Pg-1

CHAPTER 1
What is Hardware?
The physical components of a computer including a processor, memory, input/output devices backing storage devices are called hardware.

What is SOFTWARE?
Software is a collection of electronic instructions that programmer writes using a programming language and that a computers CPU can interpret to carry out a specific task.

WHAT IS DATA?
The term data means groups of information that represent the qualitative or quantitative attributes of a variable or set of variables. OR the collection of facts and figures is known as DATA

What is information?
The word information is derived from Latin informare which means "give form to. The Processed data is called information.

Digital systems
Digital systems process digital signals which can take only a limited number of values (discrete steps), usually just two values are used: the positive supply voltage (+Vs) and zero volts (0V). Digital systems contain devices such as logic gates, flip-flops, shift registers and counters. A computer is an example of a digital system.

Analogue systems
Analogue systems process analogue signals which can take any value within a range, for example the output from an LDR (light sensor) or a microphone. An audio amplifier is an example of an analogue system. The amplifier produces an output voltage which can be any value within the range of its power supply. standard telephone lines transmit analog signals

INPUT
Whatever goes into the computer. Input can take a variety of forms, from commands you enter from the keyboard to data from another computer or device. A device that feeds data into a computer, such as a keyboard or mouse, is called an input device. Or The act of entering data into a computer.

Key board
The standard layout of letters, numbers, and punctuation is known as a QWERTY keyboard because the first six keys on the top row of letters spell QWERTY. The QWERTY keyboard was designed in the 1800s for

Created By ASAD MAHMOOD

Pg-2 mechanical typewriters and was actually designed to slow typists down to avoid jamming the keys. Another keyboard design, which has letters positioned for speed typing, is the Dvorak keyboard. There is no standard computer keyboard, although many manufacturers imitate the keyboards of PCs. There are actually three different PC keyboards: the original PC keyboard, with 84 keys; the AT keyboard, also with 84 keys; and the enhanced keyboard, with 101 keys. The three differ somewhat in the placement of function keys, the Control key, the Return key, and the Shift keys. In addition to these keys, IBM keyboards contain the following keys: Page Up, Page Down, Home, End, Insert, Pause, Num Lock, Scroll Lock, Break, Caps Lock, and Print Screen. There are several different types of keyboards for the Apple Macintosh. All of them are called ADB keyboards because they connect to the Apple Desktop bus (ADB). The two main varieties of Macintosh keyboards are the standard keyboard and the extended keyboard, which has 15 additional special-function keys.

Mouse
A device that controls the movement of the cursor or pointer on a display screen. A mouse is a small object you can roll along a hard, flat surface. Its name is derived from its shape, which looks a bit like a mouse, its connecting wire that one can imagine to be the mouse's tail, and the fact that one must make it scurry along a surface. As you move the mouse, the pointer on the display screen moves in the same direction. Invented by Douglas Engelbart of Stanford Research Center in 1963, and pioneered by Xerox in the 1970s

Scanner
A peripheral that uses light receptors for reading printed material and digitally transferring the information as image objects into a computer system for processing. Scanners usually attach to your personal computer with a Small Computer System Interface ( SCSI ). An application such as PhotoShop uses the TWAIN program to read in the image.Some major manufacturers of scanners include: Epson, Hewlett-Packard, Microtek, and Relisys

Microphone
A microphone is an electromechanical device that uses vibration to create an electrical signal proportional to the vibration, which is usually an air pressure wave. There are many different types of microphone, ranging from the old condensers to the modern piezoelectrics.Alexander Graham Bell invented the first microphone in 1876 as part of the telephone.

Motherboard
The main circuit board of a microcomputer. The motherboard contains the connectors for attaching additional boards. Typically, the motherboard contains the CPU, BIOS, memory, mass storage interfaces, serial and parallel ports, expansion slots, and all the controllers required to control standard peripheral devices, such as the display screen, keyboard, and disk drive. Collectively, all these chips that reside on the motherboard are known as the motherboard's chipset.

Created By ASAD MAHMOOD

Pg-3 On most PCs, it is possible to add memory chips directly to the motherboard. You may also be able to upgrade to a faster PC by replacing the CPU chip. To add additional core features, you may need to replace the motherboard entirely. Motherboard is sometimes abbreviated as mobo. Motherboards: Two Basic Types

Cpu

XT Motherboards. (Rarely seen today) AT Motherboards.

It is the abbreviation for central processing unit. The CPU is the brains of the computer. Sometimes referred to simply as the central processor, but more commonly called processor, the CPU is where most calculations take place. In terms of computing power, the CPU is the most important element of a computer system. Two typical components of a CPU are the following:

The arithmetic logic unit (ALU), which performs arithmetic and logical operations. The control unit (CU), which extracts instructions from memory and decodes and executes them, calling on the ALU when necessary.

Memory
Computer memory refers to devices that are used to store data or programs (sequences of instructions) on a temporary or permanent basis for use in an electronic digital computer.

Volatile memory
Volatile memory is computer memory that requires power to maintain the stored information. Current semiconductor volatile memory technology is usually either static RAM (see SRAM) or dynamic RAM (see DRAM). Static RAM exhibits data remanence, but is still volatile, since all data is lost when memory is not powered. Whereas, dynamic RAM allows data to be leaked and disappear automatically without a refreshing. Upcoming volatile memory technologies that hope to replace or compete with SRAM and DRAM include Z-RAM, TTRAM and A-RAM

Non-volatile memory
Non-volatile memory is computer memory that can retain the stored information even when not powered. Examples of non-volatile memory include read-only memory (see ROM), flash memory, most types of magnetic computer storage devices (e.g. hard disks, floppy discs and magnetic tape), optical discs, and early computer storage methods such as paper tape and punch cards

Types of ram
There are different types of memory chips. The table below lists the common types of RAM chips.

Created By ASAD MAHMOOD

Pg-4

SRAM
Static random access memory - primarily used for cache memory.

DRAM
Dynamic random access memory - accesses one block of data at a time. The memory addresses in DRAM need to be refreshed many times each second. This causes a greater amount of electricity to be used by your RAM and also slows it down when compared to SRAM. The advantage to using DRAM is the price; DRAM is cheaper than SRAM.

FPM DRAM
Fast page mode dynamic random access memory - Normal memory access requires that a row and column address, which takes time. Paging allows faster access to all the data within a given row of memory by keeping the row address the same and changing the column.

EDO DRAM
Extended data-out dynamic random access memory - unlike DRAM, can fetch a block of data while simultaneously sending a block of data to the CPU. So it is faster than conventional DRAM and FPM RAM. Unlike regular DRAM which can allow access to only one byte of information at a time, EDO allows an entire block of memory to be moved into the internal cache for quicker access by the CPU. Can only be used on a bus speed of up 66 MHz

SDRAM
Synchronous dynamic random access memory - Faster than EDO RAM. SDRAM delivers information in very high speed bursts and run in synchronization with the memory bus. SDRAM is capable of running at 133 MHz.

RDRAM
Rambus dynamic random access memory - a type of memory designed by Rambus. Very different architecture to SDRAM. RDRAM uses a special high-speed data bus. RDRAM chips are mounted on a Rambus inline memory module (RIMM), which is similar to a standard DIMM. RDRAM memory chips work in parallel to achieve a data rate of 800 MHz.

DDR SDRAM
Double Data Rate SDRAM - output operations on the chip occur on both the rising and falling edge of the clock. Currently, with SDRAM only the rising edge signals an event to occur, so the DDR SDRAM design can effectively double the speed of operation up to 200 MHz (PC1600) or 266 MHz (PC2100) or 333 MHz (PC2700). DDR modules have 184 pins

Super Computer:A super computer is a most powerful computer available at given time. This machine uses advanced techniques and is built to process huge amount of information and to do so very quickly. Created By ASAD MAHMOOD

Pg-5

Mainframe Computer:The largest type of computer in common use is the Mainframe computer. It is also known as macro computer. Mainframe computer consist of units standing separately interconnected by wire . these computers are design to handle tremendous amount of input, output and storage.

Microcomputer:A smallest computer commonly found in offices, classroom and home.these computer also known as personal computer (p.c). personal computer come in all size and shapes. Some models reside on desktop, other stand on floor and some are even portable.

WORKSTATION
A workstation is a computer intended for individual use that is faster and more capable than a personal computer. It's intended for business or professional use (rather than home or recreational use). Workstations and applications designed for them are used by small engineering companies, architects, graphic designers, and any organization, department, or individual that requires a faster microprocessor, a large amount of random access memory (RAM), and special features such as high-speed graphics adapters.Among the most successful makers of this kind of workstation are Sun Microsystems, Hewlett-Packard, DEC, and IBM.

MICROCONTROLLER
Microcontroller is a small computer on a single integrated circuit consisting internally of a relatively simple CPU, clock, timers, I/O ports, and memory. Program memory in the form of NOR flash or OTP ROM is also often included on chip, as well as a typically small amount of RAM. Microcontrollers are designed for small or dedicated applications Microcontrollers are used in automatically controlled products and devices, such as automobile engine control systems, remote controls, office machines, appliances, power tools, and toys. By reducing the size and cost compared to a design that uses a separate microprocessor, memory, and input/output devices, microcontrollers make it economical to digitally control even more devices and processes

DARK AGE
This age started in 5000 B.C to 1890 A.D. In this age data process was done manually. The following manual and mechanical machines were used for data processing

ABBACUS:
It consists of a rectangular frame carrying several parallel horizontal wires. Each wire has 10 bends or stones sliding freely along it an expert of an Abacus can perform addition, subtraction, multiplication and division

NAPIERS BONES
John Napier used Arabic numbers 0-9to develop calculating device called Napiers bones

OUGTREDS SLIDE RULE

Slide Rule was made on the rules of Napiers bones by William Oughtred in 1632. By sliding rule multiplication and division could be done quickly

Created By ASAD MAHMOOD

Pg-6

PASCAL CALCULATOR
Blaise Pascal invented Pascal Calculator in 1642. It consisted of a series of numbered wheels and dials. It is also known as Pascal line

LEIBNITZ MACHINE
Gottfried W.Von Leibniz invented a machine in 1671 which could also multiply, divide and square roots

ARITHOMETER
Arithometer was a mechanical device that was designed by Charles Xavier Thomas in 1820.It was a device that could perform four basic arithmetic operations

CHARLES BABBAGES DIFFERENCE ENGINE

Charles Babbage invented an all-purpose problem solving machine the Difference Engine in 1823 at Cambridge University which had a mechanical memory to store result

MIDDLE AGE
This age begun with the development of punch card that was introduced by French Engineer Joseph Marie Jacquard. The duration of this age is 1890 to 1944

HOLLERITHS MACHINE
An American Dr. Herman Hollerith built the first electromechanical Punched data processing machine, which tabulate and sorted the data. This machine is also know as Census machine

MARK-1
Howard Aiken completed the first automatic sequence controlled machine that performs operations with electromechanical rays. It was designed in 1944 and it is also the first digital computer

MODREN AGE
In this age data processing was done on an electrical and electronic computers

ENIAC
It was designed by John W.Mauchley P.eckert. It uses high voltage vacuum tubes; its weight was 30 ton. It was the first electronic general-purpose computer. EDVAC It was designed in 1945 by John Venn Neumann. It was the first computer that could store both program and data Created By ASAD MAHMOOD

Pg-7

UNIVAC
This computer had the capability to process data automatically. Remington Rand designed it in 1950. It was the first commercially available electronic digital computer

GENRATIONS OF COMPUTER
As we know that development of technology is continuous process. The development in computer technology was very fast in the past years. However, on the basis of technology the development of computer could be categorized into five generations

1- FIRST GENERATION
First generation computers were powered by thousands of Vacuum Tubes. The ENIAC, UNIVAC, EDVAC and other were built in this generation. Punched cards were used for data processing. Data was stored on magnetic storage device. Machine and Assembly language were used. Performs calculations in milliseconds. Fastest calculations of their time. Sizes of computer were very large and required great amount of energy these computers produced large amount of heat.

2-SECOND GENRATION
Transistors were introduced in this generation. IBM 7070, IBM 1401, B502 and many more other computers were designed in this generation. The computers of this generation required less electricity and were smaller than first generation. Heat was reduced and they were lasted longer. Magnetic tape and disk used for external storage. These computers are faster than 1st generations. The maintenance was very difficult because their production was costly and they required great amount of energy.

3- THIRD GENERATION
Integrated Circuits signified the beginning of third generation computer. Integrated Circuits (I.CS) is referred to Solid-State technology was single semi circuits contained on pieces of silicon sometimes called CHIPS.ICS were much smaller in size and more reliable and efficient. Technology of memory was improved. Keyboards and Monitors were introduced for input and output. Operations were performed in nanoseconds.

4- FORTH GENERATION
The significant distinction of this generation computers lies in the techniques of implementations of Integrated Circuits by using LSI, VLSI and ULSI. Microprocessors were developed in this generation. Intel technology, Floppy and Hard Disks were introduced. These are more reliable and minimum in size. These systems are totally general purpose

5- FIFTH GENERATION
Although many people disagree on the star of fifth generation computer technology called Artificial Intelligence AI. AI indicates the ability to perform human like thinking and reasoning. Speech activated machines able to respond to the spoken word in a variety of dialect and languages. Scanning devices, which will automatically sense data in over 100,000 character configurations and thus handle almost even written language form. Processing capabilities resembling human thought sequence to improve deductive reasoning and diagnostic testing

Created By ASAD MAHMOOD

Pg-8

SERVER
In information technology, a server is a computer program that provides services to other computer programs (and their users) in the same or other computers. The computer that a server program runs in is also frequently referred to as a server (though it may be used for other purposes as well).In the client/server programming model, a server is a program that awaits and fulfills requests from client programs in the same or other computers. A given application in a computer may function as a client with requests for services from other programs and also as a server of requests from other programs

Created By ASAD MAHMOOD