WHAT IS JET GROUTING?

Jet grouting is a general term used by grouting contractors to describe various construction techniques used for ground modification or ground improvement. Grouting contractors use ultra high-pressure fluids or binders that are injected into the soils at high velocities. These binders break up the soil structure completely and mix the soil particles in-situ to create a homogeneous mass, which in turn solidifies. This ground modification / ground improvement of the soil plays an important role in the fields of foundation stability, particularly in the treatment of load bearing soils under new and existing buildings; in the in-depth impermeabilization of water bearing soils; in tunnel construction; and to mitigate the movement of impacted soils and groundwater. Soil Mixing Applications DSMs are a soil treatment whereby the soil is blended with cementitious and/or other reagent materials to treat soils in situ to improve strength and reduce compressibility. DSM Columns are normally installed in soft soils where settlement must be reduced and stability increased. DSM Deep soil mixing applications have also been used to treat contaminated soil, sediment, and sludge at remediation projects. Soil mixing has been used to treat soil, sediment, and sludge. The technology is proven effective for treatment of both inorganic and organic hazardous constituents. Selection of the appropriate technique depends on several factors, including the type of geotechnical constraint, the characteristics of the soil, and the desired end result. While most commonly used in cohesive soils, they also have application in loose to medium dense sands where the low-cost cementation they provide can avoid liquefaction. Full-scale S/S and DSM projects have treated inorganic constituents including lead, cadmium, arsenic and chromium and organic constituents including coal tars, refinery wastes, creosote, other polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). Binding reagent(s) can be mixed into subject material after the material has been excavated or while the material remains in place (in-situ treatment). Mobile equipment such as a pugmill can be brought to a remediation site to mix binding reagents into excavated material. For in-situ mixing, equipment such as backhoes, soil mixing augers, in-situ blenders, and road reclaimers are used. GROUTING TECHNIQUES The various injection grouting techniques used by grouting contractors for ground improvement / ground modification can be summarized as follows:

Permeation: Grout is injected into the soil at low pressure and fills the voids without significantly changing the soils structure or volume. Wide varieties of binders are used with this grouting technique. The choice of the binder is dictated mainly by the permeability of the soil. [Generally, water and cement mixtures are used where the coefficient of permeability is greater than 1 x 10-2 cm/sec. More expensive resin-based grouts are used for permeabilities as low as 1 x 10-6 cm/sec. Soils with permeabilities less than 1 x 10-6 cm/sec are normally not groutable by permeation.] Compaction Grouting: A highly viscous grout with high internal friction is injected into a compactable soil. The grout acts as a radial, hydraulic jack and physically displaces the soil particles; thus achieving controlled densification. Claquage: Grout is injected into the soil at a high pressure through a special valved tube, thereby hydrofacturing the soil. The resulting fissures are filled with the grout and the surrounding soil is modified to create a densified mass. Jet Grouting: This system differs substantially from the other ground improvement or ground modification techniques it breaks up the soil structure completely and performs deep soil mixing to create a homogeneous soil, which in turn solidifies. The jet grouting technique can be used regardless of soil, permeability, or grain size distribution. In theory, it is possible to improve most soils, from soft clays and silts to sands and gravels by jet grouting. Although it is possible to inject any binder, in practice, water-cement mixtures are normally used. Where impermeabilization of the soil is required, water-cement-bentonite mixtures are typically used.

Three basic jet grouting systems currently exist:

The monofluid jet grouting system uses the binder to break up and provide soil mixing of the soils surrounding the drill rods.

The 3-fluid or Kajima jet grouting system uses water and air to break up the soil and to produce ground modification or ground improvement by causing a partial substitution of the finer soil particles. The binder is injected independently through a nozzle located beneath the air/water nozzle. An intermediate 2-fluid jet grouting system has recently been developed to improve the range of influence of the monofluid jet grouting system.

THE MONOFLUID JET GROUTING SYSTEM Grouting contractors use a high-pressure pump to convey the binder through a drill string to a set of nozzles located just above the drill bit. The high-velocity, high energy jet breaks up and mixes the soil surrounding the drill string to create a column of stabilized material whose diameter ranges from 40 cm to 120 cm. The main equipment required for this jet grouting system is:

A high pressure, high flow pump (70 Mpa, 300 l/min); A jet grouting drill rig fitted with a special drill string and a suitable timer that accurately controls the step-raising of the drill string; An efficient batching plant with sufficient capacity for the required amount of grouting binder.

A borehole is drilled to the required depth by rotary or rotary-percussive methods using water, compressed air, bentonite, or a binder as the flushing medium. When the founding level is reached, the flushing ports are closed and the binder is injected at a very high pressure (20 Mpa to 60 Mpa) through the nozzles and into the soil. Simultaneously, the drill string is rotated and slowly withdrawn. Rotation speeds range between 10 and 30 rpm and the withdrawal rates vary between 20 and 50 cm/min. THE 3-FLUID JET GROUTING SYSTEM This ground improvement / ground modification technique differs from the jet grouting monofluid system by using a high-energy jet of water rather than the binder to break up the soil surrounding the drill string. The passage of the jet of water through the soil is aided by an aureole of compressed air concentric about the jet. The compressed air increases the radius of influence of the jet of water and it lightens the mixture of soil and water in the zone of influence of the jet, creating an air-lift that pumps excess water and soil fines, through the annular space between the borehole wall and the dill rods, to the surface. At the same time, the binder is injected into the soil water mix at approximately 5 Mpa through a second nozzle positioned just below the air water nozzle. In time, the soil and binder mix sets to create a column of stabilized material whose diameter may exceed 2 meters. Grouting contractors need the following equipment for this jet grouting system:

A high-pressure, high-flow pump for the water jet (70 Mpa 300 l/min); A low-pressure pump for the binder (7 Mpa, 120 l/min); A 3-way, coaxial drill string made up of a drill bit, a drill bit adapter, a nozzle holder for the cement nozzles, a high-pressure nozzle holder with the coaxial air/water nozzle, the drill rod, and a 3-way swivel. A jet grouting drill rig, fitted with a suitable timer that can accurately control the step-raising of the drill string; An efficient batching plant with sufficient capacity for the grouting binder; A reservoir for water.

The procedure for drilling is the same as for the monofluid jet grouting system. The flushing fluid is pumped to the drill bit through the binder line. Once the required depth is reached, water and air are injected through their respective lines to break up the soil surrounding the drill string. As the drill string is rotated, the airlift starts to displace the finder particles of soil. Injection of the binder begins as the drill rod is slowly withdrawn.

The fundamental difference between the two jet grouting systems is the diameter of the stabilize column and therefore in the volume of treated soil per hole. The 3-fluid jet grouting system is advantageous where the soils are difficult to drill, because fewer holes are required to treat the same volume of soil. However, this system is more complex and requires additional equipment. A larger volume of material is discharged from the boreholes; increasing costs and causing potential problems in soils with low permeability. The monofluid jet grouting system is more versatile; it can be applied at any inclination and consequently finds wide use in the stabilization of existing structures and in tunnels where space is restricted. Set up an excavation times are considerably shorter; the method is also cheaper, cleaner and less noisy than the 3-fluid jet grouting system. THE "2-FLUID" JET GROUTING SYSTEM This newer system is a combination of the monofluid jet grouting and the 3-fluid jet grouting systems. It based upon the principles of the monofluid jet grouting system, but to enhance its radius of influence uses an aureole of compressed air concentric about the jet of binder. Typically, the diameter of a column of soil treated by the monofluid jet grouting system can be increased from 0.8 inches to 1.8 inches by adding the air component. Equipment for the application of this jet grouting system is the same as for the monofluid jet grouting system, except for the 2-way coaxial drill string and an air compressor. CHOICE OF JET GROUTING PARAMETERS Experimental studies are being performed throughout the world to develop a formula that will assist in determining which parameters should be used in order to obtain the desired combinations of column diameter, speed of execution, economy, and final strength for different soil types. Once a set of parameters has been chosen to treat a specific soil at a specific site, it is common practice, and highly recommended that grouting contractors carry out a series of in-situ trials in order to test and oppose those parameters. Table 1 summarizes the range of parameters commonly used for the 3 different jet grouting systems.

Parameters for Jet Grouting

1-Fluid Min Max 60 120 3 25

2-Fluid Min 30 70 0.6 2000 1.5 1 5 Max 60 150 1.2 6000 3 2 10

3-Fluid Min 3 70 0.6 2000 20 70 4 1.5 1 5 Max 7 150 1.2 6000 50 150 8 3 2 10

Binder injection pressure (Mpa) Binder flow (1/min) Air Pressure (Mpa) Air flow (1/min) Water injection pressure (Mpa) Water flow (1/min) Binder nozzle diameter (mm) Water nozzle diameter (mm) Coaxial air nozzle opening (mm) Speed of rotation (rpm)

20 40 1.5 10

Speed of withdrawal (cm/min)

10

50

30

30

CALCULATING APPROXIMATE JET GROUTING PARAMETERS In order to develop jet grouting parameters, a good knowledge of the type and condition of soils by the jet grouting contractors is fundamental. Factors that affect the results of soils treated by jet grouting are:

1.

Soil type Soil consistency Bulk density Grain size distribution Water content Atterburg Limits The grouting contractors first need to choose the desired final strength of the treated soil. With this parameter and with the aid of the enclosed chart (Correlation Between Strength and Quantity of Cement to be Injected), they can determine the amount of cement that should be injected by the jet grouting system into each cubic meter of treated soil. This step becomes easier and more accurate with increased local experience by the grouting contractors. If binders other than cement are used, local grouting experience, laboratory or site tests must be developed to determine this parameter.

2. 3.

The grouting contractors need to choose the column diameter of the soil to be treated and calculate the amount of cement that should be injected per meter of column. The grouting contractors then need to choose the composition of the binder. The principle characteristic of the binder is that it must be pumpable. In a water-cement mixture, the proportions of water and cement will affect both its pumpability and its strength. The higher the water-cement ratio, the higher the pumpability of the mix, but lower its final strength. Other aspects that affect the mix composition include: the nature of the soil; grain size distribution; permeability; and water content. In permeable, granular formations, in-situ water and water from the binder may drain away from the treated area. Therefore, mixes with higher water-cement ratios may be needed. Conversely, in a cohesive, low-permeability soil, very little drainage will occur and a lower water-cement ratio should be used. In high permeability soils and where strength is of secondary importance, bentonite may be added to the binder to reduce the effects of drainage. In general, the water-cement ratio of commonly used binders ranges from 1.0 to 1.5. The ideal mix ratio however, must be determined from in-situ tests.

4. 5.

From (1), (2), and (3), jet grouting contractors can calculate the amount of binder to be injected per meter of treated column. The grouting contractors need to select the injection pressure (commonly between 40 and 50 Mpa). The ideal injection pressure is determined according to the experience of the jet grouting contractors and from in-situ tests. This factor is a function of the capacity of the high-pressure pump and of the nature of the soil. The higher the pressure of the binder, the higher the energy of the jet; consequently, the higher its capacity to fracture the soil. It is a myth, that the higher the pressure the larger the column of treated soil. Column diameter is largely a function of the time that the jet and binder is kept at one fixed level.

6. 7.

The grouting contractors must select the size and number of nozzles to be fitted to the jet grouting drill string. The jet grouting contractors can use the enclosed pressure flow chart determine the flow of the binder. From (4) and (6), the grouting contractors are capable of calculate the injection time per meter of column.

8. 9.

The grouting contractors can select the withdrawal step size (usually between 3 cm and 8 cm) and calculate the time required to inject the predetermined amount of binder at each level. Grouting contractors can select the speed of rotation of the jet grouting drill string. It should rotate one or two complete turns per step.

Jet grouting contractors know how to use the parameters that have been calculated following the nine steps to carry out a series of onsite trials. These jet grouting trials should consist of jet grouting four or more sets of three columns each set having different values of mix composition, flow and set time. After a pre-established setting time, the test columns should be exposed so their diameters and the strength of the soil-binder mix can be verified by jet grouting contractors. When the trial columns are deep, coring techniques can be used by the jet grouting contractors to recover samples for measuring and testing. From this experimental work, the jet grouting contractors can determine the ideal parameters for the project.