EDPE 245 Assessment two

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There are three elements of a persons and type of physical activity they are involved in. these elements are socialising agents which is the social interaction between people such as parents, peers and teachers/ coaches; social situations that the individual is placed into e.g. games, play environments and toys; And personal attributes such as perceived sporting ability. Although children aged 5years to 12years have accepted norms of where they are in terms of development the three elements influence their levels of skill, performance and sport participation. According to Coakeley (1993; pg 571) socialisation is a dual process of interaction and development through which human beings learn who they are and how they are connected to the social world in which they live. This means that through social interaction with their parents, peers, teachers and coaches, the child is able to gather and process information and use this information to learn important skills. For example if a child observes a coach demonstrating the kicking of a soccer ball the child can replicate the action and can therefore develop their motor skills, conversely if a 7 year old is isolated and doesnt participate in sporting activities they do not establish the same motor skills or at the same rate as a child involved in coaching. The social influence of the people around the primary school aged child greatly affects how and when the child develops. (Payne& Issacs,1995) Research has shown that socialising agents such as family, peers, coaches/ teachers have an impact on primary school aged childrens sport participation. An investigation by Greendorfer and Lewko (1978) hypothesised that family members, specifically fathers had the most significant impact on sports participation of both males and females, followed be peer groups, then teachers/ coaches. Family but more specifically parents are the child initial and most persuasive contact which significantly contributes to the social development of the young individuals. Parent- child interaction is a vital part of the growth and development of the childrens attitudes and behaviours toward sport and physical activity. The childs performance and achievement in different activities are assisted and impacted upon by positive parental involvement, which is important for a childs

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development, participation and performance in various sporting domains. For example if a parent is present at a soccer game and providing positive encouragement from the sideline (when the child passes the ball correctly or even when they make a mistake) the child will strive to better their sporting performance. Family influence over a primary school students attitude towards; and performance in sport, extends to parental pressure and parenting styles. Parental pressure on the child may influence the enjoyment of sport or it may hinder the enjoyment experienced. For example if a child is pressured into training at 6am everyday by its parents in order to get into a representative team, the child may lose interest in the sport and therefore withdraw from participation. This parental pressure is a major reason for a child quitting sport and may cause tension between the parent and child which could lead to long term problems. There are different parenting styles that lead to varying amounts of pressure placed on children. Baumrind (1971) described three distinct parental authority styles, permissiveness, authoritarianism and authoritativeness. Permissive parents are non-controlling and very rarely use any form of punishment to control their children. They allow their children to have more freedom and to let the children make decisions about their activities in which they partake. Authoritarian parents are very strict and usually have rigid rules set in place to control behaviour. they value unquestioned obedience in their authority over their children. This style ensures that the child will perform any physical activity that the parents seem fit. This can drain the enjoyment and desire to succeed from these children lowering their want to participate in sport. Authoritative parenting style is a combination of permissive and authoritarian styles, these parents provide firm and clear directions for their children but unlike authoritarian style it is moderated with warmth, reason and flexibility. This style is important because it encourages the growth of parent- child relationships and allows greater communication which encourages the child to create their own thoughts on a situation. This style gives the child a sense of individuality and allows them to make decisions on which activities

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they would like to perform, this in turn increases enjoyment and a likeliness to continue to participate in physical activity. It is essential to realise that one individuals parenting style may be appropriate for their child but not for anothers child. It is therefore important to trial different parenting styles with your child and decide on the one that will strongly encourage them to participate in physical activity. Being exposed to socialising agents allows the child to develop and be encouraged to participate in sports but it can also be these socialising agents that can discourage the child from being involved in sport, this can be through a lack of support from family, bullying from peers, or too much pressure to perform. As children get older peers become more prominent in the individuals life, this can have positive and negative effects on the child participation in physical activity. For example if the majority of children in a class enjoy playing cricket at lunch time then a child will be more inclined to join in with the game. On the other hand if playing sports or doing physical activity is seen as uncool or for girls like gymnastics is seen to be, then the class will take to bullying the child participating in sport, which can lead to the withdrawal from the activity. Restrictions on the child development can filter from their socialising agents, it is therefore important for these groups to provide a wide variety of activities and a dense support network so that the child can properly develop.(Gallahue & Ozmun, 2002) The social situations that a child is placed into greatly affect the way the child develops. The situations can either encourage or hinder the individuals ability to develop their motor skills. A social situation in which children grow and learn during their most influential years is part of the socialisation process. (Haywood, 1995) It is essential for a sufficient environment for play and games in order to provide an ideal social setting for the child to begin sport involvement. A child who doesnt have access to these areas

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doesnt get the same opportunities to practice their skills and become involved in activities that other children partake in. This can therefore cause the child to fall behind in motor development or may even cause them not to develop some skills at all, which will discourage participation in sports later in life. Motor development may also be influenced by the environment in which the child lives. For example, a child who lives in a colder climate may not develop swimming skills as much as a person living in a warmer climate. (Haywood, 1995) Toys that children play with are another aspect of the socialisation process. The types of toys the child is given can determine whether the child is active or inactive. For example, a soccer ball would encourage a child to dribble, pass and shoot, all active activities. However, a board game or video game would primarily promote inactive play. Although each toy has its advantages, some toys promote motor development and socialisation into sport better than others. (Haywood, 1995) Games and toys can be gender based and marketed to either boys or girls. For example, boys are encouraged to participate in activities or play with toys that are more complex and encourage vigorous activity. Stereotypically, girls activities or games are sedentary or promote quiet indoor play. Because of the increased studies of socialisation in sport, people are becoming more aware of the many ways children are being sex typed and the effects that this can have on the children. These may include a decreased ability for the child to develop motor skills which leads to a reduction in the likelihood of future participation in sport. Yet people are doing little to change away from the social norm of sex typing. Social agents such as parents and teachers provide an important influence over children in terms of sex typing. They can continue to label certain activities as important or more appropriate for one gender and discourage it for the other. Such activities may include jumping with a skipping rope which is primarily aimed at girls, but frowned upon for boys. The two socialising agents need to make an attempt to eliminate the concept of sex typing to allow the primary school aged child to discover their full potential and to encourage maximum motor skill development. It is likely that Jacob Wheeldon Page 5

these influences and day to day expectations accumulate to produce varying motor development levels in boys and girls by fixing their practice opportunities. It is these socialising agents and situations that influence and individuals personal attributes which impacts on their sporting involvement. Perceived sporting ability is a major factor for an individual to take into consideration when choosing to participate or not participate in sport. If so, what sport they are going to be involved in. It is expected that the child is not likely to partake in an activity if they anticipate the chance of failure. Conversely, an individual may persist in an activity if they perceive themselves to have a high ability, even if there is little chance to gain success. Gender plays a role in perceived sporting ability. According to Lewko and Ewing (1980) boys perceive their sporting abilities to be high despite their level of, and involvement in sport. Lewko and Ewing state that this may be directly related to the boys perception and belief of male stereotypes. It is only girls involved in physical activities who believe their sporting ability to be high while those are not involved perceive a lower ability. Greendorfer (1983) explains that the process of sports socialisation can convey a message that boys are expected to be very active and capable of high skilled activities. This ensures that most boys have a positive attitude when participating in sport. On the other hand, boys who have low expectations which often lead to failure, often feel inadequate and withdraw from sport. The process of sport socialisation sends a message to girls that they are unable to perform high skilled activities. Although this message is incorrect, they approach activities anticipating failure. Girls motor skill development is lower compared to boys because of stereotypical play environments. This can be attributed to a lack of opportunities and motor experiences. As with boys, this can lead to feelings of inadequacy and withdrawing from sport participation. Self esteem is a major factor for children when deciding whether or not to participate in physical activity. Self esteem is a personal judgement of your own capabilities, significance, success and

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worthiness. You convey it to others in words and in actions. (Haywood, 1995) An individuals self esteem can be judged by others according to what they say or the way they act. For example, if a person says that they cant achieve success in an activity or do not participate in the activity, it can be seen that they have low self esteem for sport. It is for this reason that self esteem is so important and is a major factor in deterring whether a child chooses to participate in physical activities and then secondly, continue to participate. (Haywood, 1995) According to Haywood (1995) self esteem for physical performance is developed by social interactions such as parental appraisal, comparison to others and feedback from teachers/coaches. It is also developed by emotions, such as enjoyment, pride, excitement with success, disappointment, stress and failure. Child self esteem is easily influenced by those closest to them including parents, teachers, coaches and peers. It is therefore important for these groups to provide positive encouragement and feedback to the child. IF the primary school age child isnt receiving positive reinforcement, such as Well done and Nice work but better luck next time, the child may start to feel a sense of underachievement and discontinue sport participation. Self esteem can influence motivation towards physical activity because people usually behave in ways that substantiate their views of themselves. For example, a child is more likely to participate in an activity if they believe that they will succeed. Conversely, if the child has low self esteem and believes that they lack the skills required to successfully complete the task, they will not participate in sport. Throughout a persons life, there are many reasons to be involved in sport as well as to not be involved in sport. As a child socialising agents such as parents, teachers, coaches and peers play a major role in the influence of sport participation. IF the childs parents are not actively involved in sport and do not positively encourage the child to participate, there is a greater chance that the child will avoid situations that involve physical activity. This avoidance can also be attributed to teachers/coaches who often act as parental figures in the early years of primary school. It is Jacob Wheeldon Page 7

important that they nurture sport participation through positive encouragement and provide an environment for enjoyable play. Perceived self ability is another factor in a childs life that can either encourage or hinder sport participation. This is why it is important for socialising agents to positively reinforce participation in order to keep the child involved throughout their lives. According to Haywood (1995) as a child moves into adolescence withdrawal from sport is a major problem which can lead to serious health problems later in life. There are many negative reasons for youth drop-out and these can include a lack of fun, over-emphasis on winning, lack of progress, too much pressure, lack of playing time, dislike for a coach, and a lack of success. (Haywood, 1995 cited McPherson, Marteniuk, Tihanyi, & Clark, 1980; Orlick 1973, 1974) It is important for the health of the individual that physical activities are maintained therefore there must be an emphasis on keeping youth active by healthcare professionals. (Haywood, 1995) As adults grow older, their physical activity levels decrease and this is primarily in women. Although the withdrawal and reduction in physical activity is mainly because of physiological reasons, such as reduced mobility or decreased fitness, they are not the only reasons. McPherson (1986) has shown that psychosocial factors also influence adults activity levels. These factors include stereotypes of appropriate activity levels, beliefs that exercise is harmful or doesnt help prevent disease, worries that they will not be able to complete a task, negative childhood experiences, limited access to facilities and programs, and a lack of role models. Involvement in physical activity is important throughout a persons whole life. It enables them to be exposed to varying health benefits which contribute to the individuals leading a happy, healthy life. Socialising agents, social situations and personal attributes, play a vital role in the encouragement for people to be involved in physical activity throughout their lives. It is important that these socialising agents promote positive attitude to develop an individuals personal attributes as well as providing or encouraging the individual to be placed into positive and productive social situations that develop the individual and promote lifelong involvement in physical activity. Jacob Wheeldon Page 8

Reference list
Gallahue, D.L., & Ozmun, J.C. 2002, Motor Development: A Theoretical, in understanding motor development: Infants, Adolescents, Adults, 6th edn, McGraw-hill, New York

Payne, V.G. & Isaccs, L.D. 1995, social and motor development, in human motor development: A Lifespan Approach, 3rd edn, ed.V.G. Payne & L.D. Isaacs, Mayfield publishing Co., Mountain View, California

Haywood, K.M. 1995, Psychosocial and cultural influences in motor development, in Life Span Motor Development, 2nd edn, ed. K.M. Haywood, Human Kinetics Publishers, Edwardstown, SA

Lewko, J.H., & Greendorfer, S.L. 1978, Psychology of motor behaviour and sport, 1977 Family influence and sex differences in children's socialization into sport.: Human Kinetics Publishers, Champaign, IL

Lewko, J. H. & Ewing, M. E, 1980, Sex differences and parental influence in sport involvement of children. Journal of Sport Psychology. 2, 62-68.

Baumrind, D. 1971, Current patterns of parental authority. Developmental Psychology Monograph, 4, 1-103.

Greendorfer, S. 1983, shaping the female athlete: The impact of the family. Human Kinetics. Champagne, IL

McPherson, B. 1986, Socialization into and through sport' In G. Luschen & G. Sage (Eds.), Handbook of Social Science of Sport (pp. 246-273). Champaign, IL

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