead and dying conifers were found in the forested tracts of the Black Forest in southern Germany. Twenty years later, German forestry scientists estimated that one-third of the forests were damaged to some extent by acid rain. As time went on, deciduous trees such as oak and beech were affected as well. In 1984, the German authorities said that damage had been reported in more than half the country's forests. At the same time, the alarm was raised in other countries, especially in Central and Eastern Europe, where large areas of forest were severely damaged "Waldsterben" is the special German name for this peculiar acid rain induced forest decline. Europe In the 1980's, blatant, widespread damage to European and Scandanavian forests raised the concerns of many. Since the 1980's, though acidic deposition has continually surpassed the maximum level the environment can safely retain, an unknown factor has averted the wholesale destruction of the forests. European forests, despite doomsayer's predictions, have yet to completely self-destruct. Since the traditional indicators of a forest's health are the rate of growth and the rate of defoliation, the UN Economic Commission for Europe (ECE) has consistently compiled and disseminated defoliation figures to all the European countries. Indeed, defoliation figures are high. However, defoliation, the loss of leaves or needles, can result from insects, diseases, aging of trees, or acidic deposition. Most likely the European defoliation is a result of a few causes, including acidic deposition. Green Mountains (Vermont) A study was done on the red spruce of Vermont's Green Mountains where there is widespread spruce death and decay. Specifically, the study documented damage to the root hairs and the microorganisms with a symbiotic relationship with the tree's roots. Obviously, when stands of red spruce die, the remainder of the ecosystem is impacted very adversely. When too many mature spruce die, gaping holes are created in the forest canopy. Soon, if enough spruce die, the forest will begin to be fragmented, with several acre clearings-a result of the increased tree falls--scattered throughout the woodland. Then, the forest's integrity is compromised. The wildlife is also adversely impacted by forest damage. Indeed, most forest dwelling birds are declining as their reproductive success is being hurt.. Open areas bring the parasitic Cowbirds as well as a steep increase in predatory, nest raiding snakes, racoons, and squirrels--all which reside in open areas of the forest. Bird species especially vulnerable to forest fragmentation (which also results from suburban sprawl) include the Scarlet Tanager, Gray-cheeked Thrush, and a host of Warbler species. Adirondacks (upstate New York) The Adirondack Mountains of upstate New York are the perfect example of Acid Rain's effect on our forests and waterways. The Adirondack Mountains have been infamous for having high levels of intense acidic deposition. Many of the mountain lakes now support little aquatic life as a result of the high acidity levels. One of the first areas to encounter the harsh effects of acid rain, New York has lead the rest of the Northeast in the charge to pass legislation limiting the amounts of NOX and SOX, acid rain causing emissions, that are released. However their success at limiting acid rain causing emissions has been qualified as a result of congressmen from the Midwest and other areas who worked to kill past acid rain legislation. Acid rain seems to be a mythical, abstract problem to them. However, that stance of many congressmen on acid deposition may soon change. According to a recent article in the New York Times, addressing the plight of the Adirondacks, acid rain is a growing problem which is now having severe effects in areas of the Allegheny

37 Mountains in West Virginia, the Central Appalachains, the Serria Nevadas, the Front Range in Colorado, the Chesapeake Bay, as well as a continuing problem for most of the Northeast. In many of these places, the ecosystems are saturated with great amounts of acidity. After the saturation point is passed, the ecosystems cannot hold any more acidity and the excess acidity leaches nutrients and minerals quickly from the soil, causing the trees to become weak or die. Furthermore, high acidity levels can kill much of the life in waterways. In fact, it is already happening to the thousands of sensitive lakes in the Adirondacks. What Is Being Done To Stop Acid Rain? Clean Air Act In order to stop acid rain, we need to stop the source, Sulfur and Nitrogen Oxide emissions. Once those emissions are lowered, there will be less acid deposition. In fact, places like Canada, the US, and Scandanavia have already experienced a lessening in Acidic Deposition amounts. In an attempt to help lessen acid rain, the United States passed the Clean Air Act to lower emissions; Title IV of the 1990 Clean Air Act calls for a 10 million lbs annual reduction of SO2 by the yr. 2010, 40% less than the 1980 emissions. Acid Rain just isnt an American problem however. Europe is experiencing great amounts as well.

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6. AIR POLLUTION CONTROL

A. Particulates Removal Techniques The control devices for particulate contaminants can be divided into five major groups: - gravitational settling chambers - centrifugal collectors - wet collectors - electrostatic precipitators - fabric filters Gravitational Settling Chamber minimum particle size >50m; efficiency <50% Provides enlarged areas to minimize horizontal velocities and allow time for vertical velocity to carry the particle to the floor. The usual velocity through settling chambers is between 0.5 2.5 m/s. Simple in design, maintenance and operation but requires large space for installations and have low efficiency especially in removal of small particles (less than 50 m cannot be removed), low pressure drop.

Centrifugal Collectors minimum particle size 5-25m; efficiency 5090% Centrifugal collectors use centrifugal forces instead of gravity forces because they are several times greater and thus the particles that can be removed in centrifugal collectors are much smaller in dimension. Multiple cyclones operating in parallel are necessary to break large flows when small diameter cyclones are used. 90% effective for particles 510m. Small radius not only increases the centrifugal force but also reduces the distance the particles have to travel to reach the collection chamber. Simplicity of design and maintenance, sensitive to variable dust and flow rates.

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Wet Collectors Spray Tower minimum particle size >10m; efficiency <80% Spray towers are low cost scrubbers that can be used to remove both gaseous and particulate contaminants. The units cause very little pressure loss and can handle large volume gases. As the gas flows upward, entrained particles collide with liquid droplets sprayed across the flow passage and liquid droplets containing the particles settle by gravity to the bottom of the chamber. They have low cost, but have corrosion/erosion problems and the water has the processed consequently.

Wet Cyclone Scrubber minimum particle size >2.5m; efficiency <80% High-pressure spray nozzles located in various places within the cyclone chamber generate a fine spray that intercepts the small particles entrained in the swirling gases. The particulate matter thrown to the wall by centrifugal force is then drained to the collection sump.

Fabric Filters minimum particle size <1m; efficiency >99% In a fabric filter system the particulate-laden gas stream passes through a woven or felted fabric that filters out the particulate matter and allows the gas to pass through. Small particles are initially retained on the fabric by direct interception, inertial impacting, diffusion, electrostatic attraction and gravitational settling. After a dust mat has formed on the fabric, more efficient collection of submicron particles is accomplished by sieving. Fabric filters can be cleaned intermittently, periodically or continuously. Intermittent stop the device and clean; periodically stop part of the device and clean; continuously automatic cleaning operation.

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Electrostatic Precipitators minimum particle size >1m; efficiency 9599% Electrostatic precipitators can be classified as low-voltage two-stage units or as high-voltage single-stage units. Low-voltage two-stage units operate at 6kV to 12kV and are employed mainly in conjunction with air-conditioning systems for hospitals and commercial installations. They are used mainly to collect liquid particles and are not recommended for control of solid or sticky materials. This type of precipitators uses a separate ionizing zone located ahead of the collection plates. High-voltage single-stage units precipitators operate in the 30kV 100kV range and are used at large industrial plants. Fours basic steps are required in the operation of a high-voltage single-stage electrostatic precipitator: 1) electrical charging of the particles, 2) collection of the charged particles on a grounded surface, 3) neutralization of the charge at the collector, and 4) removal of the particulate for disposal.

B. Gaseous Contaminants Removal Techniques Adsorption passing a stream of effluent gas through a porous solid material contained in an adsorption bed. The surfaces of the porous solid material attract and hold the gas by either physical or chemical adsorption. Physical Adsorption the condensation of gases and vapors on solid at temperatures above dew point depend on the van der Waals force. The higher the boiling point of the gas, the higher the adsorption of the gas. Chemical Adsorption the contaminant gas molecule forms a chemical bond with the adsorbent, and the gas is held strongly to the solid surface by valence forces. Much slower than physical adsorption because of the displacement of atoms that must occur in the molecules. Dependent on pressure and temperature (at low temperature the process may become too slow). Adsorbents alumina, bauxite, silica gel (water vapors), activated charcoal (paraffin hydrocarbons) Absorption it involves bringing contaminated effluent gas into contact with liquid absorbent so that one or more constituents of the effluent gas are removed, treated, or modified by the liquid absorbent. Liquid absorbent may utilize either chemical (reactive) or physical (nonreactive) change to remove pollutants. Absorbents should chemically similar to the solute and of low viscosity, should have a low freezing point and to be low in toxicity. Usually they are aqueous solutions and alkalis. Condensation if the partial pressure of a compound is increased until it equals to or is greater than its vapor pressure at a given temperature then condensation occurs. If the temperature of a gaseous mixture is reduced to its saturation temperature, its vapor pressure equals its partial pressure and condensation will occur as well. There are two basic types of condensation equipment surface and contact condensers.

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Surface in a surface condenser physical adsorption plays a key role since contaminants are adsorbed onto a surface as the gaseous compound condenses. The vapor to be considered is separated from the cooling medium by a metal wall. As the cooling medium flows through the tubes, the vapor condenses on the surface of the tubes, the condensed vapor collects as a film of liquid and the liquid drains off to storage. Contact In a contact condenser, the vapor and cooling medium are brought into direct contact. The cooler vapor condenses and the water and the condensed mixture are removed, treated and disposed. The contact condensers are less expensive and more flexible Combustion the objective here is convert the air contaminants to harmless CO2 and water. The idea is to push oxidation reaction as close as possible to completion, leaving a minimum of unburned compounds. Dependent upon the contaminant being oxidized, direct-flame combustion, thermal combustion, or catalytic combustion methods can be used to control air pollution. Direct-Flame Combustion. In direct-flame combustion waste gases are burned directly in a combustor with or without the addition of supplementary fuel. Thermal Combustion. In gases where the concentration of combustible gaseous pollutants is too low to make direct-flame incineration feasible, a thermal incinerator, or afterburner can be chosen. The waste gas is preheated often by use of a heat exchanger utilizing heat produced by the thermal incinerator itself. Catalitic Combustion. A catalyst accelerates the rate of oxidation without itself undergoing a chemical change, thus reducing residence time required for incineration. A catalytic incinerator generally consists of a preheating section and a catalytic section, though cold catalytic systems are now available that operates at ambient t. There is no direct flame in such a unit, through the catalyst surface glows.

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7. WATER RESOURCES, USE & MANAGEMENT

A. Water Resources Hydrologic Cycle the hydrologic cycle describes the circulation of water as it evaporates from land, water, and organisms, enters the atmosphere, condenses and is precipitated to Earths surface, moves underground by infiltration or overland by runoff into rivers, lakes, and seas. Clouds an accumulation of condensed water vapor in droplets or ice crystals. When cloud droplets and ice crystals become large enough, gravity overcomes uplifting air currents and precipitation occurs. Some precipitation never reaches the ground re-evaporation occurs in the warmer and drier air layers beneath the cloud. Thus, liquid water and ice crystals may exist for only a few minutes in this short cycle between clouds and air. Discharge the amount of water that passes a fixed point in a given amount of time, measured in cubic meters per second. Major Water Compartments in the World Oceans contain 97% of all liquid water on the planet. Water basins form a continuous reservoir but shallows and narrows between them reduce water exchange so they have different compositions, climatic effects, and elevations. Oceans play a crucial role in moderating Earths temperature. The hydraulic cycle of the ocean water is a very long process its residence time is 3000 years, but at the deepest ocean trenches tens of thousands of years. Glaciers, Ice and Snow of all the 3% of water that is fresh about s is held in them. Glaciers are really rivers of ice that flow downhill very slowly. They occur in high altitudes or high latitudes. The largest ice sheet is in the Antarctic glacier (2 km). Ground Water second largest reservoir of fresh water. Precipitation that does not evaporate back into the air or run off over the surface is filtered through the soil and permeable rocks in a process called infiltration. Rivers and Streams Precipitation that does not evaporate or infiltrate into the ground runs off over the surface, drawn by the force of gravity back towards the sea. Rivulets accumulate to form streams, and streams join together into rivers. Lakes and Ponds A pond is a small temporary or permanent body of water shallow enough for rooted plants to grow over most of the bottom. A lake is an inland depression that holds standing fresh water year-round. Although the water in lakes and ponds is a small percentage of all water available, their water is easily accessible and thus it is important in many ways for humans and different kinds of organisms. Wetlands swamps, bogs, wet meadows and marshes. They play vital role in the hydrological cycle. Plants stabilize the soil and prevent surface run-off, allowing time for infiltration and produce even, yearlong stream flow. Atmosphere the smallest of the major water reservoirs of Earth in terms of volume (less than 0.001%). It also has the most rapid turnover rate about 10 days. Movement of water through the atmosphere provides the mechanism for distributing fresh water and replenishing terrestrial reservoirs. B. Water Availability & Use Water Supplies. The richest areas in terms of total water supply are South America and Asia (12% of the total land area, 1/4 of the total global runoff each). Stable runoff, the fraction that is available year-round, is usually more important than total runoff in determining human uses. In most parts of the world, a majority of the precipitation falls during a limited wet season, but much of this water quickly drains away to the ocean and isnt available during the succeeding dry season. Drought Cycles. Cycles of wet and dry years create temporary droughts. Water shortages have their most severe effect in semiarid zones where moisture availability is the critical factor in

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determining plant and animal distribution. Undisturbed ecosystems often survive extended draughts with little damage, but introduction of domestic animals and agriculture disrupts native vegetation and undermines natural adaptations to low moisture levels. Types of Water Use Withdrawal total amount of water taken from a lake, river, or aquifer for any purpose. Consumption that is the fraction of withdrawn water that is lost in transmission, evaporation, absorption, chemical transformation or otherwise made unavailable for other purposes. Degradation change in water quality due to contamination or pollution, making the water unsuitable for other desirable service. Water Treatment and Natural Purification Dilution It was considered to be the most economical means of wastewater disposal. Its success depends upon discharging relatively small quantities of waste into large bodies of water. Lately this practice is banned by law. Sedimentation settling out or sedimentation is natures method of removing suspended particles from a watercourse, and most large solids will settle out readily in calm water, while small particles can stay in suspension for long periods of time, though most of these will eventually also settle down. The natural sedimentation process has its drawbacks sediment deposits may trap organics at the bottom, alter the streambed, fill up the pore space, cause the development of silt and mud, thus altering the course of the stream, etc. Resuspension resuspension of solids is common in time of flooding, etc. In such case increased turbulence may resuspend solid formerly deposited along normally calm areas of stream and carry them for considerable distance downstream. Filtration large particles can be trapped by reeds or stones, small bits may be filtered out by pebbles or rocks along the streambed. As water is percolates from the surface downward into the groundwater aquifers, filtration occurs as well and if the soil is deep and fine enough the removal of suspended material would be complete. Gas Transfer the transfer of gases into and out of water is an important part of the natural purification process. Saturation the equilibrium state when the number of molecules entering the liquid is equal to the number of molecules leaving. It depends on solubility of the water. Heat Transfer Bodies of water lose and gain their heat much more slowly than do land or air masses. Thus water temperature is fairly constant and changes gradually with seasons. Consequently, aquatic plants and animals have not developed sufficient adaptability to deal with abrupt changes in temperature. Thus heat increases tend to decrease the number of aquatic species. Furthermore, increases in water temperature affect all factors associated with water quality. Chemical Conversions Natural chemical conversions that may take place in water can change different materials like N and P and other nutrients in soluble form and therefore usable by various aquatic organisms. Euthrophication when in the water are present too much N and P nutrients the population of certain micro-organisms increases drastically consuming all the oxygen, which is a kind pollution as well. C. Water Transmission, Distribution and Storage Methods of Distribution of Water Gravity Supply when the source is at sufficient elevation above the consumer so that the desire pressure can be maintained. It is often possible to supply water to one or more storage reservoirs with the system. This method has proven to be quite economical. Pumped Supply in a pumped supply, pumps are used to develop the necessary pressure to distribute water to the consumer and storage system. Combined Supply in a combined supply system, storage reservoirs are used to maintain adequate pressure during periods of high consumer demand and under emergency conditions.

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During periods of low water consumption, excess water is pumped and stored in the storage reservoirs, thus the pumps can be operated at their rated capacity. Distribution Reservoirs they are used to equalize the rate of flow, to maintain pressure, and for emergencies. They must be located as close to consumers as possible. Depending on topography and local environmental conditions, storage reservoirs may be located above, on or below the ground surface. Distribution Systems the facilities used to supply water from its source to the point of usage. The series of interconnected pipes used to supply water to the consumer is known as a distribution network. Several configurations have been used. Branching System although such a system is simple to design and build, it is not favored in modern waterworks practice because 1) bacterial growths and sedimentation may occur in branch ends, 2) it is difficult to maintain a chlorine residual at the dead ends, 3) when repairs must be made to an individual line, service connections beyond the point of repair will be without water until the repairs are made, and 4) the pressure at the end of the line may become undesirably low as additional extension are made. Grid System all pipes are connected and there are no dead ends.
3rd World Water Forum Concludes 100 New Commitments Made The Forum was held in the three neighboring Japanese cities of Kyoto, Shiga and Osaka from March 16-23, holding 351 separate sessions on 38 interlocking themes dealing with water, especially on how to bring safe water and sanitation to the entire world. Some 2.4 billion people lack access to adequate sanitation, and 1.1 billion people are without access to safe drinking water. Current water management practices and lack of environmental sanitation contribute substantially to water-related diseases. Even in countries where a large part of the population has access to improved water, sanitation and the quality of water resources need improvement. At the World Summit in Johannesburg in September 2002 UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan identified water and sanitation as one of the five key areas in which concrete results were expected. The 3rd World Water Forum will also address issues of water, water supply, sanitation, hygiene, and water pollution. Numerous activities are already under way worldwide. UN organizations such as the World Health Organization and UNICEF have been working rigorously with national and local governments and NGOs on water and sanitation by executing mitigation projects and providing technical guidance. The Water Supply and Sanitation Collaborative Council has developed a global and local-level advocacy campaign, Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene for All (WASH), which has been launched internationally and locally. The results of other activities on drinking water quality and health implications in developing countries, ecological sanitation, improved water management practices, water pollution control, and urban wastewater and water reuse will also be presented to representatives of international organizations, government officials, decision-makers, NGOs, and the private sector. Also covering such broad perspectives as health, security, people-centered approaches, indicators and monitoring, legal frameworks and financing, and sustainable development, issues that influence and are influenced by water management practices, the sessions are expected to produce a "Kyoto Statement" on future dialogue that will further integrate evaluations and discussions of case studies. Management of water resources is one of humanity's oldest activities. It has left tangible and intangible effects on virtually all cultures. Sustainable solutions to water-related problems must reflect the cultural (emotional, intellectual, moral, and spiritual) dimensions of people's interactions with water. Culture is a powerful and harmonizing aspect of water resources management. As we move into the 21st century, population growth, urban expansion, and economic development are driving energy and water uses to record levels. Better planning, development, and management of all energy and water resource schemes are becoming critical to humanity's well-being. There are currently some 2 billion people without access to electricity. Many of them live in rural or (increasingly) peri-urban areas and are also without access to clean water and sanitation services. At the same time, there is a debate on the sustainability and practicality of power generation technologies, and greater emphasis is being placed on options assessment, on the role of renewable energy sources, and specifically on the integration of hydropower. The evidence is undeniable: during the decade 1991-2000 more than 90% of the people killed by natural hazards lost their lives as a consequence of extreme hydrological events. And according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, expected climate change will intensify the hydrological cycle. Heavy rains and floods are already occurring more frequently and becoming more intense. Increasing variability in precipitation could endanger species and crops and lead to a decline in food production. The relation between global warming and its impact on the hydrological cycle has provoked scientific debate and political negotiations under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. But although climate change, through its impact on the hydrological cycle, has a profound effect on people's livelihoods, dialogue between water specialists and meteorologists is still in its early stages.

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8. WATER QUALITY AND POLLUTION

A. Major Physical, Chemical & Biological Water Quality Parameters; Water Quality Requirements and Standards Physical Water Quality Parameters physical parameters define those characteristics of water that respond to the senses of sight, touch, taste, or smell. Suspended solids Solids suspended in water may consist of inorganic or organic particles or of immiscible liquids. Usually are naturally present. Other suspended material may result from human use of the water. Measurement by gravimetric tests involving the mass of residents. The total solids test quantifies all the solids in the water. Most suspended solids may be removed from water by filtration. Turbidity This is the measure of the extent to which light is either absorbed or scattered by suspended material in water. It is caused mainly by suspended solids in the water. It is measured by sampling measured by the quantity of light absorbed compared to a scale. Color It is not a parameter usually included in wastewater analysis. Taste and odor the terms themselves are definitive of this parameter. Measurement of these parameters can be done by using gas or liquid chromatography, but this is time-consuming and expensive. Another method is the so-called threshold odor number (TON). Temperature it is not used directly to evaluate either potable nor wastewater, but is very important parameter. The temperature governs to a large extent the biological species present and their rates of activity. Many other parameters depend on it (pH, conductivity, dissolved O2, etc.) Chemical Water Quality Parameters The chemical parameters are related to the solvent capabilities of water. Total Dissolved Solids The material remaining in the water after filtration for the suspended solids analysis is considered to be dissolved. This material is left as a solid residue upon evaporation of the water and constitutes a part of total solids. A direct measurement of the total dissolved solids can be made by evaporating to dryness a sample of water, which has been filtered to remove the suspended solids. The remaining residue represents the TDS in milligrams per liter. Another way to do this is by measuring the water conductivity, but it is unreliable method. Alkalinity It is defined as the quantity of ions in water that will react to neutralize hydrogen ions. Alkalinity is thus the measure of the ability of water to neutralize acids. Alkalinity is measured by titration of the water with an acid and determining the hydrogen equivalent. Hardness It is defined as the concentration of multivalent metallic cations in solution. . Hardness is classified as carbonate hardness and non-carbonate hardness Fluoride Fluoride is toxic to humans and animals in large quantities, but in small may be beneficial. Metals While excessive amounts of any metal may present health hazards, only those metals that are harmful in relatively small amounts are commonly labeled toxic, other metals fall into the nontoxic group. Measurement of metal in water is usually made by atomic absorption spectrophotometry. Organics Biodegradable are those that can be used as food by naturally occurring microorganisms. Measured by BOD (Bio O2 Demand). Non-biodegradable those that are resistant to biological degradation. Measured by COD (Chemical O2 Demand). Nutrients mostly C, N, P. If they are present in higher quantities euthrophication. Biological Water Quality Parameters All members of the biological community are, to some extend, water-quality parameters, because their presence or absence may indicate the characteristic of water. Pathogens. The most important organisms in water are pathogens, those

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organisms capable of infecting or transmitting diseases to humans. This includes species of bacteria, viruses, protozoa and helminths. Water Quality Requirements requirements vary according to the proposed use of the water. Set by the potential user, water-quality requirements represent a known or assumed need and are based on the prior experience of water user. Standards: In the USA standards are promulgated for streams and lakes, for public water supplies and for wastewater discharges. According to the Bulgarian legislation there are three category of instream standard, two groups in municipal waste waters effluent standard and a portable (drinking) water standard. In-Stream Standards: To maintain the quality level of water as high as possible, because in many cases this water is used as a source for municipal purposes and they are natural running waters. Portable-Water Standards: to be free of suspended solids, turbidity, to be tasteless and odorless. Dissolved inorganic solids to be in moderate quantities and that organics, toxic substances and pathogens be absent. Wastewater Effluent Standards: It has to be treated to the level obtained by the best available technology for wastewater treatment in the particularly type of industry.

B. Major Types & Sources of Water Pollution, Eutrophication & Plant Nutrients, Surface & Groundwater Contamination Water Pollution any physical, chemical or biological change in water quality that adversely affects living organisms or makes water unsuitable for desired used can be considered as pollution. Point Source of Water Pollution pollution discharged at specific locations such as drainpipes, ditches, or sewer outfalls (by factories, power plants, sewage treatment plants, underground mines and oil wells). Relatively easy to control and monitor. Non-Point Source no specific location where they discharge into a particular body of water (runoff from farm fields, golf courses, gardens, construction sites, roads, streets, etc.). Highly episodic, more difficult to monitor, regulate and treat. Major types & effects of Water Pollutants: Infectious Agents the most serious water pollutants are pathogenic organisms. Main sources of pathogens untreated or improperly treated human and animal wastes. Sewage treatment plants & other P-control techniques have reduced or eliminated most of the worst sources of pathogens in inland surface waters. Drinking water is generally disinfected by chlorination. Detecting specific pathogens in water is difficult, time-consuming & costly. Water quality personnel usually analyze the water for the presence of coliform bacteria living in the intestines of humans and other animals. If a large numbers of these organisms is found in a water sample then recent contamination by untreated feces is indicated, also usually indicates the presence of infectious pathogens. Oxygen-Demanding Wastes The amount of oxygen dissolved in water is an indicator of water quality and of the kinds of life that it will support. Oxygen is added to water by diffusion from the air, especially when turbulence and mixing rates are high, and by photosynthesis of green

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plants and bacteria. Oxygen is removed by respiration & chemical processes that consume oxygen. The addition of certain organic materials to water stimulates oxygen consumption by decomposers. The effects of oxygen-demanding wastes on rivers depends to a great extent on the volume, flow & temperature of the river water. Oxygen sag the oxygen decline and rise downstream. Plant Nutrients and Cultural Eutrophication Water clarity is affected by the abundance of plankton organisms and is a useful measure of water quality and water pollution. Oligotrophic rivers and lakes with clear water and low biological productivity. Eutrophic waters rich in organisms and organic materials. Eutrophication an increase in nutrient levels and biological productivity, is a normal part of successional changes in most lakes. Human activities can greatly accelerate eutrophication (cultural eutrophication). It can be brought about by increased nutrient flows, higher temperature, more sunlight reaching this water surface or a number of other changes. Examples: faster growth of fish & other organisms, blooms of algae, aging of water. Toxic Inorganic Water Pollutants released from rocks by weathering, carried by runoff into lakes or rivers, or percolate into groundwater aquifers. Humans often accelerate this through mining, processing, using & discarding of minerals. Toxic inorganic chemicals introduced into water as a result of human activities is the most serious form of water pollution. These could be heavy metals, toxic nonmetal and salts, and acids and bases Toxic Organic Chemicals Thousands of different natural and synthetic organic chemicals are used in the chemical industry today. Many of them are highly toxic. Exposure to very low concentrations can cause birth defects, genetic disorders & cancer. The 2 most important sources are improper disposal of industrial and household wastes and runoff of pesticides from places where they are used in large quantities Sediment sediment and suspended solids make up the largest volume of water pollution. Rivers have always carried sediment to the oceans, but erosion rates in many areas have been greatly accelerated by human activities. The sediment blocks sunlight to reach plants, fills lakes and reservoirs, obstructs shipping channels, clogs hydroelectric turbines and makes purification of drinking water more costly. Sediment can be beneficial mud carried by rivers can nourishes floodplains Thermal Pollution and Thermal Shocks Changing water temperature from normal levels can adversely affect water quality and aquatic life. Aquatic organisms tend to be poorly adapted to rapid temperature changes. Oxygen solubility in water decreases as temperature increases. The cheapest way to remove heat from an industrial facility is to draw cool water, run it through a heat exchanger to extract excess heat and then dump the heated water back into the original source. Power companies are required to construct artificial cooling ponds or wet- or dry-cooling towers in which heat is released into the atmosphere & W is cooled. Surface Waters: Water pollution problems there are both highly visible and a direct threat to environmental quality. Sources: non-point discharges of pollutants. Poorer European countries have spent very little on sanitation. Most of the sewage, both domestic and industrial, is dumped directly into the ocean. The less developed countries of South America, Africa & Asia have even worse water quality than the poorer countries in Europe. Sewage treatment is usually either totally lacking or woefully inadequate. Low technological capabilities and little money for pollution control are made even worse by explosion of populations, rapid urbanization and the shift of much heavy industry from developed countries where pollution laws are strict to less developed countries where regulations are more lenient. Groundwater: The underground aquifers are threatened in many areas by overuse and pollution. In even more places, the precious remaining reserves are being made unfit for use by a wide variety of contaminants. For decades it was widely assumed that ground water was impervious to pollution because soil would bind chemicals and cleanse water as it percolated through.

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There is relatively little info for groundwater quality, because 1) its expensive to drill-test the wells and to monitor pollutants & 2) this isnt yet a major priority.

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9. WASTE WATER TREATMENT

A. Preliminary & Primary Treatment Waste water treatment plants are usually designed as providing entire primary, secondary and advanced treatment (tertiary) in order to meet the in-stream standards after discharges. Primary treatment Primary treatment aims to remove a main part of solids of various shapes, sizes and densities and to prepare the next biological treatment of waste waters. Screening primary treatment begins with simple screening, which removes large floating objects and whatever else that can damage pumps or clog small pipes. Screens typically consist of parallel steel bars, followed by a wire mesh screen with smaller openings. Grid Removal after screening the wastewater passes into a grit chamber where it is held for a few minutes. The detention time in the tank is chosen to be long enough to allow sand, grit, and other heavy material to settle out but is too short to allow lighter materials to settle. By collecting these heavier materials the disposal problem is simplified since those materials are usually non-offensive and, after washing, can be disposed of in a landfill. Primary Sedimentation from the grit chamber, the sewage passes to a preliminary settling tank (sedimentation basin) where the flow speed is reduced sufficiently to allow most of the suspended solids to settle out by gravity. It is designed to concentrate and remove suspended organic solids from waste waters. When primary treatment is total, primary settling is the most important operation. If there is secondary treatment primary sedimentation plays a lesser role. Detention time of approximately 2-3 hr are typical, resulting and quality of sludge removed in primary sedimentation should be around 5060% of the suspended solids and 2540% of the BOD. The solids that settle are called primary sludge and raw sludge, and are removed for further processing, as is the grease and scum that float to the top of the tank. If this is just a primary treatment plant, the effluent at this point is chlorinated to destroy bacteria and help control odors, then it is released. B. Secondary (Biological) Treatment The combination of chemical-physical operations such as coagulation, microscreening, filtration, chemical oxidation, carbon adsorption can be used to remove solids and reduce BOD to acceptable level, but they present a high-cost option. Biological processes are used in practically all municipal waste water treatment. In it microorganisms use the organics in waste water as a food supply and convert them into biological sells, or biomass. Because waste water contains a wide variety of organics a mixed culture is required for complete treatment. The main purpose of secondary treatment is to provide BOD removal beyond what is achievable by simple sedimentation. There are three commonly used approaches, all of which take advantage of the ability of microorganisms to convert organic wastes into stabilized, low-energy compounds. The first two (attached culture and activated sludge) normally follow primary treatment, while the third (oxidation ponds) can provide equivalent results without primary treatment. Attached Culture systems employ reactors in which waste water is contacted with microbial films attached to surfaces. Biofilm growth is increased by placing a porous medium in the reactor. When packed solid medium is used the reactor is called a trickling filter. The trickling filter consists of a rotating distribution arm that sprays liquid wastewater over a circular bed of fist size rock or other coarse material. Space between rocks allow air to circulate

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easily so that aerobic conditions can be maintained. The individual rocks in the bed are covered by a layer of biological film that adsorbs and consumes the wastes trickling through the bed. This type of filters is costly to build and temperature sensitive and remove less BOD than the next one. Rotating biological contactor is the use of rotating disks partially submerged in waste water. Bio-tower is modular high porosity media in vertical arrangement (several meters high). Activated Sludge the key biological unit in the process of treatment is the aeration tank, which receives effluent from the primary sedimentation basin and a mass of recycled biological organisms from the secondary settling tank known as activated sludge. Process is a suspended culture system and it is in fact the settled down sludge, containing living of active microorganisms which are returned to the reactor in order to increase the available biomass and speed up the reactions. Aeration of activated sludge depend on the oxygen, utilization rate of microorganisms (30100 mg/L.h) and have to ensure aerobic metabolism. Aeration techniques consist of using air diffusers to inject compressed air into biological reactor and/or using mechanical mixers to stir and to entrain and distribute air through the liquid. To maintain aerobic conditions into the tank air is pumped into the tank and the mixture is kept thoroughly agitated. After 6-8 hours of agitation, the wastewater flows into the secondary settling tank where the solids, mostly bacterial masses, are separated from the liquid by subsidence. A portion of this solids is returned to aeration tank to maintain the proper bacterial population, while the remainder must be processed and disposed of. Activated sludge tanks take up less land area than trickling filters, are less expensive and have fewer problems with flies and odors and have higher rates of BOD removal, but require more energy for pumps and blowers. Ponds and lagoons are the most common systems for activated sludge process. A wastewater pond alternatively known as a stabilization pond, oxidation pond and sewage lagoon. Consist of a large shallow basin in which waste water is retained long enough for natural purification to provide necessary degree of treatment. Oxidation Ponds they are large, shallow ponds, typically 12 m deep, where raw or partially treated sewage is decomposed by microorganisms. The ponds can be designed to maintain aerobic conditions throughout, but more often the decomposition taking place near the surface is aerobic, while that near the bottom is anaerobic. Such ponds (having a mix of aerobic and anaerobic conditions) are called facultative ponds. Oxygen required for the decomposition is derived from surface aeration and algal photosynthesis; deeper ponds (called lagoons) are mechanically aerated. Oxidation ponds can be designed to provide complete treatment to raw sewage. Ponds are easy to build and manage, they accommodate large fluctuations in flow, and can provide treatment almost similar to the conventional biological systems at much lower cost. They are also used to augment secondary treatment and are called polishing ponds. C. Sludge Treatment & Disposal Sludge treatment the mixture of solids and water remaining to be disposed of after primary and secondary treatment is called sludge. The collection, processing and disposal of sludge can be the most costly and complex aspect of wastewater treatment. Since the cost of disposal will be related to the volume of sludge being processed, one of the primary goals of sludge treatment is to separate as much of the water from the solids as possible. The other goal is to stabilize the solids so that they are no longer environmentally damaging. The traditional method of sludge processing utilizes anaerobic digestion. Anaerobic digestion is slower than aerobic digestion, but has the advantage that only a small percentage of the wastes are converted into new bacterial cells. Instead, most of the organics are converted into CO2 and methane gas. The process can be summarized into two steps:

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1) Complex organics are biologically converted into simpler organic materials. The bacteria that perform this conversion are relatively tolerant to changes in the temperature and pH and grow much faster than the methane-formers. 2) Methane-forming bacteria slowly convert the organic acids (received from the first step) into CO2, CH4, and other stable products. These bacteria are very sensitive to temperature, pH, toxins, and oxygen. The gas produced during the process is about 60% methane, which is valuable fuel with many potential uses within the treatment plant. The most popular way of thickening the digested sludge is to pump the sludge onto large sludge-drying beds where evaporation and seepage remove water. Other methods used are vacuum filters, filter presses, centrifuges and incinerators. Thickened sludge is useful as soil conditioner but most often is simply trucked away and disposed of in a landfill (especially if the sludge contains any heavy metals or other unwanted substances). Land disposal techniques include landfills, surface impoundments, underground injection wells, and waste piles. There are restrictions and standards for land disposal facilities that will allow and accept hazardous substances.

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10. MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE

A. Properties of solid waste Composition: The total solid wastes from a community are composed of and depend on 1) Residential and commercial activities 2) Constructions and demolition activities 3) municipal services 4) wastewater treatment processes. Typical distribution depends on average income per capita. Physical properties are specific weight, moisture content, particle size and its distribution, permeability of compacted matter, etc. Chemical properties: Moisture (105C for 1h), volatile combustible matter (ignition at 950C), fixed carbon, ash are proximate analysis. Ultimate analysis typically involves the determination of the percent carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur and ash. Energy content can be determined, by a calorimeter or by calculation of elemental composition. Biological properties biodegradability (used volatile solids 550C), production of odors, breeding of flies (12 h eggs develop, total 9-11 days). B. Solid waste management MSW generation and collection rates variations waste handling and separation: low-rise detached houses, medium-rise apartments, high-rise apartments. Different types of containers 1 m to 4 m. Collection of MSW: depend on preliminary separation levels. Systems are stationary containers and hauled. Transport system optimization and route layout. Waste recycling and recovery: Separation by drop-off centers and buy-back centers. C. Systems for resource and energy recovery Unit operations for separation and processing. Size reduction collected waste is mechanically reduced in size: shredding, grinding and milling are main operations. Screening: 1) removal of oversized material 2) removal of undersized material 3) separation into eight combustibles and heavy non combustibles material 4) recovery of paper, plastics from glass and metals 5) separation of grit, sand, rocks etc from others. Vibrating screens, rotary screens (trommel or drum screens), disc screens. Density separation (air classification) heavy from light fraction: air classifier and cyclone separation and stoner. Magnetic separation ferrous from non ferrous in densification (compaction), balers, can crushers, densified refuse-derived fuels, stationary compactors, cubing and pelleting equipment. Thermal conversion technology Combustion is thermal processing of solid waste by chemical oxidation with excess amounts of air: they are mass-fired and processed refuse-derived fuel. Fluidized bed combustion: Air is forced up through the hot sand bed which is fluidizes and expand up to twice its resting volume. Heat recovery systems Pyrolysis is thermal processing in the complete absence of oxygen used to convert solid waste into gaseous, liquid and solid fuels (Gasification is self sustaining system and useless air or oxygen for partial combustion not fuel combustion). Destructive distillation is for organic unstable substances. Environmental control system: Air emissions: Nitrogen, oxides, sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide, particulate matter, metals, acid gases, dioxins and furans. Energy recovery systems: Steam turbine, gas water boilers turbine Biological and chemical conversion: Types of microorganisms are: bacteria, fungi, actinomycetes, , yeasts. Aerobic composting: windrow with periodic turning aerated static pile, in vessel plug flow.

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Important is particle size, carbon-to-nitrogen ratio and air mixing access screening, control (temperature, pH, moisture, air requirements). Anaerobic digestion in digesters chemical transformation, acid hydrolysis (weak acid and heating extraction), methanol production, methan (CH4 CO+3H2 and CH3OH), gas liquid catalyst. B. Disposal of MSW Landfill placed waste: cell (material for a day), daily cover (native soil), lift-complete layer of cells, landfill classification: excavated cell/ trench area and canyon. Sitting consideration, haul distance, location restriction, available land area, size access, soil condition and topography, climatic conditions, surface water hydrology, geological and hydrological. Compositions of landfill gas: methane 48-60 %, CO2 40-60 %, nitrogen 2-8 %, oxygen 0,1-1 %, sulfides ammonia 0,1-1 %, CO -0,2 %. Generalized phases in generation of landfill gases: initial adjustment, transition phase, acid phase, methane fermentation, maturation phase. Variation in gas production with time. Movement of landfill gas and control: passive (vents, flares, perimeter trenches, barriers), active (gas extraction, air injection wells). Leachate composition like wastewater control, liner systems, construction, collection, slopped terraces, piped bottom, management options, evaporation pounds, treatment, discharge to waste water plant. Hazardous wastes are combinations that pose a substantial present or potential hazard or other eiving organisms because: 1) are non-degradable or persistent in nature 2) can be biological magnified 3) can be lethal 4) can cause detrimental cumulative effects. Properties are divided into two groups: Safety-related properties: Corrosivity, Explosivity, Flammability, Ignitability, Reactivity. Health-related properties: Carcinogenicity, Infeetivity, Irritant (allergic response), Mutagenicity, Toxicity (poisons), Acute Toxicity, Radioactivity, Teratogenicity.