Introduction to Computed Tomography

Kuo-Sheng Cheng Institute of Biomedical Engineering National Cheng Kung University

A picture is more than a thousand words.
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What is CT?
In principle, Computed Tomography (CT) measures the attenuation of emanating beams passing through sections of the body from hundreds of different angles, and then from the evidence of these measurements, a computer is employed to reconstruct pictures of the bodys interior.
Proc. IEEE
From C. A. Glasbey and G. W. Horgan, Image Analysis for the Biological Sciences, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 1995

Computerized Tomography Computer Assisted Tomography

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What is CT?
Major components: Energy source Tissue-energy interaction Measurable quantity Reconstruction algorithm

Modalities of Imaging System

Displayed information Anatomical image Functional image Molecular image

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Modalities of Imaging System

In Clinical Application X-ray CT Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) Emission Computed Tomography Single Photon Emission Computed Tomography (SPECT) Positron Emission Tomography (PET)
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Modalities of Imaging System

In Research Application Ultrasonic Computed Tomography Refractive index tomography Attenuation tomography Microwave Tomography Electrical Impedance Tomograpy Optical Coherent Tomography Neuromagnetic Computed Tomography
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Modalities of Imaging System

Historic Review
1895 - Discovery of X-ray Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen 1901 first Nobel Prize in Physics 1896, 1898 - Discovery of natural radioactivity Antoine Henri Becqurel, Pierre Curie, and Marja Sklodowska-Curie 1903 Nobel Prize in Physics

In Research Application Micro CT Micro PET

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Historic Review
1907 - First xeroradiograph 1917 - Radon transform for CT J. Radon Mathematical basis and concepts 1929 - Invention of Geiger-Muller tube 1929 - Clinical Diaphanography 1937 - Xeroradiography patent

Historic Review
1946 - Discovery of NMR principles Flex Bloch and Edward Purcell 1952 Nobel Prize in physics 1952 - Development of scintillation camera Hal Anger 1952 - 2D Ultrasound imaging J. J. Wild and J. M. Reid 1951 - Discovery of positron annihilation F. R. Wrenn, M. L. Good, and P. Handler
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Historic Review
1953 - Positron emission tomography G. L. Brownell and W. H. Sweet 1961 - Breast thermography K. Lloyd-Willians, F. J. Lloyd-Williams, and R. S. Handley 1968 - Single photon emission computed tomography E. Kuhl and R. O. Edwards
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Historic Review
1972 - Invention of X-ray CT G. N. Hounsfield and A. M. Cormack 1979 Nobel Prize in Medicine 1973 - Pioneers in producing MR imaging P. C. Lauterber and P. Mansfield 2003 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1978 - Impedance camera R. P. Henderson and J. G. Webster
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Interaction Between X-ray and Matter

Five basic ways: depending on energy of Xray photons 1. Coherent scattering
Thomson scattering: a single electron involved Rayleigh scattering: all the electrons and atom involved The percentage of radiation that undergoes coherent scattering is small compared to the other basic interactions; in general, it is less than 5%. Medical Imaging Laboratory
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Interaction Between X-ray and Matter

2. Photoelectric effect
The photoelectric effect always yields three end products: (1) characteristic radiation, (2) a negative ion (photo-electron), and (3) a positive ion (an atom deficient one electron). Good for image quality, but bad for exposure Three rules govern the probability of a photoelectric reaction.

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Interaction Between X-ray and Matter

3. Compton scattering 4. Pair production
This interaction can not take place with the photon energies less than 1.02 MeV.

Interaction Between X-ray and Matter

Scatter radiation adds NOISE to the system. The range of photon energy in diagnostic radiology is about 100 - 150 keV. Only two interactions are important in diagnostic radiology:
Photoelectric effect Compton scattering

5. Photodisintegration
The photon must have sufficient energy to overcome nuclear binding energies of the order of 7 to 15 MeV.
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Radiographic Image Quality

Unsharpness: Image resolution is expressed by modulation transfer function (MTF) and detective quantum efficiency (DQE). Image granularity: This is expressed by the Wiener spectrum (noise) and is determined by the number of photons or silver grains/mm2 at the image receptor. Image contrast: This is described by the gradient of the characteristic curve of the radiographic system and system sensitivity to radiation dose.
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X-ray Spectrum
Continuous spectrum: This is produced as a result of interactions of the incident electron with the Coulomb (electric) fields within the atoms of the material when the incident electrons are brought to rest (Bremsstrahlung) Line spectrum: An incident electron with energy above the electron binding energy of the atoms of the anode material may displace extra electrons, and then the vacancies is filled by the transition of atomic electrons from a higher bindingenergy orbit. The K series of characteristic lines for tungsten have energies from 57 keV to 69 keV. X-ray photon emission is proportional to the square of the material atomic number.
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Thank you for your attention

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Photoelectric effect
1. The incident photon must have sufficient energy to overcome the binding energy of the electron. 2. A photoelectric reaction is most likely happened when the photon energy and electron binding energy are nearly the same. 3. The tighter an electron is bound in its orbit, the more likely it is to be involved in a photoelectric reaction.
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