GERMANEXPRESSIONISMFROMTHEAOTHER@SIDE:PAULAMODERSOHNBECKERANDKTHEKOLLWITZ

AmongtheexplanationsfortheturntoprimitiveAroots,@wehavenotedthatitispossibletosee primitivisminartasaformofantimodernism.Inthiscontext,antmodernismisnotsimplyreferringto moderndevelopmentsinart.Wasantimodernismaformofoppositiontoindustrialism,capitalismand urbanization? AntimodernisminGermany(andelsewhere)wasfedbyanationalistcurrent.FortheRussianartists, theturntotheprimitivewaspartofa searchfornationalroots.Theurgeto findthekeytoanationalidentityleads tofolkculture,whichisseenas indigenousorsomethingwhich emergesspontaneously,andis thereforeabletosaysomething uniqueandnationalaboutacountry. TheroleofArealism@(astheantithesis ofthemodern)inthisartistic argumentistosupportthebeliefthat theimageinthepainting(animageof thefolk,thepeople,orthepeasants)is truetohowtheylooked.Thesame motiveoperatedinRussianrealismof thelate19thcenturyandmayhave contributedtothemoreexaggeratedly idealizedmovementsofsocialist realisminbothRussiaandGermanyin the1920sand30s.
Fig.1. P.ModersohnBecker,SelfPortrait, 1898

PaulaModersohnBecker(foranearlyimpressionistinfluencedselfportrait,seeFigure1)cameoutofa realisttraditionassociatedwithagroupofartistswhoworkedinWorpswede,aregioninGermany. BecauseshedidnotadheretotheAobjective@realismwhichtheotherWorpswedeartistswereusing, herpeasantsubjectmatterwasnotimplicitlyrepresentativeoftheAvolk.@Norwasherstyleinmany casesreadilymeaningfultotheGermanviewerbecauseofitseventualcombinationofimpressionistand Gauguinesqueinfluences.Addingtothecomplexityofherworkisthefactthathertransformationof

thefemalefigurewasnotconsistentwiththetypeoftransformationormeaningwhichthefemale assumedinsymbolistpaintings.Inotherwords,ModersohnBecker=snudes,whichcouldbeunderstood assymbolsoffertility,couldnotbeunderstoodassymbolsofsexuality.Andherpeasantsdidnotseem torepresentageneralizedunderstandingoftheApeople.@Tothis,weneedtoaddonemore complication.Unlikeotherartistswhoturnedtoideasabouttheprimitive,ModersohnBeckerdidnot gotoAsiaorAfrica;norisatallclearthatModersohnBeckerwastryingtopositionherselfasaprimitive inthewaythatGauguinwas.Shehasanambiguousrelationshipnotonlytoprimitivismbutto expressionism,themovementwithwhichsheisoftenassociated.Intheend,wehavetoquestionon someleveltheassertionthatsheispartofthecultoftheprimitive,andifsheis,toaskwhather intentionswere.DoessherelatetotherecoursetoprimitivismasaformofAgoingaway@fromthe urbanandapocalypticrealitiesofpreWWIGermany? 1 InthesensethatherimagesofmothersandchildrendonotconformtotheVirginandChildiconof westernart,shedoesseemtoAgoaway,@andinthesensethatherpaintingsdonotapproachtheideal caressofmotherhoodendowedbyMaryCassattonherimagesofmothersandchildren,theyalso departfromwesterntradition.Butperhapstheprimaryclaimtoaformofprimitivisminherartcomes fromthefactthatherimagesofmothersareimagesofnudesBtwotraditionsofpaintingthefemale whicharenotgenerallyunited.Womenrepresentingnudewomenandwomenrepresentingthemselves asartistswerebothdeparturesfromtheusualsubjectmatterofwomenartists,andtheyraise immediatequestionsforboththeartistandtheviewer.IfAwoman@signifiedsomethingtobelookedat, whethersexualobjectornature,andmansignifiedthelooker, theintellect,thecreator,thenhowdoesawomancreatean imageofwoman?Ormoreparticularly,ofherself?Giventhat ModersohnBecker=sshortlifeconsistedofadialecticbetween fulfillingsocialexpectationsofwomenandassertinghergiftsas anartist,wealmosthavetoacceptthatherchoiceofsubject wasanextendedanswertothequestionofhowafemaleartist shouldBEafemaleartist. Becker=sserioustrainingasanartistbeganinWorpswede,in 1897,whereshestudiedwithFritzMackensen(seeFigure2)in partbecausehisemphasisonthehumanfigureappealedtoher (InFigure3weseeapaintingwhichsharesMackensen=ssubject matterbutalreadybeginstodepartfromhismore impressioniststyle.Herselfportraitof1898,figure1,iscloser tohisworkintermsofstyle).
Fig.2:F.Mackensen,GirlattheGardenGate,1897

 Fig.3:ModersohnBecker,Elsbeth,1902

AlthoughWorpswedeseemedtofunctionasahome baseforher,BeckeralsostudiedinParis,makingat leastthreetripsthere.Shealwaysreturnedtothe Worpswedeenvironmentanditspeasantpopulationfor hersubjects,mostofwhomwerewomen.Because Becker=srelationshiptothefeministmovementwas ambiguous,it=snotclearthatherchoiceofwomenas subjectswasintendedasanideologicalstatement. Nonetheless,thesubjectofthefemalenudebya femaleartisthastobeunderstoodasadifferent statementthanthatmadewhenamaleartistpaintsthe femalenude. Beckerworkedintwodistinctstylesormodes:her Worpswede,sketchierandmoreimpressionistmode,andastylewhichsuggestsgreateraffinitieswith thesynthetiststyleofGauguin.Forexamplesinthisdirection,wefind,amongmanyothers,herOld WomanwithPoppies,1906,withitspeasantsubject,andherSelfPortraitwithAmberNecklace,alsoof 1906(Figures4and5).Note,however,thatwecannotidentifyapureGauguininfluenceineitherof these.Thepeasantwomanshareshisinterestinsaturatedcolorandheavyoutlining,andthe selfportraitmightseemtorelatetohisinterestintheexoticTahitiannude.Butthis,ofcourse,isthe artistherselfandnotanexoticTahitianwoman.

Fig.4:OldWomanwithPoppies,1906 Fig.5:SelfPortraitwithAmberNecklace

Yet,wemightnotethesuggestionofanexoticauratotheselfportraitandaCzanneesquetreatment oftheface,evenaswequestiontheintentionoftheartistindepictingherselfthisway.Finally,we shouldnotethatinbothpaintings,thereisadegreeofvolumeandshadingwhichisquiteunlike

Gauguininhissynthetistpaintings.Beckerdidkeepdiariesabouthergoalsinpainting,soweknowfrom herownwordsthatoneofhergoalsasapainterwasthatofachievingaAgreatsimplicityofform,@a Acoarser@styleandastyleinwhichApersonalfeelingisthemainthing.@Herrepresentationsofchildren, peasants,andmothersexudeaninnerpreoccupationbutonewhichofteneludeswords,andperhaps deliberatelyso,astheartisttriedtoreachatimelessessence.Orperhapsitwaslessthesearchfora timelessessenceandmoretherealizationthattheconflictsofbeingafemaleartistinGermanyatthat timeandinherlifesituationprecludedtheimageoftheartistasmotherifthatimageisseenasexisting inrealsocialspace. Becker=spaintingofherselfonhersixthweddinganniversary(Figure6),andnamedforthatday,was ironicallypaintedatatimewhenshewasseparatedfromherhusband.Herseparationwasvoluntarily choseninordertopursueherdreamofbeinganartist,andtheimageofpregnancy,ratherthan referringprescientlytoherfuturepregnancy,mayhavebeenintendedmetaphoricallyasanimageof theartistgivingbirthtoherselfasanindependentartist. Itisfraughtwithcontradictions:afemale artistpaintingherselfnudeandpregnantsuggeststhatthemirrorimage,theimagewhichgenerally givescoherencetothepersonlookinginthemirror,wasnotanentirelycoherentimage.

Fig.6:SelfPortraitonHerSixthWeddingDay1906

Shewasn=tpregnantandalthoughshewantedtobearchildren,certainlythedesiretobeamotherwas aconflicteddesireforawomanwhowantedtobeanartistandwantedtoendhermarriage.Wemight alsonotethatthisimagemakesaslightreturntothebrushier,moreimpressionisticstyleassociated withherWorpswedepaintings,makingherbodylesssubstantialthanthatofthebodiesofwomenin manyofherotherpaintings.Butshouldweseethatinsubstantialityasaspiritualrepresentation,the maternalvirginbodyinwhichinsideandoutsidefluidlyinteract?SuchthatBecker,bybeingpregnantin

animmaculatestate,isherselfandinthisworldmorethananywomanwhoiscarryinganotherbody insiderherownwouldbe? IfBeckerhasanyrelationshiptoprimitivism,I wouldarguethatitisnotaprimitivismwhich translatesasAgoingaway.@Myreadingofheris thatinhercase,itistheoppositeBaAgoingto@ inordertofindsolaceintheimageoftheearth motherwhichbecomesmetaphoricallythe femalecreatrix. Insomerespects,itisPaula ModersohnBecker,ofallartists,whomaybe theprogenitorofFridaKahlo=simagesofherself beingnursedbyanindigenousnursingwoman andshowingherselfaspartofthescorched earthwhichfeedsMexico.(SeeFigures7and8 fortwopaintingswhichmightbeantecedents forKahlo=swork.) Intheend,wemightsaythatlikeGauguinand Czanne,ModersohnBeckerchoseapaththat letherestablishartassomethingAfound@and Acreated@Bfoundintheimageofthemother, createdinherreformulationofthemeaningof theiconandinherreconstructionofthestyle shefoundinGauguin.Thecontradictionsof Gauguin=sprimitivismdoinhabitherworkas well,althoughnotinthesameway. Maybe thepointisthatAfemaleprimitivism@isnotthe sameasAmaleprimitivism.@Andlikewise, perhapsAfemaleexpressionism@isnotthesame asthatproducedbymaleartists. 2

Fig.7:RecliningMotherandChild,1906

Fig.8:KneelingMotherandChild,1907

KtheKollwitzalsomadewomenherpredominantsubject,althoughthewomeninherengravings, drawings,andsculptureareremarkablydifferentfromBecker=s.Onenotablestudyoftheroleofthe motherintheworkofbothKollwitzandModersohnBeckersuggeststhatthreeattitudesdominated Kollwitz=swork:thewomanwhoisprotectinganotherlife,generallythatofachild;awomanwhois reachingoutorembracingsomeonealthoughnotnecessarilyforthepurposeofprotection;anda womanwhoisshieldingherself. 3 Yetsometimesthisfemalefigureisthefigureofdeathitself. Kollwitz ultimatelygivesusthemotherasmonster,asthreat,andasprotectress,sometimesunitedinone figure.HowshouldweunderstandthecentralfemalefigureinTheSurvivorsof1923?(Figure9)

Fig.9:Kollwitz,TheSurvivors,1923

Kollwitz,asdidModersohnBecker,usedthemetaphorofmotheringasametaphorofcreating,buther visionisonewhichisdarkenedbyWorldWarIandthelossofherson.Allthesame,althougha biographicalexplanationseemstoexistforherthematicfocus,itdoesn=texplainwhythisconflicted maternalimageissoexceedinglydominantinherbodyofherworkandwhyitexistedbeforePeter=s death.UnlikeModersohnBecker,Kollwitzdoesnotresolvetheexpressionistambiguityinamanner whichishopeful. Inthisrespect,sheistruertotheexpressionisttendencytooffercontradictoryand selfcancellinganswers. Andinthisrespect,themothersinherworkcoalesceintoasingleimage:a motherwhonurturesevenasshewithdrawsordenies.Perhapsthatistheonlykindofmotherwho couldexistwhenatatimewhenmothersweresendingtheirchildrentowar. InDeathandaWoman(1910;seefigure10),thethreefiguresareinextricablyjoinedinawomblike space.Deathgrabsthemotherwhilethechildclingsdesperatelytoher.Thefiguresalmostcannotbe separated.Thefaintlegofthechildandtheclingingposesuggestthatthechildwillnotsurviveif separated. TheposeofthemotheranddeathhadbeenusedbyKollwitzinanearlieretchingcalled LoveScenebuthereitisreversed.Whenthetwoareseentogether,theimageofdeathbecomesthe mirrorimageoflove.EvenwithouttheLoveScene,wehavethesensualityofthemother/child connectionmirroredintheconvulsivegraspofdeath.Wealsohaveadarkerversionoftheearlier1903

work,WomanwithaDeadChild(figure11)wherethemotherhasunbearablybecomethefigureof Death,inthiscasenotclutchingawomanwhostrugglestolivebutachildwhohasalreadydied.The questionwemightaskiswhetherwediminishtheworkifwerecognizethepossibilityofaparticularly femalemetaphorwiththechildasasignoftheartist=screativepowerssuchthatthe1910etchingisone whichsaysthatthewomanisstrugglingtowardthechildasameansofassertingorembracingher creativepowers,thattheetchingisabouttheassociationofthematernalstatewiththecreativityofthe artistandthatwithoutit,theartistisdead.Yet,astemptingassuchaninterpretationis,weshouldnot losesightofthefactthatKollwitzwasapoliticalwoman,sheembracedartasameansofsupportingher politicalpositions,andby1933,althoughherlifewasnotimmediatelyendangered,shewasnolonger allowedtoteachartinGermany.Withintwomoreyears,shewasnotallowedtoexhibitherworkwhich wasthenremovedfrommuseumsandgalleries.

Fig.10:DeathandaWoman,1910

Fig.11:WomanwithaDeadChild,1903

1.IreferheretothewritingofGillPerry,APrimitivismandthe>Modern=,@whotalksabouttheideaofpirmitivism asaformofAgoingaway.@InCharlesHarrison,FrancisFrascina,andGillPerry,Primitivism,Cubism,Abstraction: TheEarlyTwentiethCentury(NewHavenandLondon:YaleUniversityPress,1993),945. 2.ForamorecompletestudyoftheworkofModersohnBecker,seeGillianPerry,PaulaModersohnBecker:Her LifeandWork(NewYork:HarperandRow,1979). 3.RosemaryBetterton,AMotherfigures:thematernalnudeintheworkofKtheKollwitzandPaula ModersohnBecker,@inGriseldaPollock,ed.,GenerationsandGeographiesintheVisualArts(London:Routledge, 1996),159179.