Schlumberger

Basic Petroleum Engineering

FTC

Fluids
Fluids Fluids in a reservoir Description of the Hydrocarbon Reservoir Pressure Reservoir Temperature Hydrocarbon phases Fluid Production Formation Volume factors Surface tension forces Wettability Relative permeabilities

Notes

JJ Consulting 1997

1 1 1

Schlumberger

Basic Petroleum Engineering

FTC

Definitions
Fluid Contacts

Reservoir fluids need to be described in a different way from the rocks. The first definition is one of contacts, where the fluids would be in equilibrium. These are the gas-oil-contact, the oil-water-contact and the gas-water-contact. The latter is only possible in a well with gas and water (no oil). The second figure is the oil in place, the amount of hydrocarbon in the reservoir. The final figure is one of the hydrocarbon properties, the gas-oil-ratio; how much gas is in the oil. Due to the complexity of the hydrocarbons in the reservoir there are many other parameters which are needed to fully describe the fluids.

Oil in Place

OIP

The volume of oil in the reservoir in barrels or cubic metres.

Notes

Gas/Oil Ratio

GOR

The gas content of the oil.

API Gravity

API

Oil gravity.

2 2 2

Schlumberger

Basic Petroleum Engineering

FTC

Other gases can be found in wells, these include, helium, carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulphide. In most cases these occur as traces together with the hydrocarbon and water normally found. The formation water is uniquely described by its salinity. This varies from 500 ppm Chlorides to 250000ppm; a wide range. The major rock property involved in production is the permeability.

Fluids in a Reservoir

A reservoir normally contains either water or hydrocarbon or a mixture. The hydrocarbon may be in the form of oil or gas. The specific hydrocarbon produced depends on the reservoir pressure and temperature.
Notes

The formation water may be fresh or salty. The amount and type of fluid produced depends on the initial reservoir pressure, rock properties and the drive mechanism.

3 3 3

Schlumberger

Basic Petroleum Engineering

FTC

Hydrocarbon Structure

Another way to describe the hydrocarbons is by the mixtures of the groups of hydrocarbon structure types. The three major groups are shown. The simplest and most abundant is the paraffin series, with the more complex structures in varying proportions.

The major constituent of hydrocarbons is paraffin.

Notes

4 4 4

Schlumberger

Basic Petroleum Engineering

FTC

Hydrocarbon Composition
Typical hydrocarbons have the following composition in Mol Fraction
Hydrocarbon C1 Dry gas .88 C2 .045 .08 .08 .03 .03 C3 .045 .04 .05 .05 .01 C4 .01 .04 .04 .05 .01 C5 .01 .04 .03 .04 .04 C6+ .01 .08 .15-.2 .42 .8 1.0

Hydrocarbons vary widely in their properties. The first classification is by fraction of each component. This ranges from a dry gas which is mostly C1 (methane) to tar which is mostly the heavier fractions. The black oil normally found is between the two extremes, with some C1 and some heavier fractions. Every hydrocarbon extracted from a reservoir is of a different composition.

Condensate .72 Volatile oil .6-.65 Black oil Heavy oil .41 .11

Notes

Tar/bitumen

The 'C' numbers indicated the number of carbon atoms in the molecular chain.
5 5 5

Schlumberger

Basic Petroleum Engineering

FTC

Hydrocarbon Classification
Hydrocarbons are also defined by their weight and the Gas/Oil ratio. The table gives some typical values:
GOR API Gravity

Oil is more complex than gas and has to be defined in a more complete manner. The Gas-Oil Ratio, GOR (symbol Rs) is a measure of how much gas is in the oil and hence how light it is. This is measured at a specific pressure, for example the reservoir pressure. The API (American Petroleum Institute)gravity is a weight.

Wet gas Condensate Volatile oil Black oil Heavy oil

100mcf/b 5-100mcf/b 3000cf/b 100-2500cf/b 0

50-70 50-70 40-50 30-40 10-30

Notes

Tar/bitumen

<10

The API gravity of an oil is defined as:

6 6 6

Schlumberger

Basic Petroleum Engineering

FTC

Gas specific gravity with respect to air should not be confused with the specific gravity with respect to water.

Hydrocarbon Gas
Natural gas is mostly (60-80%) methane, CH4. Some heavier gases make up the rest. Gas can contain impurities such as Hydrogen Sulphide, H2S and Carbon Dioxide, CO2. Gases are classified by their specific gravity which is defined as:
Notes

"The ratio of the density of the gas to that of air at the same temperature and pressure".

7 7 7

Schlumberger

Basic Petroleum Engineering

FTC

Reservoir Pressure
Reservoir Pressures are normally controlled by the gradient in the aquifer (water table). The pressure in the water is given by

The pressure in the reservoir is controlled by the aquifer as it is assumed that it is, somewhere, connected to surface. This means that the pressure in the water is effectively continuous controlled by the pressure gradient. The pressure gradient depends on the salinity of the water, the temperature and the regional tectonic stresses. It is usually constant over a large area.. If the depth in the water is 10000 feet and the water gradient is 0.45psi/ft, the pressure is 10000*0.45 = 4500 psi.

P = h*Gw where h - depth Gw - water gradient Gw, normally ranges from 0.43 - 0.5 psi/ft.
Notes

8 8 8

Schlumberger

Basic Petroleum Engineering

FTC

The pressures in the oil and gas depend on the gradients (densities) of these fluids. The difference in gradients with the water gradient depends on the specific gravity with respect to water. Calculations could be done using the oil and gas gradients, however it is easier to use the regional gradient and the specific gravities.

Reservoir Pressure

Notes

The pressures in the oil and gas are controlled by the relevant gradient which is controlled by the regional water gradient.
9 9 9

Schlumberger

Basic Petroleum Engineering

FTC

The static pressures anywhere in the reservoir can be calculated using these formula. The calculation starts at the bottom of the zone in the water, specifically at the OWC. The pressure here is simply the depth times the water gradient. The pressure at the GOC is the pressure at the OWC minus the pressure du to the oil column. This is given by the thickness of the oil column times the water gradient times the specific gravity of the oil. A similar calculation can be made for the gas zone.

Reservoir Pressure Calculation

Powc Powc

Notes

10 10 10

Schlumberger

Basic Petroleum Engineering

FTC

Find the pressures at the OWC, GOC and Top.

Reservoir Pressure Example

Notes

Water gradient

= 0.433 psi/ft

Oil Specific Gravity = 0.85 Gas Specific Gravity = 0.2

11 11 11

Schlumberger

Basic Petroleum Engineering

FTC

Calculate the pressure on surface of - oil produced from the GOC - gas produced at the Top of the reservoir.

Reservoir Pressure Example 2

Notes

12 12 12

Schlumberger

Basic Petroleum Engineering

FTC

Salt domes occur in the North Sea, Gulf of Mexico, Persian Gulf and several other places in the world. Pressures in the surrounding formations can greatly exceed the expected values.

Overpressured Zones
Abnormal pressures can occur when the aquifer is completely sealed and the tectonic forces increase the pressure. Salt domes exert an extra pressure as they have pushed up from below. Very high pressures are common in these environments.
Notes

13 13 13

Schlumberger

Basic Petroleum Engineering

FTC

Temperature in wells depends on a regional gradient. There can be local hot spots where this is sharply increased. The temperature is measured during each logging run. Temperatures gradients are greatest near the edges of the plates and lowest near the centres of the old continental plates as these are the thickest points of the crust.

Reservoir Temperature Gradient

Notes

The chart shows three possible temperature gradients. The temperature can be determined if the depth is known. High temperatures exist in some places. Local knowledge is important.
14 14 14

Schlumberger

Basic Petroleum Engineering

FTC

Fluid Phases
A fluid phase is a physically distinct state, e.g.: gas or oil. In a reservoir oil and gas exist together at equilibrium, depending on the pressure and temperature. The behaviour of a reservoir fluid is analyzed using the properties; Pressure, Temperature and Volume (PVT). There are two simple ways of showing this: Pressure against temperature keeping the volume constant. Pressure against volume keeping the temperature constant.
15 15 15

The pressure and temperature are two quantities that can be easily measured. Thus it is useful to describe the fluids behaviour during production in these terms. Experimentally it is easier to measure pressure and volume hence the classical experiment is done using these parameters at a constant temperature.

Notes

Schlumberger

Basic Petroleum Engineering

FTC

PVT Experiment

The easiest experiment is to keep the temperature constant, measuring volumes and pressures. The fluid used is a pure, single component hydrocarbon. (This is not found in a reservoir fluid which consists of a number of components.) Starting in the liquid and increasing the volume, the pressure drops rapidly with small changes in volume until the first bubble of gas occurs. This is the Bubble Point. Further increase in the volume causes no change in the pressure until a point is reached where all the liquid has vaporised. This is the Dew Point. Increasing the volume beyond this point causes the pressure to drop, but much slower than with the liquid phase.

Notes

16 16 16

Schlumberger

Basic Petroleum Engineering

FTC

Phase Diagram -single component

The experiment is conducted at different temperatures. The final plot of Pressure against Temperature is made. The Vapour Pressure Curve represents the Bubble Point and Dew Point. (For a single component they coincide.)

This is a plot for the single hydrocarbon component used in the experiment. The Vapour pressure curve terminates in the Critical Point. This is a unique point for any substance, pure or a mixture. The plot describes how this fluid behaves with changing pressure and temperature. If it starts in the liquid and the pressure is reduced, keeping the temperature constant, it will cross the vapour pressure curve and become a gas. Starting as a liquid at constant pressure and increasing the temperature will also change it to a gas.

Notes
Liquid

Gas

17 17 17

Schlumberger

Basic Petroleum Engineering

FTC

Phase diagram Oil

The Pressure/Temperature (PT) phase diagram for an oil reservoir: Point 'A' is the initial reservoir condition of pressure and temperature. If the reservoir is produced at a constant temperature until the fluid reaches the wellbore, the line to Point 'B' is drawn. This represents the flow of fluid from the reservoir to the borehole. The fluid travelling to surface now drops in both temperature and pressure arriving at he "separator conditions" (s) with a final volume of oil and gas.

Reservoirs do not have simple single-component hydrocarbons. Their Pressure/Temperature diagrams are more complex. The Bubble Point and Dew Point curves still meet at the critical point. There is now an envelope where two phases, oil and gas, exist in equilibrium. This is due to there being both heavy and light components in the fluid. This typical diagram is used to describe how the oil at reservoir conditions behaves when it is produced to surface.

Liquid A

Notes
Critical Point

Pressure

B Bubble Point Curve

Separator Conditions Gas Dew Point Curve

Temperature

18 18 18

Schlumberger

Basic Petroleum Engineering

FTC

some liquid. This type of gas suggests, start as a gas and condense out Gas condensates, as the namereservoir is commercially very good as the liquid can easily be sold.

Phase Diagram Condensate/Gas

Point 'C' is at the initial reservoir conditions. The reservoir is produced at a constant temperature from C to D. Fluids flowing up the well now drop in temperature and pressure, crossing the Dew point line and liquid condenses out. At separator conditions (s) the result in both liquid and gas on the surface.

Notes

19 19 19

Schlumberger

Basic Petroleum Engineering

FTC

This is the final diagram for the reservoir fluids. This is a dry gas which never enters the envelope under any normal producing conditions.

Gas Reservoir
In a gas reservoir the initial point is A. Producing the well to separator conditions B does not change the fluid produced. The point B is still in the "gas region" and hence dry gas is produced.

Notes

20 20 20

Schlumberger

Basic Petroleum Engineering

FTC

Downhole, pressures and temperatures are high, on surface they are much lower hence the fluids will change in volume. Gas come out of the oil depending on the gas-oil ratio. Water will only have dissolved gas in a gas well near the gas-water contact.

Hydrocarbon Volumes
Fluids at bottom hole conditions produce different fluids at surface: Oil becomes oil plus gas. Gas usually stays as gas unless it is a Condensate. Water stays as water with occasionally some dissolved gas.

Notes

21 21 21

Schlumberger

Basic Petroleum Engineering

FTC

Downhole sampling has the advantage that it is possible to measure the fluid being sampled hence avoid unwanted production, of, for example, free gas by coning. There are a number of tools to perform a bottomhole sample.

Fluid Sampling

The properties of hydrocarbons are obtained in labs using samples of produced fluids. The best method of sampling is downhole as near to reservoir temperature and pressure as possible. If this is not possible, a separator sample, is taken. The oil and gas are recombined at the proper pressure and temperatures.
Notes

22 22 22

Schlumberger

Basic Petroleum Engineering

FTC

FVF Oil and Gas

There is a change in volume between downhole conditions and the surface. The volume of the fluid at reference conditions is described by the Formation Volume Factor: Volume at downhole Conditions FVF = Volume at reference Conditions

The volume change has to be quantified. Surface volumes are measured (production rates); these need to be converted to downhole conditions in order to compute how much has been produced at reservoir conditions and hence how much is left. Bw is around 1, as water is nearly incompressible. Bo is measured in a PVT laboratory experiment, it is just over 1, a typical value would be 1.2. Bg can be measured in the laboratory or using empirical charts. This figure depends very much on the pressure and is always very small of the order of 10-3.

Notes

Bo = formation volume factor for oil. Bw = formation volume factor for water. Bg = formation volume factor for gas.

23 23 23

Schlumberger

Basic Petroleum Engineering

FTC

The fluid in the reservoir will contain light fractions. The reference conditions are surface temperature and pressure.

FVF Oil, Bo

the volume downhole conditions includes any dissolved gas reference conditions are:
Notes

60 degrees F and 14.7 psia Bo is determined from PVT measurements on a reservoir fluid sample.

24 24 24

Schlumberger

Basic Petroleum Engineering

FTC

This is a typical plot obtained from a PVT laboratory measurement. The only change is an exaggeration of the increase in Bo from reservoir pressure to bubble point pressure. Note the volume of liquid shrinks from reservoir conditions to surface.

PVT Plot, Oil

Notes

A typical PVT plot showing the solution GOR, Rs and the FVF, oil Bo plotted against the pressure.
25 25 25

Schlumberger

Basic Petroleum Engineering

FTC

The measurement of the gor and Bo are done at discrete points of pressure. The pressure is reduced to the required value and the gas allowed to escape. The resultant fluid is then measured.

Description On Bo/Rs Plot

GOR, Rs The GOR does not change going from the reservoir pressure to the bubble point pressure. (There is no change in the amount of gas in the oil.) Below the bubble point pressure gas comes out of solution, hence there is less than before and the GOR decreases. At the reference pressure, Rs = 0. FVF, Bo The Bo increases slightly from the reservoir pressure to the bubble point pressure as the lighter components expand. Below the bubble point pressure, some of the gas has escaped hence the volume is reduced leading to a decrease in Bo. At the reference pressure Bo = 1.
26 26 26

Notes

Schlumberger

Basic Petroleum Engineering

FTC

In an ideal gas the equation links pressure and volume to the temperature, T, and two constants, n and R. Hence two different states can be compared, e.g. downhole and surface. There are no ideal gases in the reservoir as they are all compressible, hence the factor, z.

Gas Laws
Ideal Gases PV = nRT or to compare two different states P1V1 T1 Non Ideal gases P1V1 z1T1 = P2V2 z2T2 = P2V2 T2

Notes

z is a compressibility factor which depends on the composition of the gas

27 27 27

Schlumberger

Basic Petroleum Engineering

FTC

The correlation charts can be found in most textbooks, a number exist. These methods will work on standard gases, usually just the dry gas.

Gas Compressibility factor

The gas compressibility factor, z, is needed to compute how the gas will behave going from downhole to surface conditions. It can be measured at the PVT labs on a recovered sample of gas or estimated from empirical charts or equations. The charts and equations are based on experimentation and correlations done on samples of a number of representative gases.

Notes

28 28 28

Schlumberger

Basic Petroleum Engineering

FTC

The equation from the previous pages is rearranged to give the ratio of volume downhole to the volume at reference. This leads to an equation with pressure, temperature and z, all of which are easy to measure. In this equation some terms already have values, p1 = 14.7, T1 = 520 degrees R, z1 = 1. p2 and T2 are the measured downhole figures. The only factor remaining is z2 which can easily be found. Bg is a very small number controlled mainly by the pressure. This figure is often reversed to give 1/Bg.

FVF gas,Bg

the reference conditions are: 60 degrees F and 14.7 psia

Notes

p1, p2 are the pressures T1, T2 are the temperatures z1, z2 are the compressibility correction factors Charts are used to solve the equation the units are scf/scf or cu m/cu m
29 29 29

Schlumberger

Basic Petroleum Engineering

FTC

The pseudo reduced pressures and temperatures are essentially a mathematical method of creating a chart which will suit most situation but remain a reasonable size.

Calculating z
A typical chart is that of Standing and Katz. This is entered with a value of pressure, Ppr the pseudo-reduced pressure and a value of temperature, Tpr, the pseudo-reduced temperature. These are given by the following formulae;
Notes

TPR=

T Tpc

PPR =

P Ppc

Where T and P are the relevant temperatures and pressure. Tpc and Ppc are the critical temperature and pressure.
30 30 30

Schlumberger

Basic Petroleum Engineering

FTC

Critical Properties calculation

Component CH4 C2H6 C3H8 i-C4H10 n-C4H10 i-C5H12 n-C5H12 C6H14 Fraction 0.813 0.067 0.032 0.023 0.0086 0.022 0.0054 0.029 Critical Pressure 343 550 666 735 765 829 845 913 Critical Temp 668 708 616 529 551 490 489 437

The critical pressure and temperature of any (known) mixture can be approximated using this method. The critical pressures and temperatures and pressures of each component is constant. The method involves summing the contribution of each individual component.

Pseudo-critical pressure = Ppc = y1Pc1 + y2Pc2 + ....... = 653 psia

Notes

Pseudo-critical temperature = Tpc =

y1Tc1 + y2Tc2

+ ....... = 410 R

31 31 31

Schlumberger

Basic Petroleum Engineering

FTC

Find Bg for this gas mixture at the downhole temperature and pressures given. (Remember add 460 to the temperature to convert to R)

Example
Component CH4 C2H6 C3H8 i-C4H10 n-C4H10 i-C5H12 n-C5H12 C6H14 Fraction 0.892 0.021 0.024 0.032 0.007 0.002 0.011 0.011 Critical Pressure 343 550 666 735 765 829 845 913 Critical Temp 668 708 616 529 551 490 489 437

T2 = 234F p2 = 3467psia

Notes

32 32 32

Schlumberger

Basic Petroleum Engineering

FTC

In most cases the figure of 1 is adequate.

FVF water, Bw

The formation volume factor for water, Bw depends on the compressibility of the water. In most cases this is very small and hence Bw = 1. If there are a lot of dissolved salts or gases the value will change.
Notes

33 33 33

Schlumberger

Basic Petroleum Engineering

FTC

The porosity has to be split between the fluids occupying the pore space. Saturation is the name given to the fraction of a given fluid. The normal representation is as a percentage, in equations a fraction must be used.

Saturation
Formation saturation is defined as the fraction of its pore volume (porosity) occupied by a given fluid. Volume of a specific fluid Saturation = pore volume Definitions Sw = water saturation. So = oil saturation. Sg = gas saturation. Sh = hydrocarbon saturation = So + Sg Saturations are expressed as percentages or fractions, e.g. Water saturation of 75% in a reservoir with porosity of 20% contains water equivalent to 15% of its volume.
34 34 34

Notes

Schlumberger

Basic Petroleum Engineering

FTC

The graphical representation shows the simple porosity model split now between water and hydrocarbon. The volume of a fluid is the porosity times the saturation.

Saturation Definition

Notes

35 35 35

Schlumberger

Basic Petroleum Engineering

FTC

Wettability is caused by surface tension forces between the fluid molecules. Most reservoirs are water wet, mainly because the water was there first, the rocks being deposited in water. The hydrocarbon which migrated in at a later date displaces most of the water but rarely wets the rock as the surface tension forces in the water are stronger.

Wettability

The wettability defines how a fluid adheres to the surface (or rock in the reservoir) when there are two fluids present, e.g. water and air. The angle measured through the water is the "contact angle". If it is less than 90 the rock is water wet; greater than 90 the rock is oil wet. Most reservoir rocks are water wet.
Notes

36 36 36

Schlumberger

Basic Petroleum Engineering

FTC

The capillary pressure experiment is a simple one. The controlling factor is the radius of the capillary tube. The smaller the tube the greater the capillary pressure.

Capillary Forces

Pc = capillary pressure. = surface tension. q = contact angle. rcap = radius of capillary tube.

Notes

In a simple water and air system the wettability gives rise to a curved interface between the two fluids. This experiment has a glass tube attached to a reservoir of water. The water "wets" the glass. This causes the pressure on the concave side (water) to exceed that on the convex side (air). This excess pressure is the capillary pressure.
37 37 37

Schlumberger

Basic Petroleum Engineering

FTC

In a reservoir the pore spaces act as capillary tubes pulling the water up into the oil column.

Capillary Forces and Rocks

In a reservoir the two fluids are oil and water which are immiscible hence they exhibit capillary pressure phenomena. This is seen by the rise in the water above the point where the capillary pressure is zero.

Notes

The height depends on the density difference and the radius of the capillaries.
38 38 38

Schlumberger

Basic Petroleum Engineering

FTC

Irreducible Water Saturation

In a formation the minimum saturation induced by displacement is where the wetting phase becomes discontinuous. In normal water-wet rocks, this is the irreducible water saturation, Swirr. Large grained rocks have a low irreducible water saturation compared to small-grained formations because the capillary pressure is smaller.

There is always water in the hydrocarbon zone. This water is stuck to the rocks by surface tension forces, it is wetting the rocks. The water will never be produced under normal production conditions, hence the term irreducible. The amount of irreducible water depends on the grain size and on the mixture of grains. A rock with a mixture of small grains and large grains can have water in the small grains and oil in the pore space associated with the large grains.

Notes

39 39 39

Schlumberger

Basic Petroleum Engineering

FTC

The transition zone is a phenomenon seen in all reservoirs. The thickness of this zone varies from less that the resolution of the standard tool to very long, hundreds of feet. The size of the pores also controls the permeability, small pores mean low permeability. Hence a long transition zone means a low permeability formation.

Transition Zone
The phenomenon of capillary pressure gives rise to the transition zone in a reservoir between the water zone and the oil zone. The rock can be thought of as a bundle of capillary tubes. The length of the zone depends on the pore size and the density difference between the two fluids.

Notes

40 40 40

Schlumberger

Basic Petroleum Engineering

FTC

Permeabilities
Absolute permeability - a rock property - measured with a fluid saturating 100% of the pore space Effective permeability - a rock/fluid property - the permeability of a fluid which does not saturate the rock to 100% Relative Permeability - a rock/fluid property - the ratio of the effective permeability to the absolute permeability

In the reservoir the definition of permeability is no longer valid as there are usually more than one fluid present. Only in the water zone can the absolute permeability be used. Irreducible water is present is all other parts of the system, hence the other two definitions.

Notes

41 41 41

Schlumberger

Basic Petroleum Engineering

FTC

Note that there can only be a permeability for a specific fluid if there is a flow of that fluid.

Effective Permeabilities

Notes

effective permeability is always less than the absolute permeability

42 42 42

Schlumberger

Basic Petroleum Engineering

FTC

This is a simple mathematical utility to limit the range of the permeability as the relative permeability varies from 0 to 1.

Relative permeabilities

Notes

The relative permeability is the effective permeability divided by the absolute permeability.

43 43 43

Schlumberger

Basic Petroleum Engineering

FTC

The four stages are 100% water, oil and water mixture, residual oil and irreducible water. The first stage represents a water zone only. The last represents an oil zone. The residual oil stage is a reservoir that has been completely produced. The other stage is an intermediate stage, either a production stage or somewhere in the transition zone.

Relative Permeability
Take a core 100% water-saturated. (A) Force oil into the core until irreducible water saturation is attained (Swirr). (A-> C -> D) Reverse the process: force water into the core until the residual saturation is attained. (B) During the process, measure the relative permeabilities to water and oil.

Notes

44 44 44

Schlumberger

Basic Petroleum Engineering

FTC

Initially, the core permeability will be the absolute permeability as there is only one fluid at 100% saturation. The relative permeability of water will drop to zero when Swirr is reached because no more water will move. The relative permeability to oil will rise but never reach the absolute permeability because there is still water in the pores. When water is forced in, the relative permeability of water will rise but not reach the absolute value for the same reason.

Relative Permeability Experiment

Notes

45 45 45