CHAPTER EIGHT Tectonic Evolution of the Bristol Channel borderlands

CHAPTER EIGHT Tectonic Evolution of the Bristol Channel borderlands

8. GENERAL DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS 8.1 DISCUSSION Based on the investigations of this thesis, the following questions can be asked about the geology of the Bristol Channel borderlands and may represent further lines of research: CHAPTER 1: What is the most likely orientation of a fault to be reactivated substantially during the structural history of the Bristol Channel borderlands? CHAPTER 2: How does inversion tectonics fit into mechanisms of basin subsidence and uplift associated with foreland basin evolution? How does the foreland basin concept survive? CHAPTERS 3 & 4: How are the detailed structural histories of the north Devon, Culm and South Wales basins related to regional reactivation? CHAPTER 4: What is the detailed structural framework of thrusting in the Bristol Channel borderlands and in particular South Wales? Where in the belt does thick-skinned tectonics give way to thin-skinned tectonics modified by basement fault reactivation?

8.2 THE PRESENT ANSWERS TO SECTION 8.1 Based on examination of (1) mesoscale structures; (2) seismic data; (3) analogue models and theoretical considerations, the most likely angle of dip for reactivation to take place is about 40. This angle allows for only minor obliquity between the dip direction and maximum stress direction. However, until discrete sets of stem faults are identified, in the reactivation history of the study area, and related to particular senses of movement on basement root faults, the effects of 3-dimensional variation in principal stress orientation and stress ratios remain undetermined. Fault reactivation was involved in the evolution of the South Wales foreland basin. The immediate effects of fault reactivation were (1) on controlling the sedimentary response to local instead of lithospheric processes and movements, and (2) the exact position and time of development of the sub-terranes associated with the foreland basin. That is, the shape, position and accentuation of the peripheral upwarp in South Wales may have been due to the reactivation of Caledonoid faults. The deepest part of the South Wales basin may be directly related to the location and size of the tectonic landmass which no doubt were also controlled by reactivation of basement faults beneath the Bristol Channel. Regional stratigraphy in north Devon and Cornwall has been related to three

CHAPTER 5: What structure do the Vale reflection lines illustrate? How does it link to the thrusts of north Devon and South Wales? CHAPTER 6: What are the differences in results of previous refraction and reflection studies and the present reflection study of the structure beneath the Bristol Channel? How do the new structural models correlate with the onshore geology? CHAPTERS 3, 4 & 7: Does fault inversion allow for smaller scale crustal adjustments to be recorded in the stratigraphic record or does it obliterate the signature of a particular basin tectonic regime? CHAPTER 7: How many different episodes of inversion have affected the post-Variscan rocks of the Bristol Channel borderlands and how have Variscan root-faults moved during each episode? CHAPTER 8: Can a schematic palinspastic restoration be drawn across the Bristol Channel borderlands to outline the various fault movement events?
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tectonically-related episodes: pre-, syn- and post-rift sedimentation (Hartley & Warr, 1990). Reactivation probably occurred between these episodes. It can also be argued that the mesoscale details observed in all the Late Palaeozoic basins record the same reactivation events and also events during each episode. There is evidence for thrusting at basement levels beneath the Inner Bristol Channel. There is extensive thrusting in Devonian strata of Cornwall and Devon whilst in the South Wales area there is a contrast in the level of thrusting from basement levels beneath the Vale of Glamorgan to Middle Coal Measure levels within the South Wales Coalfield. The general trend is a raise in level of thrusting towards the north across the Bristol Channel borderlands. However the change from thick skinned tectonics to thin skinned tectonics is ambiguous due to the utilisation of deep basement root faults during shallower Variscan deformation. Wherever there are root faults it is likely that thick skinned tectonics prevails. The sequence of thrusting can also be complicated by fault reactivation because simple hinterland to foreland propagation breaks down when a suitably oriented fault a large distance into the foreland can move in a given stress regime whilst a wrongly oriented fault in the hinterland fails to do so. This may lead to the case of out-of-sequence thrusting associated with high
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CHAPTER EIGHT Tectonic Evolution of the Bristol Channel borderlands

CHAPTER EIGHT Tectonic Evolution of the Bristol Channel borderlands

level in-sequence thrusting linked to isolated root faults, i.e. the structure beneath the Inner Bristol Channel and that beneath the Vale of Glamorgan. Previous seismic refraction studies in the Inner Bristol Channel outline the regional structure of the Precambrian basement to the Upper Carboniferous. The main dispute in results between the refraction and reflection data is that Upper Carboniferous has been wrongly interpreted as ORS due to the similarity in seismic velocity of these units. The preMesozoic structure on, e.g. line B2 (Mechie & Brooks, 1984) also contrasts with seismic reflection based interpretations for the northern part of the Inner Bristol Channel. An antiform depicted on previous refraction models is a gross simplification of the thrust repeated sequence in the footwall of the Gravel Margin Thrust. A detailed comparison is given in Enclosure 8. Detailed biostratigraphic and quantitative stratigraphic analysis is required to answer whether fault inversion modifies or obliterates the tectonic signature of a basin. Such a study should concentrate on detailed sedimentological studies near reactivated faults to show the effects of regional and local movements. Details of petrographic studies should also be used in the study. The post-Variscan history of the Bristol Channel borderlands consists of at least two phases of negative inversion followed by positive inversion and strike-slip reactivation. In order to calculate how Variscan root faults moved during these events, the gross population of stem faults must be subdivided into genetically and kinematically related groups. Once the stress system responsible for the generation of each group is deduced by striation analysis, the movement along the root faults can be predicted and, significantly, measured directly in the field for confirmation. Fig. 8.1 shows a synopsis of the evolution of the Bristol Channel area from Early Palaeozoic to Tertiary times. The figure summarises the reactivation events and related sedimentary evidence for fault movement. This model history of the Bristol Channel fault zone can be tested by detailed provenance studies of rocks of all ages in the Bristol Channel borderlands. Further studies similar to that of Kelling (1970) are required at least in Lower Palaeozoic, Devonian and Permo-Triassic strata to define the history of the fault zone. Fig. 8.2 shows three schematic structural sections through the Inner Bristol Channel. They summarise the main elements in the sub-Mesozoic structure discernible from the seismic data and onshore geology.
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Fig. 8.1 A schematic restoration of the movement episodes along the Bristol Channel fault zone based on sedimentary and regional structural evidence from the Bristol Channel borderlands. Key: PTNA Pretannia; U/C Unconformity; BC Bristol Channel; LD Lower Devonian; MD Middle Devonian; UD Upper Devonian; NAM Namurian; LCM & MCM Lower and Middle Coal Measures; Mzc Mesozoic; T Precambrian basement in the footwall of the GMT.
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CHAPTER EIGHT Tectonic Evolution of the Bristol Channel borderlands

CHAPTER EIGHT Tectonic Evolution of the Bristol Channel borderlands

reactivation related structures can be found at all levels. Cross faults may have acted as lateral ramps to lift the level of thrusting from the east to the west. (4). The Vale of Glamorgan conceals a Variscan thrust of kilometre scale displacement which caused the uplift of the South Crop by related folding. The actual structure contrasts with the mountain front duplex model proposed by Jones (1991). The stratigraphic sequence beneath the Vale is likely to be complete, consisting of Precambrian to Carboniferous strata. (5). The Bristol Channel basin conceals a series of basement related Variscan thrusts reactivated in Mesozoic times. The thrusts climb up sequence from crystalline basement to Upper Carboniferous levels, beneath the Inner Bristol Channel. (6). Type examples of faults formed by the reactivation of Variscan thrusts occur in PostPalaeozoic rocks of the Bristol Channel borderlands. Onshore geology indicates that the Bristol Channel fault zone underwent positive inversion during Late Mesozoic to Tertiary times. Fig. 8.2 North-south trending schematic structural sections through the Inner Bristol Channel. Key: B Precambrian basement; Bl Layered Precambrian; S Silurian; Dd Devonian of north Devon; Do Devonian of South Wales; LS Lynton Slates; HG Hangman Grits; ILB Ilfracombe Beds; MS Morte Slates; CL Carboniferous Limestone; UC Upper Carboniferous; P Permian; Mz Mesozoic. Key to structures: nlr North Ledge Reflector; CF Cothelstone Fault; CPT Cannington Park Thrust; Ba Barry Anticline; CCa & Ca Cardiff-Cowbridge Anticline; Sa Somerton Anticline. Localities: Sh Steep Holm; Fh Flat Holm. 8.3 CONCLUSIONS (1). The Late Palaeozoic evolution of the Bristol Channel borderlands is related to foreland basin formation and inversion. Fault reactivation has complicated the structural style. (2). The north Devon, Culm and South Wales basins have composite histories. Discrete episodes of Variscan compression can be identified in each basin. An attempt at correlation across basins is hindered by the progressive nature of deformation yet recognisable cross cutting features common to the basins define episodes of reactivation and overprinting. (3). The stratigraphic level of thrusting climbs from the south to the north across the Bristol Channel borderlands and to a lesser extent from east to west in South Wales, whilst ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

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CHAPTER EIGHT Tectonic Evolution of the Bristol Channel borderlands

CHAPTER EIGHT Tectonic Evolution of the Bristol Channel borderlands

FIGURE CAPTIONS FOR CHAPTER 8 Fig. 8.1 A schematic restoration of the movement episodes along the Bristol Channel fault zone based on sedimentary and regional structural evidence from the Bristol Channel borderlands. Key: PTNA Pretannia; U/C Unconformity; BC Bristol Channel; LD Lower Devonian; MD Middle Devonian; UD Upper Devonian; NAM Namurian; LCM & MCM Lower and Middle Coal Measures; Mzc Mesozoic; T Precambrian basement in the footwall of the GMT. Fig. 8.2 North-south trending schematic structural sections through the Inner Bristol Channel. Key: B Precambrian basement; Bl Layered Precambrian; S Silurian; Dd Devonian of north Devon; Do Devonian of South Wales; LS Lynton Slates; HG Hangman Grits; ILB Ilfracombe Beds; MS Morte Slates; CL Carboniferous Limestone; UC Upper Carboniferous; P Permian; Mz Mesozoic. Key to structures: nlr North Ledge Reflector; CF Cothelstone Fault; CPT Cannington Park Thrust; Ba Barry Anticline; CCa & Ca Cardiff-Cowbridge Anticline; Sa Somerton Anticline. Localities: Sh Steep Holm; Fh Flat Holm.

FIGURE CAPTIONS FOR THE INTRODUCTION Fig. I.1 The Bristol Channel borderlands subdivided into areas for convenience of study. Key: P Pembrokeshire (SW Dyfed); CC Carreg Cennen-Llanstephan; SWCB South Wales Coal Basin; G Gower; V of G Vale of Glamorgan; M Monmouth; B Bristol district; S Somerset; ND north Devon; NC north Cornwall; SD & SC south Devon and south Cornwall. Fig. I.2 General stratigraphy of the Bristol Channel borderlands. Composite stratigraphic column from George (1970). Key: Pc xtal Precambrian crystalline basement; Pc layered Precambrian layered sequence; LPzc Lower Palaeozoic; Trmc Tremadocian; sln Silurian; UPzc Upper Palaeozoic; mzc Mesozoic; Try Tertiary.

Marios Miliorizos 31st March 2007 File name PhD Chapter 8 Eight plus Intro. figure captions

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