Homeostasis

Word origin: from the Greek: homeo, meaning unchanging + stasis, meaning standing. Homeostasis means same state and it refers to the process of keeping the internal body environment in a steady state, when the external environment is changed. It is achieved through the use of nervous and endocrine systems and their action is coordinated by the hypothalamus. Example: In humans, homeostasis happens when the body regulates body temperature in an effort to maintain an internal temperature. For example, we sweat to cool off during the hot summer days, and we shiver to produce heat during the cold winter season.

All homeostatic control mechanisms have at least three interdependent components for the variable being regulated: The receptor (nerve ending) is the sensing component that monitors and responds to changes in the environment. When the receptor senses a stimulus, it sends information to a "control center(brain). The control center determines an appropriate response to the stimulus. In most homeostatic mechanisms, the control center is the brain. The control center then sends signals to an effector (muscle, organ), that receives signals from the control center. After receiving the signal, a change occurs to correct the deviation by either enhancing it with positive feedback or depressing it with negative feed back. Both feedbacks are equally important for the healthy functioning of one's body. Complications can arise if any of the two feedbacks are affected or altered in any way.

Positive feedback
Positive feedback mechanisms are designed to accelerate or enhance the output created by a stimulus that has already been activated. It increases the effect of the stimulus. This process can be beneficial but is rarely used by the body due to risks of the acceleration's becoming uncontrollable. One positive feedback example event in the body is blood platelet accumulation, which, in turn, causes blood clotting in response to a break or tear in the lining of blood vessels. Another example is the release of oxytocin to intensify the contractions that take place during childbirth.

Negative feedback
Negative feedback mechanisms consist of reducing the output or activity of any organ or system back to its normal range of functioning. Example: Regulation of blood pressure, temperature, blood glucose, blood water etc.

Regulation of blood pressure

Blood vessels can sense resistance of blood flow against the walls when blood pressure increases. The blood vessels act as the receptors and they relay this message to the brain. The brain then sends a message to the heart and blood vessels, both of which are the effectors. The heart rate would decrease as the blood vessels increase in diameter (known as vasodilation). This change would cause the blood pressure to fall back to its normal range. The opposite would happen when blood pressure decreases, and would cause vasoconstriction.

Temperature Homeostasis (thermoregulation)

Endotherms
Animals that maintain a fairly constant body temperature are called endotherms. Endotherms normally maintain their body temperatures at around 35 - 40C, so are called warmblooded animals. Endotherm is an organism that produces heat through internal means, such as muscle shivering or increasing its metabolism. Example: Birds and Mammals.

Ectotherms
Animals that have a variable body temperature (all others) are called ectotherms or cold blooded animals. An ectothermic animal is one who cannot regulate its own body temperature, so its body temperature fluctuates according to its surroundings. Ectotherms are animals that warm their bodies by absorbing heat from their surroundings. The ectotherms use behavioural mechanisms (e.g. lying in the sun when cold, moving into shade when hot). Example: Reptiles, Amphibians, Fish etc.

Temperature Homeostasis (thermoregulation)

In humans, body temperature is controlled by the thermoregulatory centre in the hypothalamus. It receives input from two sets of thermoreceptors: receptors in the hypothalamus itself monitor the temperature of the blood as it passes through the brain, and receptors in the skin monitor the external temperature. Both sets of information are needed so that the body can make appropriate adjustments. The thermoregulatory centre sends impulses to several different effectors to adjust body temperature. Response to such variation could be stimulation of glands that produce sweat to reduce the temperature or signaling various muscles to shiver to increase body temperature.

Temperature Homeostasis (thermoregulation)

Blood Glucose Homeostasis

Glucose is the transport carbohydrate in animals, and its concentration in the blood affects every cell in the body. Its concentration is therefore strictly controlled within the range 80 - 120 mg of blood, and very low levels (hypoglycaemia) or very high levels (hyperglycaemia) are both serious and can lead to death. Blood glucose concentration is controlled by the pancreas. The pancreas has glucose receptor cells which monitor the concentration of glucose in the blood, and it also has endocrine cells (called the Islets of Langerhans), which secrete hormones. The -cells secrete the hormone glucagon, while the cells secrete the hormone insulin. These two hormones are antagonistic, and have opposite effects on blood glucose: Insulin stimulates the uptake of glucose by cells for respiration, and in the liver it stimulates the conversion of glucose to glycogen (glycogenesis). It therefore decreases blood glucose. Glucagon stimulates the breakdown of glycogen to glucose in the liver (glycogenolysis). It therefore increases blood glucose.

Pancreas

Blood Glucose Homeostasis

After a meal, glucose is absorbed from the gut into the hepatic portal vein, increasing the blood glucose concentration. This is detected by the pancreas, which secretes insulin from its -cells in response. Insulin causes glucose to be taken up by the liver and converted to glycogen. This reduces blood glucose, which causes the pancreas to stop secreting insulin. If the glucose level falls too far, the pancreas detects this and releases glucagon from its -cells. Glucagon causes the liver to break down some of its glycogen store to glucose, which diffuses into the blood. This increases blood glucose, which causes the pancreas to stop producing glucagon. Glucagon and insulin can never both be produced at the same time.