Research Methods in Psychology

The Scientific Method

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Psychology Questions

We dont always know how people will behave or what they think. We need to do research. For example, answer True or False to these questions:

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Psychology Questions (continued)

Mothers talk to their younger children differently than they talk to their older children. True or false?
False. Haden (1998) found that mothers use the same conversation styles (elaborative or repetitive) with their different-age children.
Haden, C. A. (1998). Reminiscing with different children: Relating maternal stylistic consistency and sibling similarity in talk about the past. Developmental Psychology, 34, 99-114.

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Psychology Questions (continued)

Few students will confess to ruining a computer program if they didnt do it. True or false?
False. Kassin and Kiechel (1996) found that 69% of students in their study falsely confessed to ruining a computer program and signed a written confession.
Kassin, S. A., & Kiechel, K. L. (1996). The social psychology of false confessions: Compliance, internalization, and confabulation. Psychological Science, 7, 125-128.
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Psychology Questions (continued)

Most individuals will notice if a person they are talking to is replaced by another person. True or false?
False. Simons and Levin (1998) found that only 47% of participants in one study and 33% of participants in a second study noticed that the person changed to a different person mid-way through their conversation.
Simons, D. J., & Levin, D. T. (1998). Failure to detect changes to people during a real-world interaction. Psychonomic Bulletin and Review, 5, 644-649.

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Psychology Questions (continued)

Writing about adjusting to college improves students grades. True or false?
True. Pennebaker and Francis (1996) found that students who wrote about adjusting to college had a higher GPA (M = 3.08) the following semester than students who wrote about superficial topics (M = 2.86).
Pennebaker, J. W., & Francis, M. E. (1996). Cognitive, emotional, and language processes in disclosure. Cognition and Emotion, 10, 601-626.
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The Scientific Method

The scientific method is the way that scientific psychologists gain knowledge about behavior and mental processes. The scientific method is not a particular technique or tool. Instead, it is a general approach to gaining knowledge.

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The scientific method (continued)

We can compare the scientific method to our everyday, nonscientific ways of gaining knowledge on several dimensions:
general approach observation reporting concepts instruments measurement hypotheses attitude

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General Approach
Nonscientific

Scientific

Intuitive

Empirical

judgments and decisions are based on what feels right.

judgments and decisions are based on direct observation and experimentation.

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Observation
Nonscientific

Scientific

Casual, uncontrolled

Systematic, controlled

personal biases and other factors influence observation.

essential ingredient of science. Scientists gain the greatest control when they conduct an experiment.
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control is the

Observation (continued)

Control: Scientists investigate the effect of various factors one at a time in an experiment. An experiment has at least one independent variable and at least one dependent variable. Independent Variable (IV): A factor that researchers control or manipulate in order to determine the effect on behavior.

A minimum of two levels: The treatment (experimental) condition and the control condition

Example: In the Pennebaker and Francis (1996) study, the independent variable was whether students wrote about adjusting to college (experimental condition) or about superficial topics (control condition).
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Observation (continued)

Dependent Variable (DV): The measure of behavior that is used to assess the effect of the independent variable.
Example: In the Pennebaker and Francis (1996) study on the effects of emotional writing compared to superficial writing, one dependent variable was students Grade Point Average (GPA). In most psychology research, several dependent variables are measured to assess the effects of the independent variable.

For example, Pennebaker and Francis also measured students health.

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Reporting
Nonscientific

Scientific

Biased, subjective

Unbiased, objective
observations and inferences are separate. interobserver agreement is important.

Personal impressions are reported.

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Concepts
Nonscientific

Scientific

Ambiguous
We arent clear in the meaning of the words we use. For example, what do we mean by intelligence?

Clear definitions
Define specifically what we mean by our concepts A construct is a concept or idea used in psychological theories.

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Constructs

There are many psychological constructs.

Examples: aggression, depression, emotion, intelligence, memory, personality, stress, well-being.

An operational definition is the specific procedure used to produce and measure a construct.

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Constructs (continued)

Advantages of operational definitions:

Allow scientists to define specifically what they mean by their construct Allow clear communication among scientists.

Disadvantages:
A potentially limitless number of operational definitions exists for any particular construct. Some operational definitions may be meaningless.

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Constructs (continued)
Match each construct with an operational definition: Construct Operational Definition
Aggression Depression Intelligence Memory Knowledge of research methods Personality
A. score on the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory B. score on the final exam of this course C. number of times person hits another person D. number of depression symptoms from the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual E. score on the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) F. score on the Digit-Span Test of memory
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Instruments
Nonscientific

Scientific

Inaccurate, imprecise

Accurate, precise
Accuracy: difference between what an instrument says and what is actually true Precision: measures have different levels of precision.

for example, clocks, gas gauges, measuring cup

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Measurements
Nonscientific

Scientific

Not valid or reliable

Valid and reliable

valid measures get at the truth, reliable measures are consistent.

measures of our concepts that are inaccurate or inconsistent.

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Measurements (continued)

Physical measurement involves dimensions that have agreed-upon standards and instruments.

Examples: length, weight, time

Psychological measurement is used to measure constructs for which there is no agreed upon standard or instrument.

Are there agreed upon standards for what is considered beauty, intelligence, or aggression?

Psychologists develop measures to assess these and other psychological constructs.

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Measurements (continued)

Measures must be valid and reliable.

Validity refers to truthfulness; a valid measure is

one that measures what it claims to measure.

Example: Do exams in your courses test the material covered in course lectures and texts? For example, a measure is considered reliable when different observers consistently agree about an observation.

Reliability refers to the consistency of a measure.

Note that a measure may be reliable but not valid.

For example, a scale that consistently underreports someones weight is reliable but not valid.
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Hypotheses
Nonscientific

Scientific

Untestable

Testable

concepts not defined clearly, circular, appeals to ideas outside realm of science.

concepts are clearly defined and can be measured.

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Hypotheses (continued)

Hypotheses are not testable if they have any of these three characteristics:

Constructs are not adequately defined.

Example: People become aggressive following exposure to media violence because the violence is disturbing.

The hypothesis is circular the event itself is used as an explanation of the event.

Example: People become aggressive following exposure to media violence because they become verbally or physically abusive.

The hypothesis appeals to ideas or forces that are not recognized by science.

Example: People become aggressive following exposure to media violence because they are overcome by the Devil.
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Attitude
Nonscientific

Scientific

Uncritical, accepting

Critical, skeptical
behavior and mental processes are complex, human mistakes are made (even in science).

accept claims with insufficient evidence, ignore contradictory evidence

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Goals of the Scientific Method

Researchers use the scientific method to meet four research goals: description prediction explanation application

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Description

Researchers define, classify, catalogue, or categorize events and their relationships to describe mental processes and behavior.

Example: Psychologists describe symptoms of depression. One operational definition of depression comes from the list of symptoms in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual.

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Description (continued)

Most psychology research is nomothetic rather than idiographic.

Nomothetic: large sample sizes, average performance of a group Idiographic: individual case studies Nomothetic researchers appreciate there are important differences among individuals; they seek, however, to emphasize similarities among individuals.

Most psychology research is quantitative rather than qualitative.

Quantitative: statistical summaries of performance Qualitative: verbal summaries of research findings

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Prediction

When researchers identify correlations (relationships) among variables, they are able to predict mental processes and behavior.

Example: As level of depression increases, individuals exhibit more helplessness (failure to initiate activities and pessimism regarding the future).

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Prediction (continued)

A variable is a dimension on which people differ, or vary.

Examples: childhood loss of parent (yes/no), symptoms of depression, aggressiveness, age, emotional problems, stressful life events, physical illness

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Prediction (continued)

A correlation occurs when two measures of the same people, events, or things vary together or go together.

Example: The more stressful life events a person experiences (one variable), the more likely they are to experience physical illness (a second variable).

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Prediction (continued)

When two variables are correlated, if we know peoples scores for one variable, we can statistically compute (predict) their scores for the second variable.

For example, if we know the extent to which someone has experienced life stress, we can compute their likelihood of experiencing physical illness (and predict stress based on illness). Because test scores (SAT, GRE) are correlated with grades, we can predict students grades based on knowing their test scores (and predict test scores from grades).

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Prediction (continued)

Correlation does not imply causation. We dont know why the variables are correlated. For example, theres a correlation between the amount of hair in ones ear and the presence of heart disease. (true)

Does this mean that having hair in ones ears causes heart disease? Does this mean that having heart disease causes hair to grow in the ears? Or is there some other variable that accounts for the relationship between ear hair and heart disease?
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Explanation

Researchers understand and can explain a phenomenon when they can identify its cause(s).

Example: Research participants exposed to unsolvable problems become more pessimistic and less willing to do new tasks (i.e., they become helpless) than participants who are asked to do solvable problems.

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Explanation (continued)

Researchers conduct controlled experiments to identify the causes of a phenomenon. Control requires that researchers manipulate factors, one at a time, to determine their effect on the event of interest these are independent variables. Researchers observe the effect of the independent variable by measuring dependent variables. Remember: The word experiment is often used in everyday language to mean the same thing as research, but the word experiment refers to a very specific type of research study.
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Explanation (continued)

Using experiments, researchers can make causal inferences statements about the cause of an event or behavior. Three conditions for making a causal inference:
1. Covariation of events: If one event causes the other, the two events must vary together (when one changes, the other must change also). 2. Time-order relationship: The presumed cause must occur before the presumed effect. 3. Elimination of plausible alternative causes: We accept a causal explanation only when other possible causes of the effect have been ruled out.

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Explanation (continued)

Example of a causal inference based on research findings:

Exposure to media violence causes an increase in the likelihood of aggressive and violent thoughts, emotions, and behaviors immediately after the exposure.

Based on this research, we know

Exposure to media violence and aggression vary together. Aggression follows after the exposure (not before). Other explanation for the relationship between exposure to media violence and aggression have been ruled out.
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Explanation (continued)

Causal Inferences

Scientific control requires that the effects of independent variables are isolated. A confounding occurs when two potentially effective independent variables are allowed to vary together simultaneously we cannot determine which variable caused the effect on the dependent variable. When an experiment is free of confoundings, we can make a causal inference regarding the effect of the independent variable on the dependent variable.

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Explanation (continued)
Describe the confounding in this research example:
A psychologist seeks to demonstrate the effectiveness of a new therapy for helping students to cope with stress. One group of students receives the new treatment during the fall term; a second group of students is placed on a waiting list to receive the treatment during the next term (control group). To make sure the students in the control group maintain their interest in the research project, an assistant calls them every week to check in and see how theyre doing. The psychologist measures the coping of students in both the treatment and control groups at the end of the fall term and discovers no difference in the coping for the two groups and both are coping well. The researcher decides to abandon the new therapy.
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Generalization

Researchers are not interested just in the one sample of people or the one set of circumstances they tested. They wish to generalize a studys findings to different populations, settings, and conditions beyond those used in the specific study.

Can we generalize or apply the findings from psychology studies with college students samples to other people? Can we generalize the findings of highly controlled laboratory studies to real-world settings? For example, can a study that examines conditions of aggression in the lab with college students be used to understand real-life conditions of aggression?
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Application

Psychologists apply their knowledge and research methods to improve peoples lives.

Example: Treatment that encourages depressed individuals to attempt tasks that can be mastered or easily attained decreases depressives helplessness and pessimism.

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Application (continued)

Basic and Applied Research

Applied Research: Psychologists conduct research to change peoples lives for the better. Applied research is often conducted in real world or natural settings. Basic Research: Psychologists conduct research to understand behavior and mental processes seeking knowledge for its own sake. Basic research is often carried out in laboratory settings with the goal of testing theories.

Both basic and applied research studies are needed.

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