Trow the dawn of histors the shiming and wntaraishable manl, gold, has exerted sts fascination upon man Vers easly the idea arose that other metals were ether mpi on umupe gold, and that therefore by surtable tre umrent thev could be converted into the precious metal stself Such a belief, the principal tenet of alchemy, led to vast programmes of experiment, from which, after the lapse of centuries a scientific practical chemistry developed But the fact that the behef m transmuratton was almost unt- xersalls accepted offered great opportunities 10 rogues and charlatans, who were not slow to take advantage of human credulity and avarice Side by side with honest seaichers, therefore, were clever scoundrels who flecced piince, peer and peasant by the shill with which they carried out iricks of sleight-of-hand and deluded their vicums mto thinking that here was an infallible method of acquiring unlimited wealth ‘There were other aspects of thus subyect of alchemy Gold was attubuted with marvellous therapeutic p1o- perties, and many of the alchemists spent then years and substance m attempting to prepare from it an elrur of life Others found m alchemical theory a religious o: mystical s\mbohsm and regarded the am of the art as the petfect- ang of the human soul rather than as the artificial produc- tion of gold In this book the ongins and growth of alchemy ae descibed, with an account of the underlying phslo- sophical conceptions, and the romance attaching to the art 1s illustrated by stories of some of the most celebrated or notorious of its practitioners There aie many photo- graphic and Ime illustrationsPELICAN BOOKS ford ALCHEMY E. Je HOLMAARDALCHEMY E. J. HOLMYARD PENGUIN BOOKSPenguin Books Ltd, Harmondsworth, Middlesex Usa. Penguin Books Inc , 3300 Chipper Mill Road, Ualtmore 11, Md CANADA Penguin Books (Canady) Ltd, 178 Norseman Street, ‘Toronto 18, Ontario AUSTRALIA, Penguin Books Pry Ltd, 762 Whitchorre Rovd, ‘Mitcham, Victonn Tisst published 1957 ‘Made and printed an Great Britain by T &A Constable Ltd, Edinburgh Photogravure plates printed by (Clarke & Sherwell Ltd, Northampton,CONTENTS LIST OF TEXT FIGURES LIST OF PLATES AUTHORITIES nINTRopucroRY ~ 2. THE GREEK ALCHEMISTS 3. CHINESE ALCHEMY 4. ALCHEMICAL APPARATUS 5s ISLAMIC ALCHEMY 6. EARLY WESTERN ALCHEMY 7. SIGNS, SYMBOLS, AND SECRET TERMS 8 PARACELSUS 9 Some eNoLisy aLcHEMisrs 10, SCOTTISH ALCHEMISTS 11, TWO FRENCH ALCHEMISTS 12 HELVETIUS, PRICE, AND SEMLER EPILOGUE GLossaRY INDEX W 3 3 31 4 58 yo2 150 361 173 an 233 253 267 270 273LIST OF TEXT FIGURES 1. The Four Elements 2. A Sul 3: Kerotakides Above, as shown in a Greck manu- script, below, conjectural restorations by F. Sherwood Taylor (By courtesy of the Journal of Hellente Studtes and the executors of the late Dr Sherwood Taylor) 4 Disuillauon (From E. Darmstaedter, Die Alcheme des Geber, by courtesy of Springer-Verlag, Berlin) 5+ Pelican: left, alchemical, ryght, ornithological (From J.B Porta, De Destillatrone, ib. », Rome, 1608) 6. A Water-cooled Sul 7. AWater-bath From The Works of Geber, Enghished by R, Ruscell, ed E J Holmyard, by courtesy of J. M. Dent & Sons Ltd) 8 A Sublimatory (From The Works of Geber, Englshed by R Russell, ed E J Holmyard, by courtesy of J M Dent & Sons Ltd) ). Magie Square of the First Nine Digits Gnomomcally Analysed : 10 Alchemical Medals exhibited to Helvetius (From J F.Helvetus Vitulus dureus, Frankfort, 1767) 20 46 48 4 50 5 53 55 ” 25610 n 2 B 14 15 16 17. 18 19. 20 ar LIST OF PLATES . Alchemical Laboratory, by Tenters . Sisteenth-century German Alchemical Laboratory - Seventeenth-century Alchemical Laboratory . An Alchemist, Hennig Brand, Discovers Phosphorus (After the painting by Joseph Wnght) - ‘The pot to-breheth, and farewel! al 1s go” The Alchemist, by Cornelius Bega (Plates 1 to 6 inclusive by courtesy of the Fisher Scientific Company, Pittsburgh) Four Alchemical Authorities, Geber, Arnold of Villanova, Razt, and Hermes, presiding over Operations in a Laboratory (From ‘Thomas Norton, Ordinal! of Alchemy, London, 1652) Thomas Norton in his Laboratory (From Thomas Norton, Ordinall of Alchimy, London, 1652) . Astrological Diagrams concerning Alchemy (From ‘Thomas Norton, Ordinall of Alekimy, London, 1652) Alchemical Furnaces sn Use for Digestion and Muluple Distillation (rom Thomas Norton, Ordinall of Alchemy, London, 1652) Greek Alchemical Apparatus for Distillation (Alembics) and Digestion (From Berthelot, Collectron des anctens alchmsstes grecs) Fronuspiece of Beroalde de Vervalle’s Le Songe de Poliphile (Pans, 1600) Ouroboros (From H Reusner, Pandora das 1st, die edelst Gab Gottes, Basel, 1582) ‘The Red and White Rose (From the ‘Rupley Scrowle’) ‘The Alchemical Process in the Zodiac (From the ‘Ripley Scrowle’) The Mountain of the Adepts (From S Michelspacher, Cabala, Speculum Arus et Naturae, in Alchymea, Augsburg, 1654) ‘Alchemists at Work (From the Liber Mutus) Four Stages of the Alchemical Process (From J D Myhus, Phalosophia Reformata, Frankfort, 1622) Sulphur and Mercury, Sun and Moon (From J C Barchusen, Elementa Chemae, Leiden, 1718) ‘Alchemical Libraty and Laboratory (From M Mater, Tripus Aureus, Frankfort, 1678) (@) and (b) The White and Red Roses (rom Trésor des Trésors, MS 975, Bibhiothéque de ’Arsenal; photo Bibliothéque Nationale) Portrait of Nicolas Flame! (Source as for Plate 23) 9ALCHEMY 23 The Church of Sunt-Jacques-In-Bouchene (From A Porson, Nieolas Flamel, sa vie, ses fondations, ses euvres, by courtesy of the Biblothtque Chacornac, Paris) 24 The Tombstone of Nicolas Flamel (Photo Archives Photo- graphiques) 25 Ivory Alchemical Statuettes of the Sun and Moon (By courtesy of the Science Museum and the executors of the late Dr Sherwood Taylor) 26 The Sulphur-Mercury Theory (Crom M Mater, Synibola Aureae Mensae Duodeem Nationum, Frankfort, 617) 27 An Alchemist at Work, after Brueghel (An original print of the engraving after Brueghel, in the possession of Professor John Read, by courtesy of Professor Read and Thomas Nelson Ltd) 28 An Alchemistat Work, by H Weiditz (Reproduced from F Ferchl and A Sussenguth, 4 Pietorsal History of Chemistry, by courtesy ‘of Wslliam Heinemann Lrd) ay Figures d’Abraham Juif (Reproduced from J Read, Prelude 10 Chemstry, by courtesy of G Bell & Sons Ltd) 30 The Seventh Parable (From Solomon Trismosin, Splendor Sols, Harley MS 3469, by courtesy of the Brissh Museum) 31 The Fourth Treatse, Fiftily Peacock im a Cucurbit (From Solomon Tzismosin, Splendor Solts, Harley MS 3469, by courtesy of the British Museum) 32 The Fourth Treatise, Sisthly A Queen in a Cucurbit (From Solomon Tsmosin, Splendor Solis, Harley MS 3469, by courtesy of the British Museum) 33. Symbols of Celcination, Distillauon, Coagulation, and Solution, and the Extraction of the Philosophie Mercury from the Prima Materia by Means of the Philosophie Fire (From the Coden Germantcus 598, by courtesy of the Bayerische Staatsbibliothek, Munich) 34 The Grand Hermetic Androgyne trampling underfoot the Four Elements of the Prima Materia (From the Codex Getmantcus 598; by courtesy of the Bayensche Staatsbibliothek, Munich) 35 A Flask, a Pelican, a Double Pelican, an Alembic in an Atr-bath, and Symbols of the Four Evangelists (From the Codex ae 598, by courtesy of the Bayerische Staatsbibhothek, fam 36 The Alchemist, by J Stradanus (From the Palazzo Vecchio, Florence, photo Alinari) ’ 10AUTHORITIES As might be eapected of a subject that had an active life of some two thousand years, the literature of alchemy 1s vast Even the catalogue compiled by Mrs Charles (Dorothea Waley) Singer of western al- chemical manuscripts runs into many volumes; oriental manuscripts are probably as numerous; and the printed alchemical books are legion But alchemy has always snterested hustorsans of scierice and of the occult, so that, though much remains unexamined, the main story of its rise, development, and degeneration can be followed The principal authonsties, apart from orginal sources, that any student of alchemy must consult, and that have been used in the pre- aration of this book, are as follows: Ambix, the Journal of the Society for the Study of Alchemy and Early ‘Chemistry. This journal, which owes much to the scholarshup of 1 founder editor, the late Dr F, Sherwood Taylor, humself an author- sty on Greek alchemy, 15 sndispensable to any historian of alchemy This, a journal dealing with the history and philosophy of science, was founded and for many years edited by George Sarton (08 1956), whose monumental Insroduction to the History of Sctencess a mine of accurate information on early scienusts and their works Lyxn Trornpixr: 4 Hestory of Mage ond Experimental Science from the Twelfth to the Suxteenth Century London and New York, 1923-41. This scholarly work has the uncommon merit of com- bining erudition with a pleasant and easy style, not seldom en- hivened by flashes of dry humour. Joun Fercuson: Bibhotheca Chemica, A Bibkography of Al- chemical, Chemical, and Pharmaceutical Books Glasgow, 1906 E.O von Lippmann Entstehung und Ausbrestung der Alchemie Berlin, r919~31- L Fiouren- L’Alchimue et les Alehimistes Paris, 1856. M.P E BrrrHecor: La Chime au Moyen Age, Panis, 1893, and Collection des Anctens Alchumestes Grecs, Pais, 1888 Joun Reap: Prelude to Chemistry Second edition. London, 1939 Contains some information not to be found elsewhere . F Suenwoop Tarior The Alchemists. New York 1949 A.J. Hopkins: lehemy, Child of Greck Philosophy New York, 1934. E Asumour. Theatrum Chemucum Bretanntcum London, 1652 H F.M Kopp. Geschichte der Chere Braunschweig, 1843~7 0 aabenisey Many other authorite: hive b esr cnmadee Leong those hsted above will ise unple poids et ry tomal ca fuller stady of observa the pre cst et etch ef deta 2 crn provide ‘The author expres ba girvtefal thea ty Me Sic for hice Vindnuss in tesdive the prof He dasa gor ci ate for any exrots thit may retteuey Boh feyI INTRODUCTORY o——CC practised before the birth of Christ. It has also had a long history, for there are still alcherusts to be found, not merely m such less enlightened countries as Morocco and parts of the East, but m England, the United States, France, Italy, and Germany Its heyday was from about A D. 809 to the middle of the seventeenth century, and sts practitioners ranged from kings, popes, and emperors to minor clergy, parish clerks, smiths, dyers, and tinkers Even such accomplished men as Roger Bacon, St Thomas Aquinas, Sir Thomas Browne, John Evelyn, and Sir Isaac Newton were deeply anterested in xt, and Charles II had an alchemical laboratory built under the royal bedchamber with access by a private staircase Other alchemical monarchs were Herakleios I of Byzantium, James IV of Scotland, and the Emperor Rudolf I There are several references to alchemy in Shakespeare, Chaucer devoted one of his Canterbury Tales to st (p 173); and Ben Jonson wrote a play, The Alchemust, in which he shows considerable knowledge of the sub- ect. Romance and adventure, religious and mystical emotion, fraud and trickery, scientific inquiry, skilful technology, tragedy and comedy, poetry and humour, are all to be found on turning the variegated pages of its history Alchemy 1s of a twofold nature, an outward or enotenie and a hidden or esoterie Exotenic alchemy 1s concerned wath attempts to prepare a substance, the philosophers’ stone, or simply the Stone, endowed with the power of transmuting the base metals lead, un, copper, 1ron, and mercury into the precious metals gold and silver. ‘The Stonewas also sometimes known as the Elixir or Tuicture, and ‘was credited not only with the power of transmutation but with that of prolonging human fe indefinitely. The belief that st could be obtained only by divine grace and favour led to the development 3ALCHEMY of esotenc or mystical alchemy, and this gradually developed into a devotuonal system where the mundane transmutation of metals became merely symbolic of the transformation of sinful man into a perfect being through prayer and submission to the will of God The two kinds of alchemy were often inextricably mived, however, sm some of the mystical treatises 1t s cleat that she authors arc not concerned with material substances but are employing the language of exoteric alchemy for the sole purpose of eapressing theological, philosophical, or mystical beliefS and aspirations In the present book we shall deal paneipally with esoteric alchemy, but this can- not be properly appreciated sf the other aspect 1s not always borne sn mand Te has further to be remembered that the pracuical alchemists were well aware that f (they could not know that the emphasis was on the ‘if") they succeeded in making gold artificially their lnves might be mm grave danger from avaricious princes and other evilly disposed persons Even the suspicion that they had discovered the secret was often sufficient to imperil them One alchemist com- plained that, falling under this suspicion because he had happened to effect some rather spectacular cures during an epidemic, he had to disguise himself, shave off lus beard, and put on a wig before he ‘was able to escape, under a false name, from a mob howling for his eluar; he added that he knew of persons who had been found strangled in their beds simply because they were thought to have found the Stone, though 1n reality they knew no more about it than ther murderers It wall appear 1n the following pages that the possession of alchemical lore was in fact a penlous liabihity, even when royal licences to practise the Art were granted, as they often were by Henry VI of England and other rulers For reasons of safety, therefore, as well as from a cupidity that - did not wish to share knowledge that might prove invaluable, the alchemists used to describe their theories, matensals, and operations 1m enigmaucal language, efflorescent with allegory, metaphor, alluston, and analogy. Some of tlus language can be interpreted by one famultar with the literature and with the substances commonly used in alchemy, and no doubt more of st could be understood by the adepts themselves, but the result of such cryptic modes of 14INTRODUCTORY expression 1s that it 1s not always possible to decide whether a particular passage refers to an actual practical expersment or 18 of purely esoteric significance Thus point ss referred to again in Chapters 2 and 7, but meanwhile it may be usefull to provide a sample in illustration According to an anony mous seventeenth-century book entitled The Sophie Hydrotith, the plulosophers’ stone, or the ancient, secret, incomprehensible, heavenly, blessed, and trrune universal stone of the sages, is made from a kind of mineral by grinding 1t to powder, resolving it into sts three elements, and recombining these clements into a solid stone of the fusibshty of wax The details of the process are scarcely as siraple as this outhne would suggest It 4s first necessary to purge the onginal maternal of all that is thick, nebulous, opaque, and dark sn at, an operation to be effected by means of ‘our Pontic water’, which is sweet, beautiful, clear, limpid, and brighter than gold or diamonds or carbuncles Then the ox- tracted body, soul, and spint must be disulled and condensed together by their own proper salt, yielding an aqueous liquid with a pleasant, penetrating smell,and very volatile This liquid is known as mercurial water or water of the Sun. It should be divided :nto five pornons, of which two are reserved while the other three are mined together and added to one-twelfih thew weight of the divinely endowed body of gold. Ordinary gold 1s useless in this connexion, having been defiled by daily use ‘When the water and the gold have been combined in a solutory alembic (p 48) they form a solid amalgam, which should be ex- posed to gentle heat for stx or seven days Meanwhile one of the two reserved fifths of the mercurial water 1s placed mm an egg-shaped phual and the amalgam ss added tot Combination will slowly take place, and one wall mingle with the other gently and imperceptibly 2s1ce with warm water ‘This union the sages have compared to the union of a bride and bridegroom When it 1s complete the remasn- ing fifth of the water ss added a little at a time, mm seven snstalments, ‘the phual is then sealed, to prevent the product from evaporating o1 losing sts odour, and maintamed at hatching-temperature The adept should now he on the alert for various changes. At the end of forty days the contents of the phual will be as black as charcoal: 15ALCHEMY this stage 1s known as the raven’s head. Afier seven days more, at a somewhat higher temperature, there appear granular bodies, like fishes’ eyes, then a cucle round the substance, which 1s frst reddish, then whnte, green, and yellow, like a peacock’s tail, a dazling white, and finally a deep red. That marks the cima, for now, under the rarefying influence of the fire, soul and spirit combine with their body to form a permanent and indissoluble Essence, an occurrence that cannot be witnessed without admiration and awe, The revivi~ fied body 15 quickened, perfected, and glorified, and 1s of a most beautiful purple colour, sts tincture has virtue to change, tinge, and cure every imperfect body. That 18, xf everything has gone well, but sometimes mishaps threaten ‘There are four bad signs a red oil floating on the surface, too rapid a transition from white to red, imperfect solidification, and refusal of a test portion of the substance to melt hike wax when placed on hot sron If these are not given immedrate attention no success will be attained If any of them should be observed, the compound must be taken out of the phral and treated with more of the mercurial water. It 1s then to be heated till any subhmation or evolution of vapour has ceased, when st may be replaced in the phial and the original treatment continued ‘The author concludes by reminding the successful operator that the Stone thus prepared includes all temporal felicity, bodily health, and material fortune By its aid Noah built the ark, Moses the tabernacle with all ts golden vessels, and Solomon the Temple, besides fashioning many precious ormaments and procuring for humself long life and boundless riches Yet the Stone cannot be applied for purposes of metallic transmutation an the form an which xt was left at the completion of the operation descnbed, but must be further fermented and adapted, otherwise 1t could not be con~ venuently projected upon imperfect metals ‘The additional treat- ment consists in melting sn a crucible one part of the Stone with three parts of the purest gold available, whereupon an efficacious tincture will be obtained capable of transmuung one thousand tumes 1ts own weight of base metal into gold Many other things may be done with the tincture which must not be revealed to this wicked world 16