Methods of writing differential equation

Introduction
Analysis of dynamic system requires the ability to predict its performance. This ability and the precision of the results depend on how well the characteristics of each component can be expressed mathematically. Techniques for solving linier equation with constant parameters are very comprehensive. When the equation are time-varying or non linier, it is more difficult to solve them. Except for low-order equation may require numerical procedures. The purpose of this chapter is to present methods of writing the differential equation for a variety of electrical, mechanical, thermal, and hydraulic system. This is first step that must be mastered by the would-be control system engineer. The basic laws are given for each system and the parameters are defined. Examples are included to show the application of the basic laws to physical equipment. The result is a differential equation that describes the system. The equations derived are limited to linier systems or to those systems that can be represented by linier equation over their useful operating range. The solution of the differential equation is covered in the next chapter. To simplify the writing of differential equation, the so-called classical D operator notation is used. The symbols D and 1/D are defined by

Where Y0 is the value of the integral at time t = 0, that is, It is therefore the initial value of the integral. As a consequence of these definition ( )

Thus the voltage equation for an RLC series circuit is where each term in the equation is voltage. The initial voltage across the capacitor is V 0 = Q0 / C, that is, the value of the integral at t = 0 is the charge Q0. The circuit equation may be written in operator notation as ( )

Operating on each side of this equation with the operator D, that is, differentiating both sides, ( )

As will be seen latter, this operator notation not only facilitates the writing of differential equation but also is of considerable use in finding their solutions. In the general, time-varying quantitation are indicated by small latters. These are sometimes indicated by the form x(t), but more often this is written just as x. there are some exception, because of established convention in the certain symbol.

Electric circuit and component

The equations for an electric circuit obey Kirchhoffs laws, which state: 1. The algebraic sum of the potential different around a closed circuit must equal zero. This may be restated as follows: In any closed loop the sum of the voltage rise must equal the sum of the voltage drops. 2. The algebraic sum of the current at a junction, or node, must equal zero. In other words, the sum of the currents flowing toward the junction must equal the sum of the current flowing away from the junction. Both of these laws are used in examples are used in examples in this chapter. The voltage sources are generator. The usual direct-current (d-c) voltage source is a battery or d-c generator. The voltage drops appear across the three basic electrical elements: resistors, inductors, and capacitors. The voltage drop across a resistor a resistor follows Ohms laws, which state that the voltage across a resistor is equal to the product of the current flowing through the resistor and its resistance. Resistors absorb energy from the system. Symbolically this is written

The voltage drop across a pure indicator is given by Faradays laws, which s written in the form

This equation states that the voltage drop across an inductor is equal to the product of the inductance and the time rate of change of current. An increasing current means that the voltage is positive, and a decreasing current means that it is negative. The voltage drop across a capacitor is defined as the ratio of the magnitude of the positive electric charge on its positive plate to the value of its capacitance. The charge on the capacitor plate is equal to the time integral of the current plus the initial value of the charge. The capacitor voltage is

Methods of writing differential equation

Table 2.1

Electrical Symbols and units

Written in the form The mks units for these quantities in the practical system are given in Table 2.1 Series Resistor-Inductor circuit The voltage e (see Figure 2.1) is a function of time. Setting the voltage rise equal to the sum of the voltage drops produces

The voltage across the inductor, VL, may be desired and may be obtained in the following manner. The voltage across the inductor is

The current through the inductor is therefore

Substituting these values into the original equation gives

Feedback control system analysis and synthesis

The node method is also convenient for writing the system equations directly in terms of the voltages. The junctions of any two elements are called nodes. This circuit has three nodes, labeled a, b, and c (see figure 2.1). one node is used as a reference point ; in this circuit it will be node c. the voltage at the other nodes are all considered with respect to the reference node. Thus V ac is the voltage drop a to node c, and Vbc is the voltage drop from node b to the reference node c. For simplicity, these voltage are written just as Va and Vb . The voltage Va = e is known; therefore there is only one unknown voltage, Vb, and one node equation is necessary. Kirchhoffs second laws, that the algebraic sum of the current at a node must equal zero, will be applied to node b. The current flowing away from node b through the the resistor R is (Va Vb) / R. The current flowing away from node b through the inductor L is Vb / L D. The sum of these current must equal zero:

By rearranging terms, this equation becomes ( ) ( )

Except for the use of different symbols, this is the same as Equal (2.7). Note that the node method required the writing of only one equation. Series Resistor-Inductor-Capacitor Circuit For the series RLC circuit shown in Figure 2.2, the applied voltage is equal to the sum of voltage drops when the switch is closed:

The circuit equation can be written in terms of the voltage drop across any circuit element. For example, in the terms of the voltage across the resistor, VR = R I, Equal (2.10) become

Multiloop Electric Circuit Multiloop electric circuit (see Figure 2.3) may be solved by use of either loop or nodal equations. The following illustrates both methods. The problem is to solve for the output voltage Vo. 1. Loop Method. A loop current is drawn in each closed loop ; then Kirchhoffs Voltage equation is written for each loop : ( ( ( The output voltage is These four equation must be solved simultaneously to obtain Vo(t) in terms of the input voltage e(t) and circuit parameters. ) ) )

2. Node method. The junctions, or nodes, are labeled by letters in Figure 2.4. Kirchhoffs current equations are written for each node in terms of the node voltages, where node d is taken as reference. The voltage Vbd is the voltage of node b with reference to node d. For simplicity, the voltage Vbd will be written just as Vb. There are two unknown voltages Vb and Vo and therefore two equations are required : For Node b:

For Node c:

In terms of the node voltages, these equations are

Rearranging the terms to systematize the form of the equations gives ( ( ) )

For this example, only two nodal equations are needed to solve for the potential at node c. An additional equation must be used if the current in R3 is required. With the loop method, three equations must be solved simultaneously; an addition equation must be used if the voltage across R3 is required. The method that requires the solution of the smaller number of equations should be used. This varies with the circuit. The rule for writing the node equation can be summarized as follows: 1. The number of equations is equal to the number of unknown node voltages. 2. An equation is written for each node. 3. The equation includes the following terms : a. The node voltage multiplied by the sum of all the admittance that are connected to this node. This term is positive. b. The node voltage at the other end of each branch multiplied by the admittance connected between the two nodes. This term is negative. The reader should learn to apply these rules so that Equals (2.20) and (2.21) can be written directly for the circuit of Figure 2.4.

Mechanical Translation Systems

Mechanical systems obey the basic law that the sum of the forces must equal zero. This is knows as Newtons law and may be restated as follows: The sum of the applied forces must be equal to the sum of the reactive force, The following analysis includes only linier functions. Statistic friction, coulomb friction, and other nonlinear friction terms are not included. The three qualities characterizing elements in a mechanical translation * system are mass, elastance, and damping. Basic elements entailing these qualities are represented as network elements, and a mechanical network is drawn for each mechanical system to facilitate writing the differential equations. The mass M is the inertia element. A force applied to a mass produces an acceleration of the mass. The reaction force fM is equal to the product of mass and acceleration and is opposite in direction to the applied force. In terms of displacement x, velocity v, and acceleration a, the force equation is

The network representation of mass is shown in Figure 2.5a. One terminal, a, has the motion of the mass; and the other terminal, b, is considered to have the motion of the reference. The reaction force fM is a function of time and acts through M.

The elastance, or stiffness, K provides a restoring force as represented by a spring. Thus, if stretched, the spring tries to contract; if compressed, it tries to expand to its normal length. The reaction force fK on each end of the spring is the same and is equal to the product of the stiffness K and the amount of deformation of the spring. The network representation of a spring is shown in Figure 2.5b. The displacement of each end of the spring is measured the original or equilibrium position. End c has a position xc and end d has a position xd measures from the respective equilibrium position. The force equation, in accordance with Hookes law, is ( If the end d is stationary, the above equation reduce to )

The damping, or viscous friction, B characterized the element that absorbs energy. The damping force is proportional to the difference in velocity of two bodies, and the assumption is made that the viscous friction is linear. This assumption simplifies the solution of the dynamic equation.

The network representation of damping action is a dashpot, as shown in figure 2.5c. It should be realized that damping either may be intentional or may occur unintentionally and present because of physical construction. The reaction damping force fB is equal to the product of damping B and the relative velocity of the two ends of the dashpot. The direction of this force, given by Equal (2.25), depends on the relative magnitudes and directions of the velocities Dxc and Dxf : ( ) ( )

Damping may be added to a system by use of a dashpot. The basic operation of a dashpot in which the housing is filled with a fluid is shown in Figure 2.6. if a force f is applied to the shalt, the piston presses against the fluid, increasing the pressure on side b and decreasing the pressure on side a. As a result, the fluid flows around the piston from side b to side a. If necessary, a small hole can be drilled through the piston to provide a positive path for the flow of fluid. The force required to move the piston inside the housing is given by Equal (2.25), where the damping B depends on the dimensions and the fluid used. Before writing the differential equation of a complete system, the first step is to draw the mechanical network. This is done by connecting the terminals of those elements that have the same displacement. Then the force equation is written for each node or position by equating the sum of the forces at each

position to zero. The equation are to similar to the node equation in an electric circuit, white force analogous to current, velocity analogous to voltage, and the mechanical elements with their appropriate operators analogous to admittance. Several examples are shown in the following page. The reference positions in all cases should be taken from the static equilibrium positions. The force of gravity therefore does not appear in the system equation. The English and mks systems of units are shown in table 2.2.

Table 2.2 Mechanical translations symbols and units

* Mass M in the English system above has the dimensions of slugs. Sometime it is given in unit of pounds. If so, then in order to use consistent set of units above, the mass must be expressed in slugs by using the conversion factor 1 slug = 32 lb. Simple Mechanical Translation System The system shown in figure 2.7 is initially at rest. The end of the spring and the mass have positions denoted as the reference positions. Any displacement from these reference positions is labeled x1 or x2, respectively. A force f applied at the end of the spring must be balanced by a compression of the spring. The same force is also transmitted through the spring and acts at point x2. To draw the mechanical network, the points x1 and x2 and the reference are located. The network elements are then connected between these points. For example, one end of the spring has the position x1 and the other end has the position x2. Therefore the spring s connected between these points. The complete mechanical network is drawn in figure 2.8. The displacement x1 and x2 are node of the circuit. At each node the sum of the forces must add to zero. Accordingly, the equations may be written ( )

These two equations can be solved for the two displacements x1 and x2 and there the respective velocities Dx1 and Dx2. It is possible to obtain one equation relating x1 and x2 by combining Equals 2.26 ( )

The solution of Equal 2.7 would show the motion x2 resulting from a given motion x1. It would also be possible from equals 2.26 to solve for force f required in order for x1 to have the desired motion. Multiple-element Mechanical Translation System A force f(t) is applied to mass M1 of Figure 2.9. The system equations can be written in terms of two displacements x1 and x2. The mechanical network is drawn by connecting the terminals of the elements that have the same displacement (see Figure 2.10). Since the forces at each node must add to zero, the equations are written according to the rules for node equations: For Node 1: ( For Node 2: ( ) ( ) ) ( )

A definite pattern to these equations can be detected. Observe that K1, M1, B1, and B3 are connected to the node 1 and that the equation for node 1 contains all four of these terms as coefficients of x1. Notice also that element B3 is also connected to node 2 and that the term B3 appears as a coefficient x2. By using this pattern, equal 2.29 can be written directly. Thus, since K2, M2, B2, and B3 are connected to node 2, they appear as coefficients of x2. B3 is also connected to node 1, and B3 appears as the coefficients of x1. The node equations for a mechanical system follow directly from the mechanical network. They are similar in form to the node equations for an electric circuit and follow the same rules.