6TH AFA INTERNATIONAL ANNUAL CONFERENCE 31 JANUARY - 3 FEBRUARY 2000 CAIRO, EGYPT

Efficient Fertilizer Use and its Role in Increasing Food Production and Protecting the Environment
L. M. MAENE INTERNATIONAL FERTILIZER INDUSTRY ASSOCIATION, PARIS

Contents 1. Food supply and demand 2. The fertilizer life-cycle 3. Fertilizer use and the environment 4. Efficient fertilization 5. Balanced fertilization 6. The FAO Fertilizer Programme 7. Nutrient accounting 8. Integrated agricultural management 9. Research and extension 10. References 1. Food Supply and Demand In his paper entitled "Selected Aspects of the Future Global Food Situation", presented at the IFA Council meeting held in Rome from 30 November to 3 December 1999, Per PinstrupAndersen, Director-General of the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) stated: There is likely to be a gap between food production and demand in several parts of the world by 2020. Demand is influenced by population growth and urbanization, as well as income levels and associated changes in dietary preferences. According to United Nations projections, world population will reach 7.5 billion in 2020, an increase of 25 percent over the mid-1999 population of 6 billion. This means that, on average, 73 million people, equivalent to the current population of the Philippines, will be added each year. Over 97 percent of the projected growth will take place in developing countries.

Much of the population increase will take place in the cities of the developing world, where the urban population is expected to double by 2020. The urban proportion of the population will reach 52 percent. When people move to cities, they generally shift from diets based on roots, tubers, sorghum, millet, and maize to rice and wheat, which require less preparation time, and to more meat, milk, fruits, vegetables, and processed foods. IFPRI projects increases in per capita income in all developing regions through 2020, but income inequality is likely to persist within and between countries. Poverty is likely to remain entrenched in South Asia and Latin America, and to increase considerably in Sub-Saharan Africa, where per capita income will be less than a dollar a day. IFPRI forecasts a 39 percent increase in cereal demand between 1995 and 2020, and a 58 percent increase in meat demand. Almost all of these increases will come from the developing world. However, per capita demand for cereals and meat will continue to lag far behind that in developed countries. Strong meat demand will double developing countries feed-grain demand. To meet the demand increases, farmers will have to produce 40 percent more grain in 2020, with 80 percent of the additional grain coming from yield increases rather than farmland expansion. However, in both developed and developing countries, the rate of increase in cereal yields is slowing from 1970s levels. This is due partly to reduced use of inputs like fertilizer, reflecting low and falling cereal prices, and partly to low levels of investment in agricultural research and technology. Poorly functioning markets and lack of appropriate infrastructure and credit also contribute. The gap in average cereal yields between developed and developing countries is slowly narrowing, but it is widening considerably within the developing world, as Sub-Saharan Africa lags further and further behind other regions, particularly East Asia. By 2020, developing countries will produce 59 percent of all cereals and 61 percent of all meat. But cereal production will not keep pace with demand. Some poor countries are unlikely to be able to make up the difference through commercial imports, and although the global food aid tonnage is projected to rise over the short-term, it will not be adequate to fill in the gap. Many millions of low-income people may not be able to afford the food they need, even if it is available in the marketplace. A substantial proportion of world food supplies depends on the use of mineral fertilizers. It is difficult to know the exact contribution because of interactions with other factors. However, in IFDC's 1999 Travis P. Hignett lecture, Vaclav Smil from the University of Manitoba estimated that, globally, 40 percent of the protein in the human diet is derived from nitrogen fixed by the Haber-Bosch process. Already at the beginning of the twentieth century there was considerable concern on the part of scientists that nitrogen available from natural resources was proving inadequate. Without chemically fixed nitrogen, agriculture could not support today's population even at the expense of environmental degradation. And the nitrogen must evidently be accompanied by the other plant nutrients. Additional, large quantities of mineral fertilizers will continue to be required to satisfy the cereal requirements predicted by IFPRI. The problem will be to make the system sustainable.

2. The Fertilizer Life-Cycle The fertilizer life-cycle may be represented by the following diagram.

The Fertilizer Life-Cycle

Energy Energy Energy CO2 Energy

Raw materials

Production

Distribution

Use in agriculture

CO2 (N2O)

CO2

N2 O

NH3

Energy

Environmental impacts
N air N water N soil N health and safety N energy N resource depletion

Solutions
J environmental management systems J technical J regulations and policy J knowledge

IFA and UNEP have published joint documents on "Fertilizer production and the environment", "Fertilizer distribution and the environment" (in press), and "Fertilizer use and the environment". To complete the series, a publication on the mining of fertilizer raw materials and the environment is planned. J. Ksters (1999) reported on work on the fertilizer life-cycle in the north of Germany. Field experiments were carried out on winter wheat between 1989 and 1997. Nitrogen rates varied from 0 to 220 kg N/ha. Different fertilizers and systems were compared, including one which 3

included cattle slurry (the most polluting). "Eco-Indicators", from mine to farm, were calculated with appropriate weightings for the various impacts on the environment. It was found that the impacts of fertilizer distribution, transport, packaging and application were very small compared with those resulting from fertilizer production and fertilizer use in agriculture. Of these two, the impact of fertilizer use in agriculture was the more important, accounting for between 73 percent and 93 percent of the total impact, depending on the system. In most developing countries the relative agricultural impact would be even greater. The major environmental impact from fertilizer production is the unavoidable emission of CO2, resulting from ammonia manufacture without the down-stream facilities to make use of it. Otherwise, modern technology and an efficient "Environmental Management System" (EMS) can reduce other emissions from fertilizer production to negligible levels. Furthermore, a good EMS can reduce costs (K. Isherwood, 1999). It is, therefore, in the application of its products in agriculture that the fertilizer industry is most vulnerable from an environmental point of view. As regards energy, the researchers compared the total energy input in the system with the total energy output from the crops. The energy yield per unit of N was greatest at lower rates of N application but at any rate up to the economic optimum, normally 170 kg N /ha for wheat in northern Germany, the extra energy yield due to N fertilization was at least 5 times higher than the energy input through N fertilizer application. Hence, not only does a substantial proportion of the world's population depend for its existence on nitrogen fixed by the Haber-Bosch process, but also, through the photosynthesis of plants, the energy output is several-fold greater than the energy input. The challenge is to retain the benefits of fertilizers while minimizing adverse consequences. 3. Fertilizer Use and the Environment Up to the early 1980s, few questioned the benefits and importance of mineral fertilizers. It was generally accepted that they were necessary in order to feed the increasing world population and the general improvement in diets. However, around the beginning of the 1990s, the general public's image of fertilizers sank to a very low level. Fertilizers were accused of polluting the air, drinking water, lakes and the sea and even poisoning people. Some considered that they are unnecessary and could be replaced by other production processes. Where fertilizers are not used correctly some of the criticism is justified. This is not only a question of over-use and incorrect use, which leads to nutrient and economic losses, but also of under-use, which leads to soil degradation. Plant nutrients which have been applied and which remain unused by the plant remain in the environment and can have an adverse impact on the air, water, and soils. But in addition, the inefficiency represents a needless, large economic loss. The role of nitrates in human health is still the subject of active debate, with some scientists claiming that they may have a positive, protective role due to their activity against certain harmful pathogens. However, the basic importance of drinking water to human existence has led to a precautionary approach in the establishment of a limit for drinking water of 50 mg NO3 per litre.

Elevated levels of nitrates are also significant contributors to eutrophication, i.e. the excessive growth of algae and other undesirable aquatic plant species, particularly in marine and coastal areas. In Europe, large areas of the North Sea coastlines have suffered from such eutrophication, as well as areas of the Mediterranean. In the USA, nitrates are suspected of causing "hypoxia" in the Gulf of Mexico. Phosphates also can cause eutrophication. Phosphate in the soil is rather immobile and the loss of water-soluble phosphate through leaching is low. Phosphate enrichment of lake and river water may lead to eutrophication. Urban and industrial wastes usually account for most of the phosphate loading. However, surface runoff (including soil erosion) from cropland, pasture and forest, can contribute to phosphate loading of surface waters. Best management practices are highly effective in eliminating this possibility. Agriculture is an important source of ammonia emissions to the atmosphere, resulting in soil acidification and affecting biodiversity. Although most emissions of ammonia are from manure or natural sources, experiments demonstrate that nitrogen losses to the atmosphere in the form of ammonia following the application of urea can amount to 20 percent or more, under temperate conditions. Losses occur when the urea is not incorporated into the soil immediately after spreading and they are particularly high on calcareous soils. The expanding use of no-till and reduced-till cultivation practices increases the surface application of urea. Losses are even higher, up to 40 percent or more, under tropical conditions, on flooded rice and on crops which do not involve tilling of the soil, such as bananas, sugar cane, oil palm and rubber. Nitrogenous fertilizers are suspected of increasing emissions of nitrous oxide from agriculture, nitrous oxide being one of the three most important "greenhouse gases". It is estimated that N2O contributes between 5 and 7 percent of the calculated greenhouse effect caused by human activity. Management strategies that increase the efficiency of N uptake by crops probably reduce the emission of N2O to the atmosphere. The main loss to the atmosphere from rice paddies is methane, another greenhouse gas. Methane is produced during the microbial decomposition of organic materials in the absence of oxygen. Rice paddies contribute 28 percent of the world's methane emissions. However, the direct impact of nitrogen fertilizers on overall methane emissions is probably rather small. On the positive side, the increased vegetative growth resulting from the use of fertilizers sequesters carbon dioxide. One estimate is that for every kg of nitrogen applied as fertilizers, 10 to 12 kg of carbon dioxide can be sequestered. In recent years, it is the emissions of nutrients into water which has attracted most attention. With the increasing implementation of the Kyoto protocol and concern about climate change, it is likely that, in future, the gaseous emissions will be the critical issue. Several authors predict the need for a substantial increase in fertilizer nitrogen application for the production of the additional quantities of cereals anticipated by IFPRI. The challenge will be to provide the additional nitrogen without adverse environmental impacts.

4. Efficient Fertilization Efficient fertilization is synonymous with the minimization of nutrient losses to the environment, without sacrificing crop yields. Careful attention must be paid to all aspects of product quality to maximize the efficiency of fertilization. Excess nutrients, especially nitrogen, not taken up by the crop, are likely to be lost to the environment. Uneven fertilization means over-fertilization (pollution) of some areas, under-fertilization (loss of yield/quality) of others. Evidently, correct fertilization must be accompanied by other proper agricultural practices. A. Finck (1992) considered that the proportions of fertilizer nutrients taken up by the crop during the season of application are as follows: Nitrogen: 50-70 percent Phosphate: about 15 percent Potash: 50-60 percent U.S. Awasthi (1999) wrote: The low efficiency of fertilizer use in India is a matter of concern. Nitrogen use efficiency in rice is only 30-35 percent with an overall efficiency level of 50 percent. Phosphatic fertilizers are the costliest on a Rs/kg of nutrient basis but their use efficiency is only 20-25 percent. The efficiency of potash use is around 80 percent. In work in China (A. Dobermann, 1998), in 25 on-farm experiments, the average plant recovery of N by an early rice crop averaged 29 percent (range 10 to 65 percent), compared with 41 percent in a experimental station trial. In the case of farmers' practice 5 kg grain per kg of N applied was obtained compared with 24kg in the experimental station. On a late rice crop, recovery averaged 5 percent (range 0 to 12 percent). The author estimates that only 60 percent of the potential yield is achieved in intensive rice-growing areas of Asia, with very high N losses to the environment. In trials on rice in Vietnam, the average recovery efficiency of applied N was 40 percent in farmers' practice, but with a yield of only 11 kg grain per kg N applied. At another site, with improved agricultural practices a recovery of 69 percent was obtained by farmers, and 30kg grain per kg N. In view of the large quantities involved, inefficiencies in fertilizer use represent not only an environmental hazard but also a substantial economic loss. For example, given that about 80 Mt of N were used in world agriculture 1998, a 20 percent loss with a wholesale price of US$ 0.66 per kg of N in urea, amounts to US$ 10.6 billion. 5. Balanced Fertilization If fertilization is to be efficient it must be balanced. World nitrogen consumption has increased much faster than that of phosphate and potash, not to speak of the other nutrients, ever since 1960. Between 1960 and 1998, the world use of nitrogen has increased from 12 to 81 million tonnes N, a seven-fold increase in 38 years, despite a substantial fall in the countries of Central Europe and the Former Soviet Union since 1990. The ratio between N, P2O5 and K2O changed from 1:0.95:0.73 in 1960 to 1:0.38:0.27 in 1998.

The increase in the consumption of nitrogen in relation to the other nutrients is due to several factors. The price of nitrogen relative to phosphate fell after the developments in nitrogen fertilizer production in the 1960's, especially with the implementation of the steam reforming of natural gas. Much larger manufacturing plants gave economies of scale. There was a large increase in the production capacities and, hence, in the availability. Increased consumption in large developing countries often coincided with increased supply from new nitrogen fertilizer plants. New varieties of cereals, very responsive to nitrogen, were developed and in countries with a climate favourable to intensive pasture production, the nitrogen fertilization of pasture increased considerably. The effects of nitrogen application to a crop are normally rapid and evident. Under good management and favourable climatic conditions, the yield response to nitrogen is large and predictable. Renewed applications of nitrogen fertilizers are necessary since, apart from the crop up-take, a substantial proportion of the nutrient is lost through leaching, denitrification and volatilization. However, the other plant nutrients must not be neglected. Phosphorus, for example, is a constituent of proteins, enzymes, amino acids etc. It stimulates root development and is necessary for cell division. Potash is of vital importance for cells and their enzymatic and metabolic functions. At times of economic stress, the farmer prefers nitrogen because of the immediate and evident return. The same may apply where the farmer's financial resources are limited, his tenure of the land is insecure etc., which is the case in many developing countries. The effects of phosphate and potash are not as visible as those of nitrogen but they are nevertheless equally essential for a healthy plant development. In fact, if any plant nutrient, whether a major nutrient or a micronutrient, is deficient, crop growth is affected. One definition of balanced fertilization is "the nutrient mix which gives the optimum economic return". This may be at high levels in intensive agriculture, or at comparatively low levels in less favourable circumstances. In either case, balanced fertilization is necessary for use efficiency. Increased yields deplete the soils of the other plant nutrients removed by the harvested crops, unless they are replenished. At IRRI, it has been shown that while the application of an adequate quantity of N increased the yield of rice paddy 2.9 times, it also resulted in the removal of 2.6 times more P, 3.7 times more K and 4.6 times more S from the soil, compared to the amounts removed from unfertilized soil. In due course, these nutrients have to be replaced if the yields are not to suffer. The same applies to micronutrients. In developing countries, a more persuasive argument to farmers with limited financial resources, insecure land tenure, soils subject to erosion, etc. is likely to be the return he receives from the fertilizer applied during the season of application, rather than a desire to build the fertility of the soil over a period of time. Hence, his logical preference for nitrogen, and the challenge is to demonstrate that the efficiency of nitrogen is optimized when the other nutrients are applied in the correct quantities. Field experiments carried out by IMPHOS in Pakistan have demonstrated that phosphate application substantially improves the efficiency of nitrogen use. Work by IPI in India has demonstrated the same effect with potash.

In Pakistan, farmers have been applying large amounts of nitrogen, but only small quantities of phosphate. Other fertilizers, such as potash and micronutrients are hardly used at all. Organic sources are not being properly integrated with mineral fertilizers. Under such conditions, the soil is depleted and it takes more nitrogen every season to obtain the same yields. The application of fertilizers without lime on an acid soil, or without gypsum on a sodic soil, reduces their efficiency. In a long-term experiment in India, with the continuous application of fertilizers without lime, yields fell to zero. When the soil pH was kept near the optimum, the system became sustainable. Unfortunately, the supply and application of amendments such as lime have not received adequate attention in many developing countries. 6. The FAO Fertilizer Programme The FAO Fertilizer Programme, from its start in 1961, promoted the idea of "balanced fertilization". This programme started as the international fertilizer industry's contribution to the FAO Freedom From Hunger Campaign. Later, it became a joint venture between governments of developed countries, governments of developing countries, the fertilizer industry and FAO. The trials were intended more as demonstrations than to create data, but it was found that the results of some 40 000 trials could be analyzed. The results are summarized in the publication Fertilizers and Food Production, FAO, Rome, 1989 and are also available on IFA's web site, http://www.fertilizer.org. The evaluation of the data from 100 000 trials and demonstrations showed that 1 kg of plant nutrient (N + P2O5 + K2O) from mineral fertilizers increased the yield, averaged over all countries, as follows: Table 1
Average fertilizer response in trials and demonstrations of the FAO Fertilizer Programme, 1961-1986 Crop Wheat Rice Maize Millets Sorghum All cereals Root and tuber crops Pulses Oil crops Cotton Results evaluated 12500 22800 24700 3400 5600 69000 7000 5400 11000 7600 Most frequent range of Productivity Index* 4-8 8-12 8-12 4-8 6-8 8-12 32-48 2-5 4-8 3-6

* The Productivity Index is the amount of additional crop produced per kg of plant nutrient applied.

Nutrients often interact to provide benefits beyond those possible for one nutrient. In a trial on corn in Ohio, USA, reported by PPI (1999), the optimum N rate at a higher potassium soil test level of 138 parts per million (ppm) K produced approximately 2760 kg/ha more grain with 45 kg/ha less N than did the optimum N rate at the lowest soil test level of 80 ppm K. This resulted in an additional $350/ha net return to N fertilization, which increased from $250/ha to $600/ha. This amounted to $6/ha for each ppm of increased soil test K. Higher levels of K led to lower N requirements to produce higher yields and profits. Knowledge of interactions is important when trying to assess the effects of one nutrient application. Yield-limiting levels of one nutrient reduce yield and quality effects of another nutrient. 7. Nutrient Accounting All sources of nutrients, and both their supply and their removal, should be taken into account when determining rates of mineral fertilization. An important tool for ensuring that neither too large nor too small quantities of plant nutrients, from whatever source, are applied is the calculation of the nutrient balance, i.e. inputs minus outputs. To avoid confusion with the term "balanced fertilization" dealt with above, the terms "nutrient budgets" or "nutrient accounting" are used here. Accounting systems based on nutrient input and output are now used in some European countries as a measure for the environmental performance of farms, particularly in countries with a manure disposal problem. In the Netherlands, a compulsory nutrient accounting scheme started in 1998. In Denmark, since 1994 farmers have had to prepare fertilization plans and the amount of nitrogen that may be applied to each type of crop is regulated. There are heavy fines in the event of infringement. In Germany, a federal "Regulation of fertilizer use" model came into effect in January 1996. The model is to be implemented in the individual Federal States. In Norway, fertilizer plans are now compulsory. Nutrient balances may also be used to identify situations where "soil mining" is occurring i.e. nutrient removal exceeds nutrient input, from all sources, thus resulting in the course of time in soil exhaustion. FAO carried out a study of nutrient depletion in Sub-Saharan African countries in order to assess the net removal of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium from arable land. The results demonstrated that the total nutrient input minus total output is negative in each country. Land use systems were characterized by nutrient inputs (mineral fertilizer, organic manure, atmospheric deposition, biological nitrogen fixation, sedimentation) and nutrient outputs (removal of harvested crop parts and residues, leaching, denitrification, water erosion) and the balance between the two. The nutrient accounting technique appears to have been little used in developing countries, but, as noted in a 1996 FAO publication concerning the Philippines (FAO, 1996), it is a useful tool since it generates information on: The health of soils in various areas under various cropping systems; The current efficiency of fertilizer use; The scope for increasing organic fertilization; Minimizing losses of plant nutrients from the system; Appropriate fertilizer strategies for intensifying crop systems. 9

The report notes that the establishment of a "plant nutrient balance sheet" is a "complicated and long-term task and requires external support". However, on a national basis, it is possible to obtain an approximation of the balances, simply by using the FAO statistics on crop production and fertilizer consumption to compare the quantity of nutrients applied and the quantities removed in the crops. The results over a period of years may show trends which need to be rectified. But calculations on a national basis require careful interpretation. For example, a country may have a national surplus while experiencing nitrate pollution in some areas and nutrient depletion in others. 8. Integrated Agricultural Management Integrated farming is a combination of farming practices - including the use of rotations, cultivation, choice of variety and the skillful, precise use of fertilizers and crop protection products - with measures to preserve and protect the environment. The best combination must be specific to each farm. The concept is based on the German model (FIP) founded in 1987. In the UK, LEAF (Linking Environment and Farming) has the support from the government, farming groups, research organizations, the fertilizer industry, environmental campaign groups and consumer organizations. In France, FARRE, the Forum de lagriculture raisonne respectueuse de lenvironnement is gaining widespread support. Integrated farming takes systematic and simultaneous account of the environmental aspects, the quality of the produce and the profitability of the farm. Its aim is to develop an agriculture which is sustainable but which corresponds to the farmers needs and to societys expectations. Soil and water resources and biodiversity are respected. Fertilization and crop protection techniques which minimize adverse environmental impacts are adopted. Animal health and well-being, management of effluents and waste, optimal use of water resources and erosion control are all taken into account. A. Leake (1999) stated: Integrated farming is a recent development but it is already showing promise in its ability to deliver high yielding crops, cost effectively with reduced environmental impact. Such a system offers a real alternative for European agriculture compared to conventional high input systems and organic low output farming. Integrated agricultural management not "system", it is not prescriptive is in effect an Environmental Management System for agriculture. 9. Research and Extension To quote Per Pinstrup-Andersen (1999) again: Public investment in agricultural research, including molecular biology-based research, is crucial for achieving future food security. The private sector is unlikely to undertake much of the research needed by small farmers in developing countries because it cannot expect sufficient economic gains to cover costs. Benefits to society from such research can be extremely large but will not be obtained without public investments. Currently, low-income

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developing countries grossly under invest in agricultural research: less than 0.5 percent of the value of their agricultural production, compared to 2 percent in higher-income countries. Continued low productivity in agriculture not only contributes to food gaps in poor countries, but it also prevents the attainment of the broad-based income growth and lower unit costs in food production needed to help fill the gap and improve food security. While efforts to improve longer-term productivity on small-scale farms, with an emphasis on staple food crops, must be accelerated, research and policies are also needed to help farmers, communities, and governments better cope with risks resulting from poor market integration, poorly functioning markets, climatic fluctuations, and other factors. More research must be directed to the development of appropriate technologies for sustainable intensification of agriculture in resource-poor areas, where a high percentage of poor people live, and where environmental risks are severe. All appropriate scientific tools, as well as better utilization of the insights of traditional indigenous knowledge, should be mobilized to help small farmers in developing countries. The fertilizer industry started over 150 years ago as a knowledge-based industry, with the contributions of Gilbert, Lawes, von Liebig, more recently George Cooke, and others. The fertilizer industry is tending, under economic pressures, to become just a commodity industry. The scientific basis of fertilization must remain sound. In the early 1980s, IFA issued a publication entitled "Handbook on Phosphate Fertilization". The scientific part of this publication is being up-dated and will be published later this year as "Soil and Plant Phosphate". In due course, it is hoped to have a comparable publication on nitrogen. There is scope for improved products, but in most developing countries fertilizer use is so inefficient that the greatest medium-term gain could be had from improving the way in which currently available fertilizers are used. Many techniques for achieving this are known, but often they are not put into practice, due partly to inadequate communication to farmers of information on correct techniques, and partly due to a lack of motivation on their part to adopt them. U.S. Awasthi (1999), referring to the low efficiency of fertilizers in India, wrote: Adoption of the best time, method and dose of fertilizer application by the farmers is essential to achieve higher efficiency of fertilizer use. Soil testing to determine the fertilizer need, suitable fertilizer drills for the placement of fertilizers, the proportion of slow release materials, Integrated Plant Nutrition and other improved agronomic practices will certainly help in increasing the efficiency of applied fertilizers. In the new Norsk Hydro publication on "Agriculture, Fertilizers and the Environment", the following recommendations are given to improve nutrient uptake efficiency and reduce losses (M. Laegreid et al., 1999): 1. Fertilizer N should be applied at optimal rates according to a fertilizer plan that takes all N sources into consideration. 2. Application should he timed to crop needs and development stage, when appropriate through split application. Application outside the growing season should be avoided and no fertilizer N should he applied prior to a fallow period. 3. Adjustment of fertilizer plans to correct for unexpected N losses due to heavy rains or deviations from forecasted crop development should preferably be guided by measurements with a chlorophyll meter, or similar method.

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4. 5.

6.

The supply of nutrients should be balanced so that the N utilization is not hindered by deficiencies of other nutrients. Application equipment should be monitored and adjusted to ensure precision and control of the amounts of nutrients supplied, and good quality fertilizers that give an even spread should be used. The application should preferably be made by methods that minimize losses and maximize utilization, e.g. by avoiding surface application. Options are soil incorporation, or band or point placement close to the roots.

These are all more or less common sense measures which do not require research. However, as exemplified in a paper by A.R. Leake (1999) the development of an efficient, cost-effective integrated farming system requires a great deal of applied research. Even where the knowledge exists, there remains the problem of communicating it to farmers. In the USA, the knowledge transfer system is highly developed. Today, approximately 40 percent of the farms in the United States and 70 percent of the dealers are connected to the Internet. Forty percent of the on-line farmers have purchased products on the Internet. Dealers are beginning to help farmers to execute and fulfill production contracts. They are investing in information management systems. This is not the case in developing countries. In most developing countries, the agricultural advisory services have been run down, sometimes from a previously unsatisfactory level. Rectification of this situation would require a coordinated effort on the part of all the organizations involved, governments, NGOs, the private sector etc. There is no sign of this happening yet. In the meantime, fertilizer recommendations could at least be made as simple as possible with a limited number of well-chosen grades. The retailer is in direct contact with the farmer and is therefore well placed to give advice, but he needs to be informed, trained and motivated and supported by appropriate policies. With the liberalization of markets, the retailer plays an increasingly important rle. In general, the distribution sector of the industry receives insufficient attention. IFA, in co-operation the FAO and UNEP is preparing a number of publications on the subject. 10. References Awasthi U.S. (1999) Challenges to the Fertiliser Industry. Fertiliser Industry, Annual Review, Vol.XXII, The Amalgamated Press, Mumbai, India. Dobermann A. (1998) Summary report on 1997 results of a project of the International Rice Research Institute, the Philippines. FAO (1996) Plant Nutrition for Sustainable Agriculture; The Philippines. AG:PHI/94/01T Technical Report. FAO, Rome. Finck A. (1992) in the World Fertilizer Use Manual. IFA, Paris. Frink C.R., Waggoner P.E. and Ausubel J.H. (1999) Nitrogen Fertilizer: Retrospect and Prospect Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, Vol 96, pp 1175-1180, February 1999. Isherwood K.F. (1999) Mineral Fertilizer Production and the Environment, Fertiliser Industry, Annual Review, Vol.XXII, The Amalgamated Press, Mumbai, India.

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Ksters J. (1999). Life Cycle Approach to Nutrient and Energy Efficiency in European Agriculture, Proceedings N 438, The International Fertiliser Society, York, U.K. Laegreid M, Bockman O.C. and Kaarstad O. (1999) Agriculture, Fertilizers and the Environment, CABI Publishing,Wallingford, U.K. and Norsk Hydro. Leake A.R. (1999) Presentation of the "Focus on Farming" Project, 6th International Conference of AFCOME, Angers, November 1999. Pinstrup-Andersen P. (1999) Selected Aspects of the Future Global Food Situation, 25th IFA Enlarged Council Meeting, Rome, 30 November-3 December 1999. Potash and Phosphate Institute, PPI, (1999) Phosphorus and Potassium Economics in Crop Production, Better Crops, Vol.83 n 3 1999, pages 30 and 31. Smil V. Long-Range Perspectives on Inorganic Fertilizers in Global Agriculture, 1999 Travis P. Hignett Lecture, IFDC, Florence, Alabama, October 1999.

IFA Publications World Fertilizer Use Manual Controlled-Release and Stabilized Fertilizers in Agriculture IFA/UNEP Publications: Mineral Fertilizer Production and the Environment Mineral Fertilizer Distribution and the Environment Mineral Fertilizer Use and the Environment The Fertilizer Industry, World Food Supplies and the Environment IFA/FAO Publications Fertilizer Strategies Fertilizers and Their Use Fertilizer Retailing Guide (in preparation)

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