<b>The Mongols<b> The nomadic horse peoples of Mongolia assembled the world's largest land empire in a series of military

conquests spread over a few generations, beginning in th e twelfth century. In the course of their conquests, the Mongols fought most of the other world powers of medieval Asia and Europe, winning in almost every case . Their empire was built entirely on military conquest, thanks to an army that w as unlike any other in the world. They were thought invincible by most of their opponents. Their campaign into Europe turned back only after a death in the ruli ng family. The possible claimants to the throne headed home with their forces an d never returned. <i>The Mongol Army<i> The Mongols were nomadic herders and hunters who spent their lives in the saddle s of their steppe ponies. They learned to ride and use weapons, especially the c omposite bow, at an early age. For hunting and war, every able-bodied male under the age of 60 years was expected to take part. The armies of the united Mongol tribes consisted of the entire adult male population. They fought under a strict code of discipline. Booty was held collectively. The penalty was death for abandoning a comrade in battle. This discipline, together with leadership, intelligence-gathering, and organization, raised the Mongol for ce from a cavalry swarm into a true army. The Mongol army was organized according to a decimal system, with units of 10, 1 00, 1000, and 10,000 men. These numbers for units were probably rarely approache d due to casualties and attrition. The 10,000-man unit was the major fighting un it, like a modern division, capable of sustained fighting on its own. Individual soldiers identified most with the 1000-man unit of which they were a part, the equivalent of a modern regiment. Original Mongol tribes fielded their own 1000-m an units. Conquered peoples, such as the Tatars and Merkits, were broken up and distributed among other units so that they could pose no organized threat to the ruling family. Genghis Khan created a personal guard unit of 10,000 men. This unit was recruite d across tribal boundaries and selection was a high honor. In its early stages i t served as a form of honorable hostage-holding. It grew into the family househo ld and the source of the growing empire's ruling class. Mongol soldiers at first received no pay other than booty. Advancement was based on merit. Once the rapid conquests slowed, a new system of pay was put in place . Officers were later able to pass on their posts to heirs. Each soldier went on campaign with approximately five horses, allowing quick cha nges and rapid movements. No comparable armies moved as rapidly as the Mongols u ntil the mechanized armies of the twentieth century. The Mongols fought mainly as light cavalry archers (unarmored), using the compou nd bow. This was a compact weapon of impressive range and penetration power. The y employed Chinese and Middle Easterners as siege engineers. Infantry, garrison troops, and heavy cavalry (wearing armor) that used lances came from the armies of subjected peoples. <i>Mongol Tactics<i> The Mongol armies relied on firepower, the ability to move quickly, and a reputa tion for ruthlessness that came to precede them. All of their opponents moved mu ch more slowly and deliberately. The Mongols looked for opportunities to divide an enemy force and overwhelm the pieces with rapid bowshots. They sought to surr

ound or encircle enemies and achieve local superiority of numbers. Horses of mou nted enemies were wounded, dismounting the riders and making them more vulnerabl e. The Mongol light cavalry could not stand against a heavy cavalry charge, so they feigned flight to draw the knights into exhaustive charges that left them vulne rable. The fleeing Mongols turned rapidly and became the hunter. They excelled i n setting ambushes and surprise attacks. Mongol army leaders made great use of s couts and synchronized force movements to catch the enemy at a disadvantage. The Mongols made extensive use of terror. If the population of one city was mass acred after capture, the next city was more likely to surrender without a fight. This proved the case, as city after city surrendered upon the approach of Mongo l armies.