CHAPTER TWO Tectonic Evolution of the Bristol Channel borderlands

CHAPTER TWO Tectonic Evolution of the Bristol Channel borderlands

2. FORELAND BASINS 2.1 INTRODUCTION The tectonic history of South Wales and North Devon is related to the evolution of peripheral foreland basins along the northern margin of the Variscan Orogen. The history of a peripheral foreland basin can be subdivided in to three broad and diachronous stages: sedimentation, diagenesis and structural deformation. This chapter will concentrate on the tectonic aspects controlling sedimentation and structural deformation, including fault reactivation.

In this context foreland basins were summarised by Allen, Homewood & Williams (1986) as a class of structural basins which are positioned on continental lithosphere and are associated with major compressional zones of deformation. The main aspect of the foreland basin model is that lithospheric downflexure is caused by thrust stacking and loading as a consequence of orogenic compression (Fig. 2.3). Different models have been proposed for the precise mechanism of downflexure (Watts, Karner & Steckler, 1982; Walcott, 1970 & Beaumont, 1981). The relationship between thrusting and basin subsidence has also been investigated (Karner & Watts, 1983).

Before the name foreland basin was proposed, basins lying in front of an orogenic arc were defined in terms of their polarity as Miogeosynclines and Eugeosynclines (Aubouin, 1965). Dickinson (1974) introduced the term foreland basin for the polarised eugeosynclines and miogeosynclines which developed within the European Alpine orogenic system (Fig. 2.1). Following this, two genetic classes of foreland basin were identified, peripheral foreland basins and retro-arc foreland basins. Special reference is made in this chapter to the definition of a peripheral foreland basin. Peripheral foreland basins such as the Indo-Gangetic basin (Burbank, Raynolds & Johnson, 1986) and North Alpine molasse basin (Pfiffner, 1986) are situated against the outer arc of an orogen during continent-continent collision brought about by A-type subduction of Bally & Snelson (1980) (Fig. 2.2).
FORELAND BASINS Page 2-1

Peripheral foreland basins deepen towards the orogenic load and shallow towards the foreland as a result of the inverse proportionality between the amount of downflexure and distance from the load (Kominz & Bond, 1986).

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CHAPTER TWO Tectonic Evolution of the Bristol Channel borderlands

CHAPTER TWO Tectonic Evolution of the Bristol Channel borderlands

The close link between subsidence in a peripheral foreland basin and tectonic compression stated above was also investigated in South Wales by Kelling (1988). This chapter summarises these stratigraphic interpretations. Other analogous comparisons made between foreland basin models and the Variscides of NW Europe (eg Franke & Engel, 1982) are brought to attention as a line of regional evidence for peripheral foreland basin evolution. This chapter will show that such comparisons depend on the identification of the main elements of the foreland basin model in a region: the thrust load, peripheral foreland basin and peripheral upwarp (peripheral bulge) (defined below). Complications in the Bristol Channel area such as the occurrence of another Silesian basin in the hinterland, the Culm Basin of North Devon (Chapter 3), instead of a thrust load need further explanation than that offered by these previous basic models. This chapter follows the new line of reconstructions proposed by Gayer and Jones (1989). CRATONIC LANDMASS The cratonic landmass (Fig. 2.4) borders the foreland margin of the peripheral foreland basin. It suffers uplift and downflexure as the thrust load, foreland basin and peripheral upwarp migrate (discussed below). In most cases, the heterogeneities in the craton control the location and subsidence of the basin. This is emphasised with examples from the tectonic evolution of the South Wales Coalfield. 2.3 MECHANISM OF BASIN FORMATION AND SUSBSIDENCE 2.3.1 GENERATION OF PERIPHERAL FORELAND BASIN STRATIGRAPHY The large scale geometry of foreland basin stratigraphy is of wedge shaped units. The wedges thicken towards the orogenic load and thin onto the foreland to form a feather edge (Fig. 2.5). This reflects the lateral gradient in subsidence rate from the centre of the load to the peripheral bulge (Allen & Allen, 1990 after Kominz & Bond, 1982, 1986).

2.2 DEFINITION OF THE ELEMENTS OF THE FORELAND BASIN MODEL THRUST LOAD The thrust or nappe load (Fig. 2.4) is a structurally thickened unit of continental lithosphere which is composed of the internal crystalline zones of an orogen and the external sedimentary fold-thrust-belts. It is argued by Giese (1983) that the load forms by crustal stacking within the orogen due to continent-continent collision and is situated above the underthrust continental plate on the hinterland margin of the peripheral foreland basin. The thrust load depresses the underthrust plate by visco-elastic or elastic mechanisms (discussed below) to form the peripheral foreland basin. It supplies immature coarse clastic sediment to the basin as proposed by Kelling (1988) for the South Wales Coalfield. The effective thrust load (Fig. 2.4) may be local in geographic extent as envisaged for the Bristol Channel Landmass (Gayer & Jones, 1989) or composite, that is, spanning orogenic zones as suggested here. The effect of sediment loading also cannot be ignored. PERIPHERAL UPWARP (PERIPHERAL BULGE) The peripheral upwarp (Fig. 2.4) is a positive topographic feature which migrates towards the foreland craton. It forms as an integral response to lithospheric downflexure and acts as a mature sediment source for the foreland margin of the basin. nb the peripheral bulge can be geophysically defined as the first and the only significant elevated zone in a series of damped oscillations which travel outwards from the point of loading on an elastic plate.

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CHAPTER TWO Tectonic Evolution of the Bristol Channel borderlands

CHAPTER TWO Tectonic Evolution of the Bristol Channel borderlands

Superimposed on the feather edge geometry is the movement of stratigraphic formations in front of the advancing thrust load (Fig. 2.6). Mobility is due to the continued plate convergence being accommodated within the orogenic belt. The result is a regional onlap of successively younger formations on to the foreland (Wiltscko & Dorr, 1983; Allen & Allen, 1990).

Further complications in the stratigraphy occur due to the lateral migration of the peripheral upwarp (Price & Hatcher, 1983). Uplift in the upwarp is succeeded by subsidence as the upwarp progresses into the craton. Consequent erosional unconformities form which may also migrate with time onto the craton (Fig. 2.8).

Subsidence rates accommodating the sediment pile correspond with predicted values deduced from thrust and sediment loading (Homewood, Allen & Williams, 1986) which supports the foreland basin model (Fig. 2.7). Royden & Karner (1984) however have found discrepancies which open a detailed debate on the correlation between thrust propagation and subsidence curves for peripheral foreland basins (Fig. 2.7). 2.3.2 FACTORS CONTROLLING THE DOWNFLEXURE OF THE FORELAND PLATE Allen & Allen (1990) stated that the deflection of the foreland plate is dependent upon the occurrence of pre-existing heterogeneities, the flexural rigidity of the flexed lithosphere and the nature and distribution of the thrust loads. Pre-existing heterogeneities are especially significant in the Bristol Channel Borderlands. They are thought to underlie the whole area as a series of basement lineaments (defined in section 2.7.2.) of various trend (Fig. 2.9): Lineament Malvernoid Caledonoid Devonoid-Variscoid Charnoid Trend N/S NE/SW E/W NW/SE

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CHAPTER TWO Tectonic Evolution of the Bristol Channel borderlands

CHAPTER TWO Tectonic Evolution of the Bristol Channel borderlands

Faults formed during previous episodes in the Wilson cycle of a plate are stated to control the plate's behaviour during downflexure (Stockmal, Beaumont & Boutilier, 1986). The mechanism of downflexure and the behaviour of continental lithosphere have been investigated by Watts, Karner & Steckler (1982), Walcott (1970) and Beaumont (1981). Allen & Allen (1990) concluded that sequence boundaries may not directly reflect the exact Watts, Karner & Steckler (1982) proposed an elastic model (Fig. 2.10) and Beaumont (1981) suggested a visco-elastic model (Fig. 2.10). Application of the models worldwide has resulted in, eg, the evolution of the Cretaceous foreland basin, W USA being explained in terms of flexural response of an elastic lithosphere (Jordan, 1981) and others such as the South Wales coal basin being explained by visco-elastic behaviour (Kelling, 1988). Examining the detailed stratigraphy of a basin, Allen & Allen (1990) postulated that offlapping relationships in a narrowing foreland basin may correspond to stress relaxation in a visco-elastic lithosphere (after Tankard, 1986) (Fig. 2.10). However they extended the argument against visco-elastic behaviour (after Sinclair et al, 1990; Flemings & Jordan, 1989) by suggesting that similar stratigraphic geometries may be produced by a combination of thrust load thickening above an elastic plate (Fig. 2.10). Phases of marginal uplift immediately following loading documented by Quinlan & Beaumont (1984) however is evidence for viscous relaxation of weakened lithosphere and have been documented from the east crop of the South Wales Coalfield.
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rheology of the flexed plate but may immediately represent episodes of load thickening or, furthermore, quiescence in load propagation, suggesting that the tectonostratigraphy of a peripheral foreland basin is too complex to define the lithospheric rheology. 2.4 OROGENIC ZONATION AND MODEL 2.4.1 ZONATION OF THE VARISCIDES The Variscan orogenic belt (Fig. 2.11) (Read & Watson, 1975; Anderton et al 1979; Rast, 1983) has been subdivided into a number of zones initially based on lithological and structural criteria (Kosmat, 1927). The zones have since been classified in relation to their regional orogenic setting (Franke & Engel, 1982) (Fig. 2.12). This allows an unparalleled opportunity to describe the zones in relation to their tectonic evolution (Franke, 1987). In particular, the zones can be correlated with the tectonic elements which bound a peripheral foreland basin. On passing from the axis of the Variscan orogen towards its northern foreland, the following zones are traversed:
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CHAPTER TWO Tectonic Evolution of the Bristol Channel borderlands

CHAPTER TWO Tectonic Evolution of the Bristol Channel borderlands

Moldanubian zone Saxothuringian zone, Mid German Crystalline Rise Rhenohercynian zone Sub-Variscan foredeep.

The Mid German Crystalline Rise (Giese et al, 1983; Behr et al, 1984; Holder & Leveridge, 1986; Fig. 2.13; Appendix 2.2) consists of Lower Palaeozoic basement and igneous intrusives which extend between Germany and Bohemia and separate the internal zones from the Variscan externides. The rise may represent an uplifted landmass of the northern craton or Moldanubian Zone and may be a direct analogue for the Bristol Channel Landmass of Tunbridge (1986) and Gayer & Jones (1989).

The Moldanubian zone (Suk & Weiss, 1981; Giese et al, 1983; Behr et al, 1984) (Appendix 2.1) comprises the internal metamorphic and igneous crystalline basement which in Czechoslovakia has been affected by regional strike-slip deformation (Kachlik, Kribek, Pesek & Rajlich, pers. com., 1990). Parts of this zone may represent fragments of an (African) southern continental craton which docked against a (Eurasian) northern craton. The Saxothuringian zone (Schwab & Math, 1981; Behr et al, 1984; Franke, 1984; Franke & Engel, 1986; Appendix 2.2) consists of igneous intrusives and deformed Upper Palaeozoic strata which in Germany form part of the internal Variscan thrust-fold-belt. This zone may represent the tectonised peripheral internides which contain deformed, allochthonous sedimentary basins and remnants of the northern craton.
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The Rhenohercynian zone (Engel & Franke, 1983; Franke & Engel 1986, 1988; Holder & Leveridge, 1986; Appendix 2.3) represents the external zone of the Variscides and consists of chevron folded and thrusted Upper Devonian-Silesian flysch basins which may represent displaced foreland basins (thrust sheet top basins) which have been described by Gayer & Jones (1989) and Warr (in press) in SW England and by Besly (1988) as internal and peripheral basins (see Fig. 2.4).
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CHAPTER TWO Tectonic Evolution of the Bristol Channel borderlands

CHAPTER TWO Tectonic Evolution of the Bristol Channel borderlands

Towards the craton, previous peripheral foreland basins which have been deformed and incorporated into the foreland-directed thrusting are here expected to mark the broad boundary between the front of Variscan deformation and the foredeep constituted by remnants of deformed peripheral foreland basins set on the uplifted northern cratonic massif (Fig. 2.14).

The tectonised internal zones of the orogen may represent the composite thrust load which had significantly downflexed the northern craton to form the outwardly younging series of Upper Devonian-Silesian foreland basins, (Fig. 2.15).

The Sub-Variscan foredeep (Leeder & McMahon, 1988; Besly, 1988) (Appendix 2.4) consists of basins set along the northern periphery of the Variscan orogen. These may represent the youngest peripheral foreland basins generated by Variscan thrusting which mark the limits of non-inversion controlled deformation. To the north of the Silesian basins is the northern continental landmass consisting of Precambrian-Caledonian basement and Lower Palaeozoic strata which form the Wales-Brabant massif. Further to the north, inversion-controlled basins constitute the remaining foredeep. 2.4.2 VARISCAN ZONATION AND THE FORELAND BASIN MODEL Further internal and coal-bearing Variscan zones south of the Moldanubian zone traverse Iberia (Julivert, 1981; Savage, 1981; Ribeiro, 1981; Andrews, 1982) and the Mediterranean (Carmignani et al, 1981; Atzori et al, 1984) and suggest that the Variscan orogen had an element of bilateral symmetry. The tectonic elements forming the northern segment of the orogen are of particular interest to the evolution of the Bristol Channel Borderlands and no attempt is made to synthesise a model for the whole European Variscides. The distribution and nature of the northern orogenic zones represent a framework containing a variety of basins characteristically formed during continent-continent collision (Besly, 1988).
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Pre-orogenic lineaments could have been active throughout the collision to form uplifted blocks such as the Mid German Crystalline Rise and the Bristol Channel Landmass. It is possible that the composite load consisting of crystalline basement and allochthonous basins during the latter stage of orogenesis loaded the northern craton in conjunction with local landmasses to form the peripheral foreland basins situated between the Rhenohercynian zone and the northern craton. In this hypothetical case, the local landmasses and pre-existing heterogeneities would have controlled the precise location of the peripheral foreland basins.

CHAPTER TWO Tectonic Evolution of the Bristol Channel borderlands

CHAPTER TWO Tectonic Evolution of the Bristol Channel borderlands

Though simplistic, this summary of the zonation of the Variscan orogen shows that the belts can be described in terms of the formation and movement of the elements of a peripheral foreland basin model. It is now intended that the evolution of the tectonic elements be described further to explain the control they exerted on the local stratigraphy of the peripheral foreland basin South Wales Coalfield.

2.5 THE FORELAND BASIN MODEL IN SOUTH WALES The South Wales Coalfield is situated between the thrust-belt of the Cornubian Rhenohercynian zone and the cratonic peripheral upwarp of the Wales-Brabant massif, St. George's Land (Kelling, 1988). As stated previously, a basin located between a thrust load and craton is now known as a foreland basin (Allen, Homewood & Williams, 1986). Kelling (1988) subdivided the Upper Carboniferous stratigraphy of South Wales Coalfield into two major tectonostratigraphic cycles (Fig. 2.16): Namurian - Westphalian B Westphalian C - Stephanian. The initial Namurian-Westphalian B phase of basin history can be summarised as an episode of basement fault reactivation controlling the thickness and type of syn-orogenic sedimentation. Kelling (1988) emphasised the major marine incursion represented by the G. Cambriense, Upper Cwmgorse marine band at the boundary between the Middle and Upper Coal Measures. This boundary represents the change from an early reactivation-dominated history to a late thrust-dominated history represented sedimentologically by the Late WestphalianStephanian coarse lithic detritus derived from the encroaching southern tectonic landmass. However palaeogeographic analysis indicates that marine influence persisted longer to the south and south-west in the South Wales basin (Kelling, 1974; Thomas, 1974). Basin constriction also began in the south based on sedimentology by George & Kelling (1982). These observations broadly compare with a foreland basin setting. The sedimentological consequence of the change in structural environment was a replacement of high sinuosity fluvial, deltaic and marginal marine facies by a regional low sinuosity alluvial complex. The two-fold subdivision of the South Wales Silesian was interpreted by Kelling (1988) in the light of the tectono-sedimentary evolution of a peripheral foreland basin postulated by
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The cycles were related to peripheral foreland basin evolution prior to the final Variscan deformation phase, which is open to reconsideration in view of the observation by Allen & Allen (1990) that sequence boundaries may not directly reflect lithospheric rheological responses. Kelling (1988) reiterated that the South Wales basin was influenced by preexisting structures such as the Usk-Malvern axis, Caledonide elements (Owen & Weaver, 1983) and southerly lineaments (Kelling, 1974). These complicated the sequence stratigraphy further.

CHAPTER TWO Tectonic Evolution of the Bristol Channel borderlands

CHAPTER TWO Tectonic Evolution of the Bristol Channel borderlands

Beaumont (1981) and Hayward (1984) which involves basin growth and filling associated with thrust loading and responsive lithospheric down and up-warping. The model includes the lateral migration of the foreland basin following the later phase of thrust emplacement (Fig. 2.17).

The Late Westphalian-Stephanian resulted from enhanced loading and by northward advance of nappes shifting the peripheral foreland basin and peripheral bulge further onto the craton (Fig. 2.18). Hence in terms of its present zonal and orogenic setting the South Wales basin is a classic

The Namurian-Early Westphalian resulted from the initial thrust loading and peripheral upwarping which enhanced erosion of the foreland margin and eastern marginal areas. Kelling (1988) suggested that the initial response to loading was visco-elastic upwarping of the cratonic edge of an underdepressed basin followed by visco-elastic relaxation as a result of the initial emplacement of the thrust load (Quinlan & Beaumont, 1984).

foreland basin in a peripheral position to major thrusts of SW England. However the precise relationship between SW England and South Wales during the Silesian has not been constrained to allow a quantitative assessment of lithospheric behaviour. Therefore the exact mechanism of basin formation is still theoretically open to debate. Quantitative stratigraphic analysis would assist in comparing the basin history and the geophysical models of basin subsidence, (eg Kelling, 1988; Jones, 1989; Fig. 2.19). However greater biostratigraphic resolution and better correlations with SW England are essential requirements (but are beyond the scope of this thesis).

2.6 FORELAND BASIN MODEL AND THE RHENOHERCYNIAN ZONE The regional approach in describing the Variscan orogenic zones as a series of belts formed by foreland basin processes has been attempted cursorily in sections 2.4.1 & 2.4.2. The significant discovery in the regional aspect of the Variscides is the similarity of sections through the zones in Germany and SW England (Fig. 2.20).
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CHAPTER TWO Tectonic Evolution of the Bristol Channel borderlands

CHAPTER TWO Tectonic Evolution of the Bristol Channel borderlands

Europe, the subdivision of continental basins into internal and external peripheral foreland basins is a revealing classification which is here applied to the North Devon Culm Basin and the South Wales Coalfield. Following this line of argument, the elements of peripheral foreland basin tectonics, the thrust load and its internal basins, the foreland basin and the cratonic peripheral upwarp are all located within the Bristol Channel Borderlands (see Figs. 2.4 & 2.21). Franke & Engel (1988) described a number of zones which included an internal thrust sheet with internal allochthonous basins separated from the autochthonous foreland basin by a landmass or uplifted massif. This is directly analogous to the situation in SW England where the allochthonous thrust sheet and internal or peripheral basins (Besly, 1988) are found in SW England, such as the Culm thrust sheet top basin of Gayer & Jones (1989), to be separated from the autochthonous South Wales coal basin (Kelling 1988) (section 2.5) by a postulated Bristol Channel Landmass (Fig. 2.21; see Chapter 3). Though there are problems in making direct correlations of the zones across Europe due to postulated strike-slip faulting (Holder & Leveridge, 1986) the similarity in structure remains striking. However, as an example to illustrate the problem of correlating the zones across the Variscides the location of the orogenic load is questioned. In the study area it is expected to lie to the south of the peripheral foreland basin. The apparent anomalous occurrence of another Upper Palaeozoic basin, the Culm basin, instead of a load stands as good evidence against the peripheral foreland basin model. This argument stands until the possibility of a composite load is raised or the possibility of a hidden load is investigated (Chapter 6). 2.7 SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHY AND BASEMENT LINEAMENTS 2.7.1 SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHIC GEOMETRIES IN THE BRISTOL CHANNEL BORDERLANDS Major faults beneath the Bristol Channel are suggested here to have played an integral part in the structural development of the orogenic load (Chapter 6). Together with pre-existing lineaments beneath South Wales (section 2.7.2) the final stratigraphic template of the The German Variscides have been described in relation to peripheral foreland basin tectonism and provide a good analogue for the structural zonation of the Variscides of SW Britain. Although the zonation and correlation of the Variscan zones may be inconsistent across
FORELAND BASINS Page 2-17

peripheral foreland basin of South Wales became dramatically complicated by End Carboniferous times. This is emphasised in the present study of unconformities in the Bristol Channel Borderlands.
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CHAPTER TWO Tectonic Evolution of the Bristol Channel borderlands

CHAPTER TWO Tectonic Evolution of the Bristol Channel borderlands

The sequence stratigraphic geometry expected in a foreland basin has been discussed in section 2.3.1. The following maps (Figs. 2.22 - 2.25) illustrate the main elements of the stratigraphy of a peripheral foreland basin: the feather edge; onlap; foreland-migrating unconformities. Examples of local unconformities formed in the Bristol Channel Borderlands during the evolution of the South Wales foreland basin illustrate the regional history of the South Wales basin discussed in section 2.5 and possibly the tectonic processes summarised in section 2.3.2.

2.7.2 BASEMENT LINEAMENTS All the basement lineaments listed in section 2.3.2 are here thought to have affected peripheral foreland basin stratigraphy in the Bristol Channel Borderlands. The oldest movement is unknown for all the lineaments. However they have been named after a region, or the oldest age or orogen in which they are known to have moved or developed significantly, based on structural and stratigraphic evidence from the survey area.
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CHAPTER TWO Tectonic Evolution of the Bristol Channel borderlands

CHAPTER TWO Tectonic Evolution of the Bristol Channel borderlands

MALVERNOID LINEAMENTS (N/S - NNE/SSW) It is here suggested that the Malvernoid lineaments may have bounded a basement high during early peripheral foreland basin development. This may have represented a peripheral bulge oblique to the direction of thrust advance. As the thrust sheet approached it is possible that more lineaments were reactivated to produce a composite peripheral upwarp. The Malvernoid lineaments may have been active during a marginal phase of uplift (based on Kelling, 1988).

Regional examination of the Variscan zones has shown along-strike similarities that are broadly consistent with the distribution of terranes related to a foreland basin. Problems encountered in defining the tectonic elements in the Bristol Channel Borderlands can be explained on considering a composite load. The composite load contains allochthonous thrust sheet top basins and internal zones of the orogen. The final tectonic location and late history of the South Wales Coalfield was set in a complex

CALEDONOID LINEAMENTS (NE/SW) These are Caledonian faults which may also have a Precambrian history. In SW Dyfed the trend swings clockwise into an ENE/WSW orientation, however it is the occurrence of NE/SW disturbances within the South Wales basin that indicates syn-orogenic sedimentation was controlled in part by Caledonoid basement fault reactivation (Owen & Weaver, 1983). DEVONOID-VARISCOID LINEAMENTS (E/W - ESE/WNW) Devonian extensional movement histories have been proved by Powell (1987) on E/W trending Variscan thrusts in SW Dyfed. This is the oldest, direct evidence of movement on the lineaments, however seismic evidence from the Bristol Channel suggests that an ESE trending Devonoid fault extends to depths at which crystalline basement is anticipated from seismic refraction surveys. Such faults may have become active during Variscan thrust sheet advance to produce uplifted blocks such as the Bristol Channel Landmass which deepened the peripheral foreland basin to the north and locally supplied sediment to the basin. nb Many east-west trending faults are pristine Variscan structures. CHARNOID LINEAMENTS (NW/SE - NNW/SSE) Charnoid lineaments, similarly to the Malvernoid lineaments, may have bounded synorogenic basement highs which controlled the thickness of foreland sediments by extension (Hancock & Bevan, 1987). Some also show a Late Variscan movement which compartmentalises the structure of the Bristol Channel Borderlands but may have a Precambrian origin. 2.8 CONCLUSIONS It is questionable whether the Upper Palaeozoic stratigraphy and structure of the Bristol Channel Borderlands were controlled solely by peripheral foreland basin tectonics. Further research is required to quantify the effects of reactivation on synorogenic sedimentation and late structural style.

intracontinental foreland setting.

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CHAPTER TWO Tectonic Evolution of the Bristol Channel borderlands

CHAPTER TWO Tectonic Evolution of the Bristol Channel borderlands

The Monotonous Group consists of 3000m of gneiss phases of deformation. The early main phase however involved dextral shear along ESE striking zones which was syn-amphibolite metamorphism. The later Variscan phase caused thrusting to the SE which was synretrograde metamorphism and granitisation and the latest In contrast, the Varied Group consists of 100-1000m of gneiss, marble, graphite and metabasite succeeded by about 2000m of mica schist and quartzite of lower amphibolite, kyanite-staurolite facies such as in the Kutna Hora Crystalline Complex. In the Varied Group of Slavkov the Variscan thrusting phase affected the rock most strongly. Isoclinal folding trending N/S to NE/SW is associated with the thrusting STRUCTURE OF THE MOLDANUBIAN ZONE to the SE away from the Krumlov Shear Zone. Boudins also show a related NW/SE stretching axis of 150. Field examination of the Moldanubian Zone showed that the tectonic history of the zone is complex. It is presently thought that the zone was heavily affected by Variscan strike-slip faulting and transpression. Compressional structures are abundant in the crystalline complexes and Variscan folds also affect the Metsky vrch Hill graphite deposits. However here fold axial traces trend N/S with synclines plunging moderately towards the south. phase formed boudinage indicating various directions of extension.

Appendix 2.1 Moldanubian Zone The Moldanubian Zone contains the Bohemicum subThe Moldanubian Zone is the internal zone of the Variscan orogen and consists of high grade metamorphic crystalline basement which is partly covered by Precambrian-Upper Palaeozoic Barrandian sediments. Rocks of the Moldanubian Zone were examined in the Bohemian Massif, Czechoslovakia during September 1990 from which the following details were obtained (after Kachlik, Kribek, Pesek and Rajlich pers. com., 1990). zone composed of unmetamorphosed, slightly deformed, Cambrian-Devonian cover-rocks, known as Barrandian (Prague Basin), which are separated from the main Moldanubian Zone by the Central Bohemian Pluton (south of Pribram). These rest on the Barrandian Precambrian which consists of Upper Proterozoic basement composed of oceanic sediments (Stechovice Group) and also ophiolitic series. The ophiolitic series are thought to be derived from oceanic crust which was bound between the north European continent and The Moldanubian Zone forms the southernmost part of the northern branch of the Variscan orogenic belt. It covers the French and Czechoslovak massifs and is separated from the Saxothuringian Zone (Appendix 2.2) to the north by the Ernberdorf-Litomerice Fault Line. In the ESE the Moldanubian zone is thrust over the Rhenohercynian Zone (section 2.2.3) (Appendix 2.3) and in the south the zone is separated from the Alps by the Brunovisticulum Lineament. The Moldanubian Zone s.s. occupies the southern part of Bohemia and SW Moravia, N Austria and E Bavaria from which rocks of the S Bohemian Massif have been examined. Gondwanan micro-continental blocks north of the Brunovisticulum Lineament. Subduction occurred from Brioverian to Cadomian times and generated the tholeiite volcanics of the region.

containing occasional intercalations of quartzite. These are succeeded by pyroxene granulites and amphibolites of higher amphibolite to hornblende-granulite facies.

are accompanied by various indicators of shear on which kinematic models of transpressional are based.

KUTNA HORA, CRYSTALLINE COMPLEX

Pencil gneiss with associated sheath folding from Kutna Here an outline of the structural style is given from examinations of the following regions: Bohemia near Hora preserve a phase of E/W extension associated with sinistral strike-slip along the E/W trending Elbe Shear Zone. This was accompanied by E/W extension along N/S striking faults. The E/W extension is thought to have PRAGUE, BOHEMICUM BASEMENT been caused by top to the west shear along shallow angle shear zones. Evidence of top to the west shear occurs in The Bohemicum Basement south of Prague has been affected by two phases of strike-slip movement: sinistral strike-slip was succeeded by NE dextral strike-slip, N/S extension and granite intrusion. The dextral phase is interpreted as transtensional. Evidence for dextral shear was observed in the Stechovice agglomerates. Evidence has been given to suggest that the Moldanubian Zone consists of Precambrian crystalline complexes containing Variscan intrusions. The crystalline basement CESKY KRUMLOV, VARIED GROUP displays abundant evidence of shear associated with regional Variscan strike-slip which contrasts with the N/S extensional structures were observed in granulite of the Varied Group of Cesky Krumlov as part of three shallow compressional structural style in the Variscan externides. SYNOPSIS OF THE MOLDANUBIAN ZONE highly strained Devonian conglomerates at Branna.

The Moldanubian Zone is composed of Moldanubian (1000Ma) and Cadomian (650Ma) amphibolite facies which display a Variscan greenschist facies

The Moldanubian Zone is bounded to the north-west by the discrete contact with the Central Bohemian Pluton and to the north and north-east by the Bohemian Cretaceous unconformity. In the south the Moldanubian Zone extends to the Danube Line and continues beneath

Prague; Cesky Krumlov in S Bohemia and Kutna Hora.

retrogression.

Crystalline complexes were developed during latest Proterozoic; Caledonian (450-390Ma) and Early

the Alpine Foredeep. The western boundary is marked by the Domazlice Crystalline Complex and the eastern boundary is a tectonic contact between the Moldanubian Zone and the external orogenic zones.

Variscan times. An example of the latter is the Central Bohemian granitoid pluton. Granulite and eclogite facies metamorphism is also thought to have affected this zone. In general during early Variscan times greenschist and amphibolite facies metamorphism was accompanied by syn-tectonic intrusive activity.

The Moldanubian Zone is composed of two main metamorphic-stratigraphic units, the lower Monotonous Zeliv Group and the Upper Varied Cesky Krumlov Group.

SUBDIVISION OF THE MOLDANUBIAN ZONE

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CHAPTER TWO Tectonic Evolution of the Bristol Channel borderlands

INFERENCE The greenschist facies metasediments of the Taunus sequence consist of lowermost Devonian phyllites Examination of intense strike-slip deformation in the Moldanubian Zone suggests that Late Palaeozoic collision between Gondwana and Eurasia may have been oblique. Further research is needed to evaluate Variscan internide strike-slip deformation in relation to thrusting in the externides. STRUCTURE OF THE TAUNUS REGION Appendix 2.2 Saxothuringian Zone and the Mid German Crystalline Rise There is good structural evidence to suggest that the Saxothuringian Zone was affected by Variscan thrusting. The Saxothuringian Zone, the outer internal zone of the Variscides, lies between the Moldanubian Zone in the south and the Mid German Crystalline Rise in the north. The zone was examined in the Taunus region, Germany during September 1988 where it consists of Variscan granitic intrusives, lavas and Devonian greenschist facies metasediments. The Devonian rocks of the Taunus region have undergone two major phases of deformation (1&2) followed by a third minor phase (3). These rocks of the Saxothuringian Zone have developed a pervasive phyllitic and slaty cleavage found to be bed parallel in the less metamorphosed rocks. The cleavage dips moderately towards the SE and is folded by late minor folds, some of which are parasitic to decametre folds In contrast, the Mid German Crystalline Rise consists of Upper Proterozoic-Ordovician metasediments, volcanics and pre-Variscan granitic intrusions. The late folding (2) commonly produces axial planar cleavage which dips gently towards the NW though some The Saxothuringian Zone extends through the Thuringer Wald, Saxony, N Vosges, Schwarzwald into the Bohemian Krusne hory and Orlicke hory Mountains. The Mid German Crystalline Rise also extends eastwards around the NE periphery of the Bohemian massif where it is thrust eastwards on to the Rhenohercynian Zone. axial planes dip moderately towards the SE. Cleavage fanning is also locally observed in upright folds with axial planes striking NE/SW. The early cleavage (1) is at a moderate angle to bedding. Kink bands deform late fold axial surfaces (2) and early slaty cleavage (1) and clearly represent the latest phase of minor deformation (3). As an example of the geology of the Saxothuringian Zone the stratigraphy and structure of the Taunus Region is given below (Greiling, pers. com, 1988). In general, on passing northwards through the zone into the Rhenohercynian Zone of the Taunus Region the attitude of late cleavage (2) in relation to early planes (1) STRATIGRAPHY OF THE TAUNUS REGION is found to change in the following manner: gently south dipping late cleavage passes N into horizontal and gently north dipping cleavage and eventually into steeply Appendix 2.3 Rhenohercynian Zone plunging gently towards the WSW. succeeded by interbedded slaty pelites and psammites and eventually by the planar and cross-bedded Taunus Quartzite of Early Devonian, Siegenian age. The quartzite is succeeded to the north by further metasediment such as the Hartzenheim Phyllite. These sediments may represent SYNOPSIS OF THE SAXOTHURINGIAN ZONE

CHAPTER TWO Tectonic Evolution of the Bristol Channel borderlands

dipping late cleavage where early cleavage and bedding have gentle dips. hinterland margins of the peripheral foreland basin coalfields (defined in sections 2.1 & 2.5).

The Rhenohercynian Zone extends from N Devon, Ardennes, Rheinische Schiefergebirge and N Harz,

pre-orogenic

Germany into the Moravo-Silesian region of the Bohemian Massif. The zone has been examined in N Devon, Germany (Taunus, and the Lahn Valley, Sauerland, Eifel) in

supracontinental deposits north of the main orogenic suture which have been preserved in an internal basin setting as part of a foreland thrust sheet after Variscan deformation (based on Besly 1988). The decrease in regional metamorphism suggests a peripheral internide location for the Saxothuringian Zone in relation to the Moldanubian Zone. The Mid German Crystalline Rise however may represent an uplifted foreland basement block with greater affinity to the internal Moldanubian Zone or the craton to the north. A substantial fault displacement is inferred to have caused the Variscan uplift of the rise along the periphery of the

Hruby

Jesenik

Mountains

Czechoslovakia.

Here a summary of the stratigraphic age, style of sequence and structural character is given as a regional comparison with the Rhenohercynian Zone of N Devon (after Holder & Leveridge, 1986).

SYNOPSIS

OF

THE

RHEINISCHE

SCHIEFERGEBIRGE

Saxothuringian Zone. The main features of the stratigraphy of the Rheinische Thrusting in the Saxothuringian Zone contrasts with the shear-dominated deformation of the Bohemian Massif. Schiefergebirge are that the Devonian consists of a mixed siliciclastic/carbonate sequence which has greatest affinity to the marine Devonian sequences of South The Saxothuringian Zone may have had characteristic effects on the stratigraphy, sediment type and supply to the Rhenohercynian Zone due to its proximity and style of thrust deformation. However the setting is Devon. These are succeeded by Lower Carboniferous black chert similar to that found along the northern margin of the Culm Basin (Chapter 3). There is a noted absence of a Lower Carboniferous carbonate platform such as that found in South Wales.

complicated by the Mid German Crystalline Rise which may have acted as a barrier to sediment supply from the Saxothuringian Zone into the Rhenohercynian Zone and may also have complicated the thrust loading of the crust (sections 2.3.2 & 2.4.2).

The chevron style folding is very similar to regional Culmian structure of the Rhenohercynian Zone. The structural trend in the Rheinische Schiefergebirge is NESW in contrast to the E-W trend in the Bristol Channel Borderlands. Thrusting is directed towards the NW and it is here thought that the change in structural trend is

The Rhenohercynian Zone forms the northern, external, marginal zone of the Variscides and consists of tectonised Upper Palaeozoic strata which flank the

probably a primary feature of the zone which has been complicated in parts of Germany by the modifying effect of the Wales-Brabant massif, Mid German Crystalline

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CHAPTER TWO Tectonic Evolution of the Bristol Channel borderlands

Rise and associated basement fault reactivation. deposited in extensional basins (Leeder and McMahon, 1988) which partly experienced inversion due to the distant effects of Variscan orogenic collision.
Allen, P.A. & Allen, J.R., 1990. Controls on basin stratigraphy. In: REFERENCES

CHAPTER TWO Tectonic Evolution of the Bristol Channel borderlands

Movement within such basement blocks may have been a major modifying factor in the propagation of the Variscan structural wave front.

Geodynamic Implications, Open Questions. Tectonophysics, Vol. 109, pp. 15-40.

However on examining the coalfields lying adjacent to SYNOPSIS OF THE JESENIK MOUNTAINS the Rhenohercynian Zone Variscan structural complexity is found to continue into them. Culmian flysch deposits comparable to those of N Devon (Chapter 3) have been folded into chevrons which are directly comparable to the folds in the Culm Basin. The anomalous N-S trend and vergence to the east is a dramatic contrast to the E-W trend in the Bristol Channel Borderlands and NE-SW trend in Germany. This is also thought to be a primary feature of the orogen and is here thought to be due to regional strike-slip re-orientation of the foreland due to oblique orogenic collision. The onset of flysch sedimentation began in Early Carboniferous times and continued until the Late Carboniferous when it was succeeded by paralic sedimentation. This contrasts with the mainly Namurian and Lower Westphalian age of the formations in the Culm Basin. The onset of the orogeny in the east is here interpreted to have been earlier than in the Bristol Channel Borderlands though the structural regime was practically identical causing a regional shortening of about 45% comparable to the shortening measured in the Culm Basin of 50% (discussed in Chapter 3). The coalfields show differing trends (E/W, South Wales; NE/SW, Germany; N/S, Czechoslovakia). However thrust and fold development is generally towards the foreland. Examples of thrusts from the Ruhr Coalfield indicate a NW direction of transport whereas those of the Ostrava Coalfield show an E direction of transport with deformation decreasing towards the east. This contrasts strongly with the N-directed thrusting in the South Wales Coalfield in which deformation along the north crop is still intense (discussed in Chapter 4).

Basin Analysis, Principles & Applications. Blackwell Scientific, Oxford.

Besly, B.M., 1988. Late Carboniferous sedimentation in north-west Europe: an introduction. In: Sedimentation in a Synorogenic Basin Complex (eds. Besly, B.M., & Kelling,

Allen, P.A., Homewood, P. & Williams, G.D., 1986. Foreland basins: an introduction. In: Foreland Basins (eds. Allen, P.A. & Homewood, P.), Spec. Publ. int. Assoc. Sedimentol., No.8, Blackwell Scientific, Oxford, pp. 3-12.

G.), Blackies, Glasgow, pp. 1-7.

Burbank, D.W., Raynolds, R.G.H. & Johnson, G.D., 1986. Late Cenozoic tectonics and sedimentation in the north-western Himalayan foredeep: II. Eastern limb of the North-west

Anderton, R., Bridges, P.H., Leeder, M.R. & Sellwood, B.W., 1979. A Dynamic Stratigraphy of the British Isles. A study in crustal evolution. George, Allen & Unwin (Publishers) Ltd.

Syntaxis and regional synthesis. In: Foreland Basins (eds. Allen, P.A. & Homewood, P.), Spec. Publ. int. Assoc. Sedimentol., No. 8, Blackwell Scientific, Oxford, pp. 293-306.

Andrews, J.R., 1982. The Iberian Pyrite Belt, south-west England and Hercynian geotectonics. Proc. Ussher Soc., Vol. 5, pp. 387-389.

Carmignani, L., Cocozza, T., Minzoni, N. & Pertusati, P.C., 1981. Structural and Palaeogeographic Lineaments of the Variscan Cycle in Sardinia. In: The Variscan Orogen in Europe (eds. Zwart, H.J. & Dornsiepen, U.F.), Geol.

Atzori, P., Ferla, P., Paglionico, A., Piccarreta, G. & Rottura, A., 1984. Remnants of the Hercynian orogen along the 'Calabrian - Peloritan arc', southern Italy: a review. J. geol. Soc. Lond., Vol. 141, pp. 137-145.

Mijnbouw, Vol. 60, pp. 171-181.

Dickinson, W.R., 1974. Plate tectonics and sedimentation. In: Tectonics and Sedimentation (ed. Dickinson, W.R.), Spec. Publ. Soc. econ. Paleont. Miner., Tulsa, Vol. 22,

Aubouin, J., 1965. Geosynclines. In: Developments in Geotectonics. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp. 355.

pp. 1-27.

APPENDIX 2.4 SUB-VARISCAN FOREDEEP

Bally, A.W. & Snelson, S., 1980. Realms of subsidence. In: Facts

Engel, W. & Franke, W., 1983. Flysch sedimentation: its relations to tectonism in the European Variscides. In: Intracontinental Fold Belts - case studies in the Variscan Belt of Europe and the Damara Belt in Namibia (eds. Martin, H. & Eder, F.W.), Springer, Berlin, pp. 289-321. Beaumont, C., 1981. Foreland basins. Geophys. J. R. astr. Soc. Vol. 65, pp. 291-329. Flemings, P.B. & Jordan, T.E., 1989. A synthetic stratigraphic model of foreland basin development. J. geophys. Res., Vol. 94, Behr, H.J., Engel, W., Franke, W., Giese, P. & Weber, K., 1984. The Variscan Belt in Central Europe: Main Structures, pp. 3851-3866.

Three coalfields have been examined which lie along the southern margin of the Sub-Variscan Foredeep: the Ruhr and Ostrava Coalfields under reconnaissance and the South Wales Coalfield (Chapter 4).

and Principles of World Petroleum Occurrence (Ed. Miall, A.D.), Can. Soc. petrol. Geol. Mem., Vol. 6, pp. 9-75.

To the north of the Rhenohercynian Zone generally lies the Sub-Variscan Foredeep which consists of less tectonised Upper Palaeozoic coal-bearing strata

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CHAPTER TWO Tectonic Evolution of the Bristol Channel borderlands

Franke, W., 1984. Late events in the tectonic history of the Saxothuringian Zone. In: Variscan Tectonics of the North Atlantic Region (eds. Hutton D.H.W. & Sanderson, D.J.), Blackwell, pp. 33-45. Hayward, A.B., 1984. Miocene clastic sedimentation related to the Franke, W., 1987. Tectonostratigraphic units in the Variscan Belt of Europe. Abstracts IUGC XIX. General Assembly, Vancouver. emplacement of the Lycian Nappes and the Antalya Complex, SW Turkey. In: The Geological Evolution of the Eastern Mediterranean (eds. Dixon, J.E. & Robertson, A.H.F.), Franke, W. & Engel, W., 1982. Variscan sedimentary basins on the continent and relations with south-west England. Proc. Ussher Soc., Vol. 5, pp. 256-269. Holder, M.T. & Leveridge, B.E., 1986. Correlation of the Rhenohercynian Variscides. J. geol. Soc. Lond., Vol. 143, Franke, W. & Engel, W., 1986. Synorogenic sedimentation in the Variscan Belt of Europe. Bull. Soc. geol. France, (8), t.II, no. 1, pp. 25-33. Homewood, P., Allen, P.A. & Williams, G.D., 1986. Dynamics of the Molasse Basin of western Switzerland. In: Foreland Basins Franke, W. & Engel, W., 1988. Tectonic settings of synorogenic sedimentation in the Variscan Belt of Europe. In: Sedimentation in a Synorogenic Basin Complex (eds. Besly, B.M. & Kelling, G.), Blackies, Glasgow, pp. 8-17. Jones, J.A., 1989. Sedimentation and Tectonics in the Eastern Part Gayer, R. & Jones, J., 1989. The Variscan foreland in South Wales. Proc. Ussher Soc., Vol. 7, pp. 177-179. of the South Wales Coalfield. Unpubl. PhD. thesis, University of Wales, College of Cardiff. (eds. Allen, P.A. & Homewood, P.), Spec. Publ. int. Assoc. Sedimentol., No. 8, Blackwell Scientific, Oxford, pp. 199-217. Kosmat, F., 1927. Gliederung des varistischen Gebirgsbaues. Abh. Schs. Geol. L. - Amt, 1, p. 39. pp. 141-147. Kominz, M.A. & Bond, G.C., 1986. Geophysical modelling of the Spec. Publ. geol. Soc. Lond., No. 17, pp. 287-300. Kelling, G., 1988. Silesian sedimentation and tectonics in the South Wales basin: a brief review. In: Sedimentation in a extension. In: Continental Extensional Tectonics (eds. Coward, M.P., Dewey, J.F. & Hancock, P.L.), Spec. Publ. geol. Soc. Lond., No. 8, pp. 127-137.

CHAPTER TWO Tectonic Evolution of the Bristol Channel borderlands

Kelling, G., 1974. Upper Carboniferous sedimentation in South Wales. In: The Upper Palaeozoic and Post-Palaeozoic Rocks of Wales (ed. Owen, T.R.), University of Wales Press, Cardiff, pp. 185-224. Price, R.A. & Hatcher, R.D., 1983. Tectonic significance of similarities in the evolution of the Alabama Pennsylvania Appalachians and the Alberta - British Columbia Canadian Cordillera. In: Contributions to the Tectonics and Geophysics of Mountain Chains (eds. Hatcher, R.D., Williams, H. & Zietz, I.), Geol. Soc. Am. Mem., 158, pp.149-160. of the Geologists' Association, Vol. 98, pp. 193-203.

synorogenic basin complex, the Upper Carboniferous of North-west Europe (eds. Besly, B.M. & Kelling, G.).

Kominz, M.A. & Bond, G.C., 1982. Tectonic subsidence calculated from lithified basin strata. Abstr. Progr. geol. Soc. Am. 14, p. 534.

Quinlan, G.M. & Beaumont, C., 1984. Appalachian thrusting, lithospheric flexure and the Paleozoic stratigraphy of the eastern interior of North America. Can. J. Earth Sci., Vol. 21, pp. 973-996.

thermal history of foreland basins. Nature, Vol. 320, pp. 252-256.

Rast, N., 1983. Variscan Orogeny. In: The Variscan Fold belt in the British Isles (ed. Hancock, P.L.), Adam Higer, Bristol, pp. 1-19.

Read, H.H. & Watson, J., 1975. Introduction to Geology, Volume 2, Earth History. Part II, Later Stages of Earth History.

Leeder, M.R. & McMahon, A.H., 1988. Upper Carboniferous (Silesian) basin subsidence in northern Britain. In: Sedimentation in a Synorogenic Basin Complex (eds. Besly, B.M. & Kelling, G.), Blackies, Glasgow, pp. 43-52.

Macmillan Press Ltd.

Ribeiro, A., 1981. A geotraverse through the Variscan Fold Belt in Portugal. In: The Variscan Orogen in Europe (eds. Zwart, H.J. & Dornsiepen U.F.), Geol. Mijnbouw, Vol. 60, pp.

George, G.T. & Kelling, G., 1982. Stratigraphy and sedimentology of Upper Carboniferous sequences in the coalfield of south-west Dyfed. In: Geological Excursions in Dyfed, South-West Wales (ed. Bassett, M.G.), National Museum of Wales, Cardiff, pp. 175-202.

Jordan, T.E., 1981. Thrust loads and foreland basin evolution, Cretaceous, western United States. Bull. Am. Assoc. petrol. Geol., Vol. 65, pp. 2506-2520. Owen, T.R. & Weaver, J.D., 1983. The structure of the main South Wales Coalfield and its margins. In: The Variscan Fold Belt in the British Isles, (ed. Hancock, P.L.), Adam Julivert, M., 1981. A cross section through the northern part of the Iberian Massif. In: The Variscan Orogen in Europe (eds. Hilger, Bristol, pp. 74-87.

41-44.

Royden, L. & Karner, G.D., 1984. Flexure of the lithosphere beneath the Apennine and Carpathian foredeep basins. Nature, Vol. 309, pp. 142-144.

Giese, P., Jdicke, H., Prodehl, C. & Weber, K., 1983. The Crustal Structure of the Hercynian Mountain System - A Model for Crustal Thickening by Stacking. In: Intracontinental Fold Belts, (eds. Martin, H. & Eder, F.W.), Springer - Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg, p. 405.

Zwart, H.J. & Dornsiepen, U.F.), Geol. Mijnbouw, Vol. 60, pp. 107-128.

Pfiffner, O.A., 1986. Evolution of the north Alpine foreland basin in the Central Alps. In: Foreland Basins (eds. Allen, P.A. & Homewood, P.), Spec. Publ. int. Assoc. Savage, J.F., 1981. Geotectonic cross sections through the Cantabrian Mountains, Northern Spain. In: The Variscan Orogen in Europe (eds. Zwart, H.J. & Dornsiepen, U.F.), Geol. Mijnbouw, Vol. 60, pp. 3-5.

Karner, G.D. & Watts, A.B., 1983. Gravity anomalies and flexure of the lithosphere at mountain ranges. J. geophys. Res., Vol. 88, pp. 10 449 - 10 477.

Sedimentol., No. 8, Blackwell Scientific, Oxford, pp. 219-228.

Hancock, P.L. & Bevan, T.G., 1987. Brittle modes of foreland

Powell, C.M., 1987. Inversion tectonics in S.W. Dyfed. Proceedings

Schwab, M. & Math, G., 1981. A geological cross section through the

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CHAPTER TWO Tectonic Evolution of the Bristol Channel borderlands

Variscides in the German Democratic Republic (Eastern Erzgebirge, Central Saxonian Lineament, Saxonian Granulite Complex, Harz Mountains). In: The Variscan Orogen in Europe (eds. Zwart, H.J. & Dornsiepen, U.F.), Geol. Mijnbouw, Vol. 60, pp. 129-135. Warr, L.N., (in press), Structural inversion and foreland basin development in the Rhenohercynian fold- and thrust- belt Sinclair, H.D., Coakley, B., Allen, P.A. & Watts, A.B., 1990. Simulation of foreland basin stratigraphy using a diffusion model of mountain belt erosion: an example from the Alps of eastern Switzerland. Tectonics, (in review). Watts, A.B., Karner, G.D. & Steckler, M.S., 1982. Lithospheric flexure and the evolution of sedimentary basins. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. London, A305, pp. 249-281. Stockmal, G.S., Beaumont, C. & Boutilier, R., 1986. Geodynamic models of convergent tectonics: the transition from rifted margin to overthrust belt and consequences for foreland basin development. Bull. Am. Assoc. petrol. Geol., Vol. 70, pp. 181-190. Wiltscko, D.V. & Dorr, J.A., 1983. Timing of deformation in overthrust belt and foreland of Idaho, Wyoming and Utah. Bull. Am. Assoc. petrol. Geol., Vol.67, pp. 1304-1322. of SW England, Britain. Walcott, R.I., 1970. Flexural rigidity, thickness and viscosity of the lithosphere. J. geophys. Res., Vol. 75, pp. 3941-3954.

CHAPTER TWO Tectonic Evolution of the Bristol Channel borderlands

FIGURE CAPTIONS

Fig. 2.1 Inset showing the distribution of foreland basins, a. the location of the study area and b. a type area, illustrated in a simplified geological map: the European Alpine System showing the main tectonic units. 1. Crystalline pre-alpine plutonic and metamorphic basement rocks and ophiolites, ultramafics, blueschists and eclogites. 2. Crystalline pre-alpine rocks of the external massifs. 3. Continental shelf type sedimentary rocks. 4. Sediments of the Molasse basin and post-orogenic sediments.

Fig. 2.2 Formation of a peripheral foreland basin by the flexural bending of cratonic lithosphere as a result of continental collision brought about by A-type subduction.

Fig. 2.3 Illustrations of models of crustal thickening, a. thickening by thrust stacking within the crust and b. thickening by block faulting and associated vertical accretion at the base of the crust.

Fig. 2.4 Schematic section through an intracontinental mountain belt showing the elements of the peripheral foreland basin model: the cratonic peripheral upwarp; peripheral foreland basin; local thrust load and regional composite load; thrust sheet

Suk, M. & Weiss, J., 1981. Geological sections through the Variscan Orogen in the Bohemian Massif. In: The Variscan Orogen in Europe (eds. Zwart, H.J. & Dornsiepen, U.F.), Geol. Mijnbouw, Vol. 60, pp. 161-168.

top basin (satellite basin). The vertical scale is greatly exaggerated (about x10).

Fig. 2.5 Illustration of the stratigraphic pattern of onlap in a foreland basin, onto the foreland plate. T1-T4 represent successive chronostratigraphic lines emphasising the feather edge geometry of the foreland basin sequence.

Tankard, A.J., 1986. On the depositional response to thrusting and lithosphere flexure: examples from the Appalachian and Rocky Mountain basins. In: Foreland Basins (eds. Allen, P.A. & Homewood, P.), Spec. Publ. int. Assoc. Sedimentol., No. 8, Blackwell Scientific, Oxford, pp. 369-394.

Fig. 2.6 Quantitative stratigraphic graphs, in support of the foreland basin model, representing subsidence rates that correspond with thrust and sediment loading rates. Plot a. shows the successive pinch out of stratigraphic units and plot b. shows the migration of postulated depocentres on restored sections by Homewood, Allen & Williams (1986). Plots a. & b. indicate rates of convergence during the Oligo-Miocene. For comparison, a distance-time graph for neo-alpine deformation in Western Switzerland showing: c. the tip propagation rate and d. the shortening rate assuming a 50% shortening across the belt.

Thomas, L.P., 1974. The Westphalian (Coal Measures) in South Wales. In: The Upper Palaeozoic and Post-Palaeozoic Rocks of Wales (ed. Owen, T.R.), University of Wales Press, Cardiff, pp. 133-160.

Fig. 2.7 Graphs showing discrepancies between correlations of thrust loading and subsidence associated with peripheral foreland basins: transects across the Apennine thrust belt and Adriatic foreland showing topography (in black) and observed thickness of Pliocene to Recent sedimentary rocks within the foredeep trough (heavy line). a. shows the contrast between an approximate curve representing the calculated deflection of the lower Adriatic plate for various elastic plate thicknesses (thin line) and the curve representing change in actual sediment thickness. b. shows an apparently good correlation between

Tunbridge, I.P., 1986. Mid- Devonian tectonics and sedimentation in the Bristol Channel area. J. geol. Soc. Lond., Vol. 143, pp. 107-115.

subsidence and loading assuming the presence of a significant, additional, vertical, line force.

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CHAPTER TWO Tectonic Evolution of the Bristol Channel borderlands

Fig. 2.8 Truncation of unconformities due to the cratonward migration of the peripheral upwarp causing episodes of uplift being followed by subsidence. The arrow shows the direction of movement of the peripheral upwarp. uc1, uc2: unconformities. (Based on Allen & Allen, 1990 after Tankard, 1986).

CHAPTER TWO Tectonic Evolution of the Bristol Channel borderlands

Fig. 2.17 Illustration of the foreland basin model applied to the South Wales Coalfield illustrating foreland basin migration due to the advance of the thrust load.

Fig. 2.18 Model representing the growth and infill of a peripheral foreland basin. A. the load depresses a baseline (faulted) Fig. 2.9 Sketch map of the eastern part of the Bristol Channel Borderlands showing selected major faults which have undergone reactivation. m. Malvernoid, c. Caledonoid, d. Variscoid-Devonoid, v. Charnoid. These faults may be basement related. Fig. 2.10 Illustrations of the flexural behaviour of the lithosphere in the case of a. the Elastic Model and b. the Visco-elastic Model. 2.10b. shows a cross sectional view of the surface deformation of a continuous visco-elastic lithosphere under a surface load. The initial response, stage 1, is the same as that shown in 2.10a. As time progresses relaxation of stress makes the profile evolve through stages 2 & 3 as the response progresses toward local isostatic equilibrium (Quinlan & Beaumont, 1984). Fig. 2.20 Diagrammatic illustration of a section through the German Variscides, during Lower Carboniferous times, shows the distribution of the elements of the peripheral foreland basin model, analogous to the structure of SW England. Fig. 2.11 Sketch map of the Variscan belt and associated belts. a. Appalachian belt; lc Laurasian continent; sc Siberian continent. Fig. 2.21 Location of the elements of the peripheral foreland basin model in the Bristol Channel Borderlands. Vertical Fig. 2.12 Sketch map showing the distribution of the Variscan orogenic zones. RZ Rhenohercynian Zone; SZ Saxothuringian Zone; MZ Moldanubian Zone. Fig. 2.22 Location map of the areas of stratigraphic interest in the Bristol Channel Borderlands. Fig. 2.13 Inset showing a location map of the Mid German Crystalline Rise (mGCR) in relation to the restored Variscan orogenic zones: A Armorican; CI Central Iberian; m Mediterranean; RZ Rhenohercynian; SZ Saxothuringian; MZ Moldanubian. (Sub-zone: PZ Phyllite Zone; localities: t Taunus, h Harz, v Vosges, sw Schwarzwald). The Mid German Crystalline Rise is composed of Variscan plutonic rocks and metamorphic rocks bounded to the south by pre-Devonian partly metamorphosed rocks. Fig. 2.23 Sketch map of the Haverfordwest area showing the onlap of Upper Palaeozoic strata onto the Lower Palaeozoic of St. George's Land. The map shows the distinct pinch out of the Carboniferous Limestone on passing westwards along strike. This may represent an example of onlap against a topographic high predating the formation of a peripheral upwarp and formed during upwarping. Localities: Hw Haverfordwest; Pp Picton Park; Js Johnston. exaggeration (x10). Lithologies: ch. Chert; sh. Shale; gt. Greywacke Turbidite; lmst. Limestone. Fig. 2.19 Geohistory curves for the South Wales Coalfield (after Jones, 1989). Curve 1 (after Kelling, 1988). Stages: D Dinantian; N Namurian; W Westphalian; S Stephanian. The curves show a dramatic increase in subsidence rate during Westphalian times. to form the basin and a peripheral upwarp, B. The basin is filled by sediment eroded from the thrust load and the peripheral upwarp C.

Fig. 2.14 Schematic cross section through a thrust deformed hinterland h., foreland and remnant basin pfb., set on an uplifted craton u cr. The intracontinental basin is separated from the foreland by an uplifted block.

Fig. 2.24 Sketch map of the Portishead area showing the unconformable relationship between Pennant Measures and Carboniferous Limestone. This may represent evidence for pre-Pennant deformation which was associated with the onset of thrust advance into the area. Localities: Cl Clevedon; Ph Portishead; Av Avonmouth.

Fig. 2.15 Inset map 2.15a represents the distribution of Variscan massifs in Europe (in black) which have been subdivided to produce the tectonic map 2.15b representing the major tectonic elements in the northern section of the Variscides. Localities: bcb Bristol Channel Borderlands; s Stockholm; p Paris; pr Prague; b Budapest; k Kisinov. KEY: v - shaped ornament Northern Craton; stippled ornament Variscan Foredeep; pebble ornament Peripheral Foreland Basins; small circular ornament Crystalline Rise; wavy ornament Internal Basins; inverted v - shaped ornament Internal Crystalline Basement. Marios Miliorizos Fig. 2.16 Synoptic tectonostratigraphy of the South Wales Coalfield. Stages: Dinant. Dinantian; Namur. Namurian; Stephn. Stephanian. Lithostratigraphy: L&M CM Lower and Middle Coal Measures; UCM Upper Coal Measures. The section shows the correlation between the stratigraphic succession and Variscan structural events. 25th August 2005 File name: PhD Chapter 2 Two Fig. 2.25 Sketch map of the east crop of the South Wales coalfield evidently showing the thinning of Carboniferous Limestone, Millstone Grit and Lower and Middle Coal Measures on passing towards the Malvernoid Usk axis. This suggests the Usk area was a positive topographic feature which may be accentuated by a marginal phase of peripheral upwarping. Localities: Cf Cardiff; Nw Newport; Ch Chepstow.

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