INTRODUCTION TO

PUMPS
INTRODUCTION TO PUMPS
Pump
Pump is a mechanical device generally used for raising liquids from lower
level to a higher level.
Pump is also used to add energy to the fluid to move it from one
point to another. This is achieved by creating a low pressure at the inlet and the high pressure
at the outlet of the pump. Due to the low inlet pressure the liquid rises from where it is
available and the high outlet pressure forces it up where it is to be stored or supplied.
However, work has to be done by prime mover to enable it to impart mechanical energy to
the liquid which ultimately converts into pressure energy.
Pump is also used to increase the flow rate of the liquid.
Classification of Pumps.
Considering the basic principle of operation, pumps are divided into
two main groups; Roto dynamics pumps (Centrifugal pumps) and Positive displacement
pumps. A complete classification of pumps has been shown in the pump types organogram

Centrifugal Pumps (Roto Dynamic Pumps)

Centrifugal pumps are the machines which employ centrifugal force to lift the
liquid from lower level to a higher level by developing pressure. A simplest type of pump
comprises of an impeller fitted on to a shaft rotating in a volute casing.
Liquids led into the center of the impeller( known as eye of the impeller) is picked up
by the vanes of impeller and accelerated to a high velocity by the rotation of the impeller and
discharge by centrifugal force into the casing and then out the discharge pipe. When liquid is
forced away from the center, a vacuum is created and more liquid flows in. Continuous
lifting of the liquid thus takes place from sump to the pump. While passing through the
impeller the liquid receives energy from the vanes and gains in pressure energy and Kinetic
energy. Since large amount of K.E. is not desirable at the impeller outlet, arrangement is
made in design to convert K.E. to Pressure energy before the liquid enters the discharge pipe.
PUMP CLASSIFICATION CHART
PUMPS
BY CASING
ARRAGMENT
ROTARY
PUMPS
RECIPROCAT
ING PUMPS
CENTRIFUGAL
PUMPS(RADIAL
TYPE)
ROTODYNAMIC
PUMPS
MIXED FLOW
PUMPS
(SEMI AXIAL)
AXIAL
PUMPS(PROPE
LLER TYPE)
POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT
PUMPS
PLUNGER
PUMPS
VOLUTE
TYPE
DIFFUSER
TYPE
PISTON
PUMPS
BY
FLOW
BY
PRESSURE
BY
CASING
BY
IMPELLER
DESIGN
SLIDING
VANE
PARALLEL
/ SERIES
SINGLE /
MULTI-
STAGE
BY
INSTAL
LATION
VERTICAL /
HORIZONTAL
SPLIT
ROTOR
PUMP
OPENED
SINGLE &
DOUBLE
SUCTION
CLOSED SEMI CLOSED
SCREW
PUMP
GEAR
PUMP
Classification of Centrifugal Pumps.
i) By Pressure
Single Stage centrifugal pumps
A pump that is based on one impeller is called single stage centrifugal
pump. It is used for relatively low pressure applications.
Multi Stage Centrifugal Pumps.
A pump that is based on two or more than two impellers is known as multi
stage pump. It is used for high pressure requirements.
ii) By flow
Single Suction
A pump in which its impeller has only one suction eye at one of its side is
called single suction pump. It is used for relatively low flow applications.
Double Suction
A pump in which its impeller has suction eyes on both of its sides. It is
used for relatively high flow requirements.
(iii) By Installation
Parallel arrangement
Pumps are installed in parallel to obtain high flow and same pressure.
Series Arrangement.
Pimps are installed in series to obtain high pressure and same capacity.

(iv) By Casing
Vertical Split.
A pump in which casing split is vertical w.r.t. to ground level.
Horizontal Split.
A pump in which casing split is horizontal w.r.t. ground level.
Components of Centrifugal Pumps.

A centrifugal pump mainly comprises of following components.
1. Impeller

Impeller is the heart of the centrifugal pump. It rotates the liquid mass with a
peripheral speed of its vane tips. The whirling movement of impeller imparts centrifugal
force to the liquid and increases its velocity head. Impeller does not increase liquid pressure.
But high velocity head is converted in to pressure head in the volute. Increase in velocity is
directly proportional to the impeller diameter and pump speed.
The impeller is mounted on the shaft which is supported by bearings and driven through
a flexible or rigged coupling by an electric motor or some times by a turbine.

Impeller may be classified on the basis of its construction as
a) Closed or Shrouded Impeller
b) Semi open ( Semi closed) Impeller
c) Open type Impeller.
a) Close Or Shrouded Impeller
This type of impeller contains two shrouds (or side wall) in which plane or
curved vanes are inserted. If the shroud are normal to shaft axis. Then the impeller is
designated as radial impeller. But at the entrance side the shroud is slightly curved. These
impellers usually have plane vanes of single curvature curved backwards. Wider impellers
have vanes of double curvature, the suctions ends being twisted; such vanes are called mix
flow vanes or Francis type.
This type of impeller is suitable for pumping pure liquids like water, oil, alkali and acids
etc. The material selected for impeller is such that it can resist the reaction of liquid to be
handled. This construction is also beneficial because of least liquid slippage.
b) Semi Opened (Semi Closed) Impeller.
In this type of impeller vanes are fixed on one shroud only. These impellers have
less number of vanes but have more length to avoid clogging of impeller. This type of
impeller is used for pumping liquid containing muck and debris up to some extent only, such
as sewage water, paper pulp, etc. Water slippage exists but less than open type.
c) Open type Impeller.
In this type of impeller the vanes are directly fixed on the web. There is no
shroud. The impeller is used for pumping slurry or liquids having large solid particles like
sand and pebbles etc. These impellers are required to perform very rough duty and as such
these are generally made of very tough material having a property of wear and impact
resistance. Water slippage exists with relatively less liquid velocity.
Wear rings:
Wear ring provides an easily and economically renewable leakage joint between the
impeller and the casing. clearance becomes too large the pump efficiency will be lowered
causing heat and vibration problems. Most manufacturers require that you disassemble the
pump to check the wear ring clearance and replace the rings when this clearance doubles.
2. Pump Casing
A casing is provided for housing the impeller and supporting the bearings
provided with the shaft. Also, the casing has provision for connecting with the suction and
delivery pipe lines. As it handles liquids with higher pressure, a stuffing box is provided to
prevent leakage from the gap between the pump casing and the shaft. Also, closely fitted
rings, called wearing rings, are mounted on the impeller and fitted in the casing to restrict
leakage of high pressure liquid back to the pump Suction.
The efficiency of a pump depends on the type of casing used. As such, a casing should not
waste more energy due to eddy formation. To minimize the energy loss in pump casing, three
common types of designs of casing are in use. These are:
a) Volute type Casing
b) Vortex or whirlpool Casing
c) Diffuser (-ring) type Casing or turbine Casing
Volute Type Casing
This is used very commonly for its simplicity in construction. The water discharged
by the impeller enters into a - progressively expanding spiral casing. The cross-section of the
casing generally increases uniformly from the nose or tongue to the point of discharge pipe.
This casing helps in producing equal velocity flow all ~ around its circumference and to
reduce gradually the velocity of the liquid as it flows from the impeller to the discharge, pipe,
thus changing velocity head into pressure head.
These casings can convert only a small amount of velocity head into pressure head and a
large amount of velocity head , lost in eddies. Therefore, these pumps can produce
comparatively low heads.
The construction of volute type pump casing has been shown in Fig.
Vortex or Whirlpool Casing
For better performance of the pump, sometimes an annular space, known as vortex or
whirlpool chamber, is provided between the impeller and the volute. It is generally formed as
a part of the casing, with parallel side walls which serves as a diffuser without guide vanes.
Since no work is done on the water while in this chamber, its energy remains constant except
slight loss by friction. The torque, which is produced by the water, does not change as it
passes through the chamber and its velocity of whirl must vary inversely as us radial distance
from the centre. The reduction in velocity being accompanied by a rise in pressure, the
chamber adds to the efficiency of the pump. The construction of volute casing with vortex
chamber has been shown in Fig. 2.7.
Diffuser (-ring) type Casing or Turbine Casing
In this system, the impeller is surrounded by a series of stationary guide vanes or by a
diffuser ring with guide vanes which by their divergence furnish gradually expanding
passages for the water to follow after leaving the impeller. In this process, the direction of
flow is changed, and velocity head is converted to pressure head before the liquid enters the
volute. In this type of casing, the velocity head of the liquid leaving the impeller is
completely converted into pressure than in the volute type.
Hence, efficiency is slightly higher than volute type. But the construction is so complicated
that the cost of manufacturing the pump is very high. Moreover, under variable conditions of
speed and discharge, the efficiency of this pump goes down since the diffuser is generally
designed for one rate of discharge at a given impeller speed. Considering it, the volute type
pump is preferred more.
The pumps having diffuser (-ring) type casing are commonly known as "Turbine Pumps'.
These pumps arc mostly used as vertical pumps and are very suitable for installations in
power .plants, deep wells and mines etc. The construction of diffuser type pump casing has
been shown in
3. Suction Pipe
It is a pipe, whose upper end is connected with the pump on suction side,
and lower end is submerged in the liquid in a sump. The lower end of the pipe is fitted with a
foot valve and strainer. When liquid enters in the suction pipe, the strainer Keeps the debris
like wooden-pieces, pebbles or brick pieces, tree branches, etc., away from entrance to the
pipe. This helps in allowing clear liquid to enter into the suction pipe through the foot valve.
Since the liquid path between the suction flange and the impeller eye is short and velocity in
the suction pipe is relatively low, the
1
loss of head due to friction in the suction side is very
small, However, the design of the suction pipe has an important bearing on the velocity
distribution before the impeller, and it may affect the impeller efficiency. With vertical
pumps the suction sump becoming an important part of the impeller approach as the pump is
directly connected to sump through only a short suction bell, which has a direct bearing on
the performance of the pump. A long-reducing bend or a straight tapered suction gradually
reducing toward the impeller eye gives a steadying effect on the flow and assures a uniform
supply to the pump impeller, In case of propeller pumps, the elbow suction may be avoided
as it reduces the efficiency and head both.
4. Delivery Pipe
The delivery pipe starts from the outlet flange of the pump and ends at the supply end or
reservoir as the case may be. Just after the pump outlet flange, a sluice valve is fitted in the
pipe along with a reflux or non-return valve. The velocity of liquid in this pipe is kept little
higher than the velocity in suction pipe. The' velocity in delivery pipe ranges from 1.5 to 3.5
m/sec.
The sluice valve is connected to stop and regulate the flow of liquid occasionally
required.
5. Prime Mover
Generally an electric motor is provided and, coupled with the pump shaft
to give necessary energy to the impeller. Using diesel generator set as prime mover, the
power is transmitted to the pump shaft through a belting system.
6. Seal chamber and Stuffing box
Seal chamber and Stuffing box both refer to a chamber, either integral with or separate from
the pump case housing that forms the region between the shaft and casing where sealing
media are installed. When the sealing is achieved by means of a mechanical seal, the
chamber is commonly referred to as a Seal Chamber. When the sealing is achieved by means
of packing, the chamber is referred to as a Stuffing Box. Both the seal chamber and the
stuffing box have the primary function of protecting the pump against leakage at the point
where the shaft passes out through the pump pressure casing. When the pressure at the
bottom of the chamber is below atmospheric, it prevents air leakage into the pump. When the
pressure is above atmospheric, the chambers prevent liquid leakage out of the pump. The
seal chambers and stuffing boxes are also provided with cooling or heating arrangement for
proper temperature control. Figure B.06 below depicts an externally mounted seal chamber
and its parts.
Figure B.06: Parts of a simple Seal Chamber
o Gland: The gland is a very important part of the seal chamber or the stuffing box. It
gives the packings or the mechanical seal the desired fit on the shaft sleeve. It can be easily
adjusted in axial direction. The gland comprises of the seal flush, quench, cooling, drain, and
vent connection ports as per the standard codes like API 682.
o Throat Bushing: The bottom or inside end of the chamber is provided with a stationary
device called throat bushing that forms a restrictive close clearance around the sleeve (or
shaft) between the seal and the impeller.
o Throttle bushing refers to a device that forms a restrictive close clearance around the
sleeve (or shaft) at the outboard end of a mechanical seal gland.
o Internal circulating device refers to device located in the seal chamber to circulate seal
chamber fluid through a cooler or barrier/buffer fluid reservoir. Usually it is referred to as a
pumping ring.
o Mechanical Seal: The features of a mechanical seal will be discussed in Part-II of the
article.
Bearing housing
The bearing housing encloses the bearings mounted on the shaft. The bearings keep the
shaft or rotor in correct alignment with the stationary parts under the action of radial and
transverse loads. The bearing house also includes an oil reservoir for lubrication, constant
level oiler, jacket for cooling by circulating cooling water.
Shaft
The basic purpose of a centrifugal pump shaft is to transmit the torques encountered when
starting and during operation while supporting the impeller and other rotating parts. It must
do this job with a deflection less than the minimum clearance between the rotating and
stationary parts.
Shaft Sleeve (Figure B.08)
Pump shafts are usually protected from erosion, corrosion, and wear at the
seal chambers, leakage joints, internal bearings, and in the waterways by renewable sleeves.
Unless otherwise specified, a shaft sleeve of wear, corrosion, and erosion-resistant material
shall be provided to protect the shaft. The sleeve shall be sealed at one end. The shaft sleeve
assembly shall extend beyond the outer face of the seal gland plate. (Leakage between the
shaft and the sleeve should not be confused with leakage through the mechanical seal).
Figure B.08: A view of a shaft sleeve
Coupling:
Couplings can compensate for axial growth of the shaft and transmit torque to
the impeller. Shaft couplings can be broadly classified into two groups: rigid and flexible.
Rigid couplings are used in applications where there is absolutely no possibility or room for
any misalignment. Flexible shaft couplings are more prone to selection, installation and
maintenance errors. Flexible shaft couplings can be divided into two basic groups:
elastomeric and non-elastomeric
Elastomeric couplings use either rubber or polymer elements to achieve flexibility.
These elements can either be in shear or in compression. Tire and rubber sleeve designs are
elastomer in shear couplings; jaw and pin and bushing designs are elastomer in compression
couplings.
Non-electromeric couplings use metallic elements to obtain flexibility. These can
be one of two types: lubricated or non-lubricated. Lubricated designs accommodate
misalignment by the sliding action of their components, hence the need for lubrication. The
non-lubricated designs accommodate misalignment through flexing. Gear, grid and chain
couplings are examples of non-elastomeric, lubricated couplings. Disc and diaphragm
couplings are non-elastomeric and non-lubricated.
Auxiliary Components
Auxiliary components generally include the following piping systems for the following
services:
o Seal flushing , cooling , quenching systems
o Seal drains and vents
o Bearing lubrication , cooling systems
o Seal chamber or stuffing box cooling, heating systems
o Pump pedestal cooling systems
Auxiliary piping systems include tubing, piping, isolating valves, control valves, relief
valves, temperature gauges and thermocouples, pressure gauges, sight flow indicators,
orifices, seal flush coolers, dual seal barrier/buffer fluid reservoirs, and all related vents and
drains.
Working
Working of the Centrifugal pump can be understood by studying the pump
layout as given in the fig.
A centrifugal pump is capable of sucking liquids. In order to make it work, priming has to
be done first (Priming will be explain later) this is done for removal of air as impeller can not
produce pressure in presence of air which has very low density. The pressure generated by
the impeller is directly proportional to the density of the liquid to be pumped. Thus if the
impeller runs in air, a negligible pressure will be produced because of very low density of air
(1.22 Kg/m
2
).
After priming the pump is started (by Electric motor) keeping the delivery valve still
closed. The rotation of the impeller in casing full of liquid produces centrifugal head in liquid
and thus pressure in whole of the liquid is increased. After attaining the constant speed, the
delivery valve is gradually opened and thus liquid is allowed to flow out in the pipe. At the
same time centrifugal action creates partial vacuum at the center of impeller which causes the
water to rush through the suction pipe towards the eye of impeller from the sump
continuously as the pump continuous to discharge.

Centrifugal Pump Arrangements
Centrifugal pumps can be arranged with either a horizontal or a vertical shaft
as shown in Figs. 2.9 and 2.10, respectively, depending on the application, type of drive
arrangement and other requirements. But vertical turbine pump is the one which has been
specifically developed for vertical operation- Considering space limitation, these pumps have
greater utility. Also, due to better efficiency, these pumps are now used widely for a variety
of services for which horizontal pumps were used in the past.
In construction, almost all the centrifugal pumps are similar- One can use stuffing box
sealing arrangement or mechanical sea] depending upon the fluid to be delivered and the
utility of the pump. While designing care must be taken so that the pressure behind the
impeller is more. Otherwise, air will leak to the impeller. For this reason, a pipe connection is
taken from discharge casing to the 'lantern ring of the stuffing box. The hydraulic thrust
should be normally balanced for better result of the pump.
Positive Displacement Pumps
The positive displacement pumps are those in which the liquid is sucked and
then it is pushed forward due to the thrust exerted on it by a moving .member. As such, the
discharge of liquid pumped wholly depends on the speed of the pump. These type of pumps
are divided in two main groups:
i) Reciprocating-type Pumps
ii)'Rotary-type Pumps
Reciprocating-type Pumps
These pumps have cylinder and piston assembly as main working unit. The piston moves
forward and backward in the cylinder. This motion is derived from a connecting rod which is
being driven by a crank revolving at uniform speed. The motion of piston being reciprocating
in nature the pump is named as reciprocating pump. The pump unit has automatic control
valves to regulate the flow of liquid into the cylinder and out again.
These pumps have become almost obsolete now for industrial use due to their high capital
cost and running cost,
The arrangement of a reciprocating pump has been shown in Fig. 2.11.
Rotary Pumps
These pumps have one or more closely fitting elements that revolve continuously in a fixed
casing, and deliver the fluid continuously. These pumps are not suitable for high pressure
ration as internal losses are more than in case of reciprocating pumps.
Gear pumps, screw pumps, sliding vane pumps, rotor pumps, etc., the varieties of rotary
pumps which positively displace fluid.
Comparison between Centrifugal Pump and Reciprocating Pump
Today centrifugal pump is the most popular pump as it comprises a very wide class of
pumps, and it can achieve a very high pressure also due to its multistage design- It has almost
superseded the reciprocating type of pumps. The advantages of centrifugal pump over the
reciprocating type are summarised below:
Table Comparison between Centrifugal Pump and Reciprocating Pump
2.7 Basic Principle of Pump Operation
Centrifugal and positive displacement pumps are usually employed as lifting devices for
liquid media where small to large volumes have to be handled at different pressure heads.
In general, all the centrifugal pumps (rotadynamic pumps), classified as i) Radial Type, ii)
Mixed Flow Type, and iii) Axial FIJW Type closely resemble reaction type' of hydraulic
turbines and may be regarded a.s reversed reaction turbines. Thus it may be said that
i) a radial pump is just reverse of radially inflow reaction turbine.
ii) a mixed-flow pump is Just reverse of a mixed-flow type turbine such as Francis Turbine,
iii) an axial-How pump is just reverse of a propeller or Kaplun Turbine.
The bask: principle on which a centrifugal pump works is that when a mass of liquid
(before operation of the pump, the suction pipe, casing of the pump and the portion of
delivery pipe upto the delivery valve are completely filled with the pumping liquidthis
operation is, known as priming) is rotated by a rotating impeller inside a casing with a
sufficiently high velocity, a centrifugal head is imparted to the ' liquid which develops
pressure head. This pressure head raises the liquid from a lower to a higher level. While
moving up a liquid particle with a given velocity will reach to the same vertical height
through which any particle should fall freely under gravity to attain the same | velocity
starting from rest.
Accordingly, a relationship has been established as u =
gh 2
or
h =
g
u
2
2
(known as dynamic head).
Thus, if the outlet velocity of pump is V, the pump can theoretically deliver against a head of
g
u
2
2
.
In a positive displacement pump, liquid (previously filled up by priming) is sucked and then
pushed or displaced due to the thrust exerted on it by a moving member, which results in
lifting the liquid to the required height. The most common example of this type ui pump is a
reciprocating pump in which movement of the piston creates a vacuum and atmospheric
pressure forces the liquid up through the suction pipe into the cylinder. In the return stroke
liquid is pushed upwards into the delivery pipe. Another example of positive displacement
pump is a rotary pump which works with a circular motion. Though it looks like a centrifugal
pump in outward appearance, it differs from a centrifugal pump in action.
BASIC THEORIES
BASIC THEORIES OF CENTRIFUGAL PUMP
Principle of Centrifugal Pump
If a liquid is rotated in a cylindrical container with a sufficiently high constant velocity by
supplying energy from an external source (as in case of a forced vortex caused by stirring of
curd in a vessel to taka out the butter), it will be seen that the liquid will rise beyond the walls
of the container and, if more liquid is constantly supplied at the centre of the container by
some suitable means, the liquid will start flowing out from the top edges of the container as
illustrated in the Fig. 3.1. Such a system in principle constitutes a centrifugal pump.
Fig.3.1. Working principle of centrifugal pump
The water surface in the container will assume a parabolic shape as in case of forced vortex.
Therefore,
h =
g
u
2
2
Where, u = Circumferential (linear) Velocity at radius r. 5. In centrifugal pumps, liquid is
rotated by the vanes of an impeller imparting mechanical energy to the liquid, which in turn,
produces pressure energy. The direction of flow through the impeller is radially outward.
While passing through the impeller, the liquid gains in birth the pressure and velocity
(Kinetic) energy. When the liquid leaves the impeller, it contains a large part of velocity (or
kinetic) energy and a small part of pressure energy. In an efficient pump, this large part, of
velocity energy is converted to pressure energy by adopting suitable design in the pump
casing.
Velocity Triangles
The component velocities of flow through the impeller passages are i studied
graphically by means of velocity vectors which form triangular shapes and, therefore, these
figures are called velocity triangles- They can be drawn for any point of the flow path
through , the impeller, but the usual procedure is to study the velocity triangles of an impeller
at its inlet point and at discharge point.
The velocities considered in centrifugal pumps are termed as' absolute and relative
velocities. The absolute velocity is considered with respect to the pump casing and relative
velocity with respect to the impeller which has a rotational motion u (Linear) as shown in fig.
3.2 for different vane profiles. The unit of the velocities shall be , considered as meter per
second. The notations adopted are:
V = Absolute velocity (C as per German System)
W = Relative velocity
U = Peripheral velocity
By substituting u and w for vectors of the respective velocities, we obtain an absolute
velocity vector, V = U + W
Any point on the impeller wilt describe a circle about the shaft axis and will have a
peripheral velocity:
U = .r =
60
dn
Subscripts 1 and 2 refer to the entrance and discharge points. Components of absolute
velocities normal to the peripheral velocities V
m1
and V
m2
for entrance and discharge points,
'm' is termed here as meridional as the projection of the velocities is on the meridional which
passes through the axis.
For the best efficiency of pump. it is assumed that liquid enters impeller radially, i.e.,

1
= 90 where
1
is the angle which bsolute velocity at inlet makes with the tangent at
entrance and
2
is angle at exit.
1
&
2
are the Vane angles at entrance and exit. These
have been clarified through Figs
In pumps with axial inlet at the entry to the impeller, it may be assumed that absolute
velocity V
1
(orV
m1
) is directed radially, i.e.,
1
- 90 as given as given in Fig. 3,4. Now
average velocity is
V
1
=
1 1 1
b D
Q
Where, head coefficient V
1
is less than 1. The leading edge peripheral velocity Ui depends on
Di and n and is given by
U
1
=
60
1
n D
Having two vectors V
1
and U
1
known for inlet conditions, velocity parallelogram can be
plotted as shown in Fig. 3.4(b) and W\ can be found out
At exit of the impeller, the relative velocity can be found out from the relation,
W
2
=
2 1 1 1
Sin b D
Q
In axial-flow pumps, the liquid moves substantially axially within the impeller. While
plotting the velocity parallelograms or triangles, the following may be kept in mind:
(i) Peripheral velocities at all points of the impeller blades are
equal, i.e.
U
1
= U
2
= U = 2 rn/60
(ii) Axial components of vectors of absolute and relative velocities of flow are equal at all the
points of a given cylindrical section, i.e.
V
1
sin
1
= W
1
sin
1
= V
2
sin
2
= W
2
sin
2
Assuming that the inlet flow is not swirled and
1
= 90, we may write.
V
1
=
) (
4
2
0
2
0
D D
Q

1
]
1

) (
4
,
2
0
2
0
1 1
D D
Q
Sin V Since
Where,
D
h
stands for hub diameter.
Knowing U and Vi, Wi can be found out from velocity triangle .
Energy equation of Impeller Pumps:
Let the points on the liquid's path at auction inlet, impeller inlet, impeller outlet and casing
outlet be denoted by 0, 1, 2 and d, respectively.
By applying Bernoulli's theorem for the fluid flow between two e points, the energy
equations can be formed a& below:
a) For flow from point 0 to point 1, i.e., through the stationary suction pipe,
) 1 0 (
0
0
2
0
1
1
2
1
2 2

+ + + +
f
h Z
w
p
g
V
Z
w
p
g
V
b) For flow from point 1 to point 2, i.e., through the moveable impeller, where W
1
and W
2
represent the relative velocities of water, the equation of energy is
c) For flow from point 2 to point d, i.e., through the stationary .sing,
Now adding the above three equations (3.5-3.7) and rearranging,
The first term on the right hand side is the gross manometric head (actual head) of the pump,
and the second term is the total pump e to fluid resistance (or friction losses) inside the pump
the above equation can be written as
This is known as fundamental equation of centrifugal pump., The manometric efficiency can
be calculated as
By substituting the values of W^ and W-^, taken from the velocity triangles at inlet and outlet
of the impeller, the above equation can be simplified as below:
1 1 1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2 Cos V U V U W +
2 2 2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2 Cos V U V U W +
Therefore,
2 2 2 1 1 1
2
2
2
1
2
2
2
1
2
2
2
1
2 2 Cos V U Cos V U V V U U W W + +
The simplest theoretical head is now,
g
V U V U H
H
mano
mano
th
1 1 1 2 2 2
cos cos

The actual or manometric head, H
mano
= H
th
x
mano
Generally,
1
= 90 and cos
1
= 0,
then
g
u V U
g
V U
H
th
2 2 2 2 2 2
cos


The theoretical head derived at equation 3.13 is known as Euler on. This equation clearly
indicates that the pump theoretical, mainly determined by the products of U
2
V
2
. The greater
are the products, the higher is the theoretical head.
Dimensional Analysis of Centrifugal Pumps
Dimensional analysis involving pump operation establishes that if the
performance of one pump is to be determined from test-results of another one (model), the
two pumps must be geometrically, kinematically and dynamically similar.
Geometrical similarity means that the ratios such as diameter of impeller of model to
diameter of impeller of actual pump and other of corresponding widths or lengths should
have the same value. In general, the flow boundaries must be geometrically similar. The n
between appropriate dimensions of a pump should be constant, and as such for geometrical
similarity,
1
2
1
2
2
1
2
1
b
b
D
D
or
b
b
D
D

= Constant
By kinametical similarity it is understood that not only the paths of velocities should be
similar in both the model and actual pump but he magnitudes of velocities of model will have
the same lion to corresponding velocities of actual pump. Since there are velocities of
importance, i.e., velocity of fluid, V and tangential ,y U at the leading edge, they can be
mathematically established JW,
Putting the values of Equations (3.19) & (3.20) in Equation (3.17), we get,
2 2
1 1
1
2
2
1
n D
n D
D
D
Q
Q

,
_

3
2 2
2
3
1 1
1
D n
Q
D n
Q

From the above, we derive the general formula of kinematic similarity of operating
conditions,
3
nD
Q
The kinematic similarity condition so far has not included one i vital characteristic of How,
i.e., head. Now considering dynamic similarity, forces at corresponding points of an impeller;
may be compared. But to maintain the kinematic similarity. How continuity), it is essential
that forces at corresponding points of impeller should always bear the same ratio. Unless it is
satisfied, flow continuity shall not be there and the fluid particles shall be forced out of their
paths. Since the forces are proportional to square of velocity, we may write,
Force is given by the product of intensity uf fluid and area on which it acts arid as such,
Intensity of fluid pressure, P depends upon the head of the pump and, therefore, we may
write,
Hence, dynamic condition of similarity may be expressed as,
Since the tangential velocity U is proportional to impeller diameter and speed, we may put
the dynamic condition in the form,
To arrive at the above equation, only pressure forces and inertia forces en taken into
consideration. But the effect of other forces like forces has not been considered. The above
equation also does cavitation into consideration, but to satisfy the similarity ns it is necessary
that fluid properties should remain the name in model as well as in actual pump. Hence, the
above equation is true only when the cavitation does not take place in model as well as in
actual pump.
The kinematic condition expressed by Equation (3,21) and the ; condition expressed by
Equation (3.27) form the basis of all s on similarity condition. power required for pumping a
liquid is given by
similar pumps, assuming same pump efficiency, we may
Specific Speed, Pump Type and Shape Number
Specific Speed
It is the outcome of dimensional analysis of the pump >n in geometrically similar conditions.
It is defined as speed of rotation of a geometrically similar pump of such a size that it ensures
a delivery of 75 litres/sec, Q at a head of one meter, H. If D, H, n and Q are known for a
pump, the specific speed for the pump according to re definition can be derived as below. (Q
= 75 l/s = 0.075 m'/s)
2
1
2
2
1
2
2
1

,
_

,
_

D
D
n
n
H
H
2 2
1

,
_

,
_

s s
D
D
n
n H
Also, from Equation (3.21)
3
2
1
2
1
2
1

,
_

,
_

D
D
n
n
Q
Q
3
075 . 0

,
_

s s
D
D
n
n Q
To eliminate Dg, raise the Equation (3.31) to the 3/2 power.
Dividing Equation (3.32) by (3.33), we get,
This Hy differs from n, which indicates that pump characteristics are reduced and values of
are smaller than those of n
s
by 3.65 times. Specific speed is not affected by the specific
weight of the liquid being handled and it is always referred to a single impeller in a
multistage pump or to one side only of a double-suction impeller.
When Z is the number of stages in a multistage pump, the i relationship between the
specific speed n
q
, pump n
s
of the whole pump and that of a single stage is given by the
expression,
Since the specific speed is a dimensional parameter, its absolute value depends on units of
measure. Considering head in feet and discharge in gal/min, the relation takes the form;
The specific speed can be made dimensionless if we take (gH) in place of (H) as suggested
by PfLeiderer in his book, Die Kreisel Pumpen.
Pump Type
The pump type required for a particular operation can be from its specific speed, which is
based on three most ' ant characteristics of the pump: speed, discharge and head. For some
pumps differing in type, geometry and design but having close values of /ig will have many
other similar features. c speed largely determines the form of the impeller. Low c speed
impellers (n, = 60 - 80) are characterized by the exit diameter being far greater than the inlet
diameter and width at exit being relatively small.
These pumps are always used at high heads and, on the other high specific speed pumps arc
used at low heads. Further on impeller type based on specific speed have been dealt in
chapter 5 while dealing with the impeller design.
Shape Number N
s
It is a non-dimensional expression used to >e a pump and its performance. It is independent
of the size of ?r or the properties of the liquid. It is expressed mathematically equation, 1000
has been introduced to increase the numerical if shape number to bring it to a whole number.
Unit of Unit of Units of head, Values of Kna.
speed, n discharge, Q H
rpm Cfl/sec feet 1.232
rpm gpm (Imp.) feet 0.0637
rpm gpm (U.S) feet 0.0583
rpm L/S meters 0.0950
Similar to specific speed n
q
, shape number Ns is also used as a
Criteria of impeller design. Butmost of the designers prefer specific
speed n
q
than shape number N
c
.
Laws of Similitudes or Affinity Laws
Hence laws help in establishing the mathematical relationship
between the variables involved in pump performance and, thereby, diets the performance
characteristic of a pump when operating at different speeds than the speed at which it has
been tested. This applies to all types of centrifugal and axial flow pumps. The mathematical
relationships, as given below, are obtained from dimensional analysis at Equations (3.21),
(3.27) and (3.30J) which constitute the affinity laws:
1. With diameter D of impeller being constant:
i)
2
1
2
1
n
n
Q
Q

ii)
2
2
1
2
1

,
_

n
n
H
H
iii)
3
2
1
2
1

,
_

n
n
P
P
Where,
Q
1,2
= Flow rate in m
3
n
1,2
= Pump speed rpm
H
1,2
= Total head in m
P
1,2
= Power required in metric h.p.
2. With speed n, of the impeller being constant:
i)
2
1
2
1
D
D
Q
Q

ii)
2
2
1
2
1

,
_

D
D
H
H
iii)
3
2
1
2
1

,
_

D
D
P
P
Considering Case
1, if a pump is tested at spee.d ni and operated at lower spcc-d n^, it must be observed that
any point on the new curve-(Q-H) lias ita quantity reduced in proportion to speed, its head
reduced as the square of the speed and power reduced as the cube of i the spued.
Considering Case
2, when reduction in running speed is not possible, but How requirements from a pump are at
all times less than the normal discharge, the diameter of the impeller can be machined down
to the diameter calculated with the three equations given. On an average, the impeller
diameter reduced by 20% of the maximum size. However, it varies with different types of
impellers. The impellers of low specific speed can be reduced in diameter comparatively to a
greater extent than the impellers of high specific speed without affecting the pump efficiency
much.
Head (H)
The head (total head) against which a pump operates comprises of several components
that include suction and discharge conditions. In addition to suction head or suction lift and
discharge head, there must be included the head necessary to overcame friction in the pipe
and in the valves and fittings when the pump is operating at full capacity.
Velocity head and entrance and exit losses are also to be taken into consideration.
Thu head is expressed in metres of liquid column.
a) Suction Head (+ve)
It exists when the source of supply is above the centre line of the pump. Thus the Static
Suction Head (h^) is the vertical distance in metre from the centre line of the pump to the free
surface of the liquid in the tank to be pumped.
b) Suction Lift (-ve)
It exists when the source of supply is below the centre line of the pump. Thus, the Static
Suction Lift, (As.,) is the vertical distance in metre from the centre line of the pump to the
free surface of the liquid in the well to be pumped.
c) Static Discharge Head (h
sd
)
When a pump discharges into an open vessel, the vertical distance in metre between the
centre line of the pump and the point of free discharge or the surface of the liquid in the
vessel is known as static discharge head.
d) Total Static Head
It is the vertical distance in metres between the free level of the source of supply and the
point of free discharge or the free surface of the discharged liquid.
e) Velocity Head (h
v
)
It is the kinetic energy per unit weight of liquid handled at a given section, and is expressed
by the following formula:
g
V
h
v
2
2
Where, V = liquid velocity in m/sec and g = 9.81 m/sec
2
.
This head is usually insignificant in most high head systems and, therefore, can be
ignored. But in case of low head H| systems it can be a large factor and, therefore, must be f
considered.
f) Friction Head (h
fs
or h
fd
)
It is the head required to overcome the resistance to flow in the pipe and fittings. It depends
upon the size and type of pipe, How rate and nature of the liquid.
g) Suction Head (h
s
)
Suction Head or Total Dynamic Suction Head is the W' static suction head plus the velocity
head at the pump suction flange minus the total friction head in the suction line.
Total suction head as determined on pump test "is the reading . of a pressure gauge on the
suction flange converted to metre of liquid and corrected to pump centre iine plus velocity
head at the point of pressure measurement.
h) Total (Dynamic) Discharge Head (h
d
)
It is the static discharge head plus the velocity head at the pump discharge flange plus the
total friction head in the discharge line.
Total discharge head as determined on pump test is the reading of a pressure gauge at the
discharge flange converted to metre of liquid and corrected to the pump centre line plus the
velocity head at the point of pressure measurement.
i) Total Head (H) or Total Dynamic Head (TDH)
This is the total discharge head minus the total suction head or plus the , total suction lift.
j) Manometric Head (H
m
)
It is the total head that must be, produced by the pump. If two pressure gauges are
installed, one on suction pipe and another on the delivery pipe very close to the pump, and
readings are taken, say, H
ms
and H
md
respectively, the difference in the pressure head (i.e., the
rise in pressure head>is called the Manometric Head.
The manometric head may also be expressed in many other forms, but approximately it equals
to the total head {H) and hence it may be written as
To explain the above stated heads better, various types of pumping installations have been
sketched in Figs. 3,7 and 3.8 with all symbols used during explanation.
Vapor Pressure Head (hvp):
Vapor pressure is the pressure at which a liquid and its vapor co-
exist in equilibrium at a given temperature. The vapor pressure of liquid can be obtained
from vapor pressure tables. When the vapor pressure is converted to head, it is referred to as
vapor pressure head, hvp. The value of hvp of a liquid increases with the rising temperature
and in effect, opposes the pressure on the liquid surface, the positive force that tends to cause
liquid flow into the pump suction i.e. it reduces the suction pressure head.
Pressure Head (hp):
Pressure Head must be considered when a pumping system either begins or
terminates in a tank which is under some pressure other than atmospheric. The pressure in
such a tank must first be converted to feet of liquid. Denoted as hp, pressure head refers to
absolute pressure on the surface of the liquid reservoir supplying the pump suction, converted
to feet of head. If the system is open, hp equals atmospheric pressure head.
Velocity Head (hv):
Refers to the energy of a liquid as a result of its motion at some velocity v. It is
the equivalent head in feet through which the water would have to fall to acquire the same
velocity, or in other words, the head necessary to accelerate the water. The velocity head is
usually insignificant and can be ignored in most high head systems. However, it can be a
large factor and must be considered in low head systems.
NPSH
When discussing centrifugal pumps, the two most important head terms are
NPSHr and NPSHa.
Net Positive Suction Head Required, NPSHr

NPSH is one of the most widely used and least understood terms associated with
pumps. Understanding the significance of NPSH is very much essential during installation as
well as operation of the pumps.
Pumps can pump only liquids, not vapors
The satisfactory operation of a pump requires that vaporization of the liquid being pumped
does not occur at any condition of operation. This is so desired because when a liquid
vaporizes its volume increases very much. For example, 1 ft
3
of water at room temperature
becomes 1700 ft
3
of vapor at the same temperature. This makes it clear that if we are to pump
a fluid effectively, it must be kept always in the liquid form.
Rise in temperature and fall in pressure induces vaporization
The vaporization begins when the vapor pressure of the liquid at the operating temperature
equals the external system pressure, which, in an open system is always equal to atmospheric
pressure. Any decrease in external pressure or rise in operating temperature can induce
vaporization and the pump stops pumping. Thus, the pump always needs to have a sufficient
amount of suction head present to prevent this vaporization at the lowest pressure point in the
pump.

NPSH as a measure to prevent liquid vaporization
The manufacturer usually tests the pump with water at different capacities, created by
throttling the suction side. When the first signs of vaporization induced cavitation occur, the
suction pressure is noted (the term cavitation is discussed in detail later). This pressure is
converted into the head. This head number is published on the pump curve and is referred as
the "net positive suction head required (NPSHr) or sometimes in short as the NPSH. Thus
the Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH) is the total head at the suction flange of the
pump less the vapor pressure converted to fluid column height of the liquid.
NPSHr is a function of pump design

NPSH required is a function of the pump design and is determined based on actual pump test
by the vendor. As the liquid passes from the pump suction to the eye of the impeller, the
velocity increases and the pressure decreases. There are also pressure losses due to shock and
turbulence as the liquid strikes the impeller. The centrifugal force of the impeller vanes
further increases the velocity and decreases the pressure of the liquid. The NPSH required is
the positive head in feet absolute required at the pump suction to overcome these pressure
drops in the pump and maintain the majority of the liquid above its vapor pressure.
The NPSH is always positive since it is expressed in terms of absolute fluid column height.
The term "Net" refers to the actual pressure head at the pump suction flange and not the static
suction head.
NPSHr increases as capacity increases
The NPSH required varies with speed and capacity within any particular pump. The NPSH
required increase as the capacity is increasing because the velocity of the liquid is increasing,
and as anytime the velocity of a liquid goes up, the pressure or head comes down. Pump
manufacturer's curves normally provide this information. The NPSH is independent of the
fluid density as are all head terms.
Note: It is to be noted that the net positive suction head required (NPSHr) number
shown on the pump curves is for fresh water at 20C and not for the fluid or combinations of
fluids being pumped.
Net Positive Suction Head available, NPSHa
NPSHa is a function of system design
Net Positive Suction Head Available is a function of the system in which the pump operates.
It is the excess pressure of the liquid in feet absolute over its vapor pressure as it arrives at
the pump suction, to be sure that the pump selected does not cavitate. It is calculated based
on system or process conditions.
NPSHa calculation
The formula for calculating the NPSHa is stated below:
Note:
1. It is important to correct for the specific gravity of the liquid and to convert all terms
to units of "feet absolute" in using the formula.
2. Any discussion of NPSH or cavitation is only concerned about the suction side of the
pump. There is almost always plenty of pressure on the discharge side of the pump to
prevent the fluid from vaporizing.


NPSHa in a nutshell
In a nutshell, NPSH available is defined as:
NPSHa = Pressure head + Static head - Vapor pressure head of your product Friction head
loss in the piping, valves and fittings.
All terms in feet absolute
In an existing system, the NPSHa can also be approximated by a gauge on the pump
suction using the formula:
NPSHa = hp
S
- hvp
S
t hg
S
+ hv
S
hp
S
= Barometric pressure in feet absolute.
hvp
S
= Vapor pressure of the liquid at maximum pumping temperature, in feet
absolute.
hg
S
= Gauge reading at the pump suction expressed in feet (plus if above
atmospheric, minus if below atmospheric) corrected to the pump centerline.
hv
S
= Velocity head in the suction pipe at the gauge connection, expressed in feet.
Significance of NPSHr and NPSHa
The NPSH available must always be greater than the NPSH required for the
pump to operate properly. It is normal practice to have at least 2 to 3 feet of extra NPSH
available at the suction flange to avoid any problems at the duty point.
Capacity (Q)
By capacity, it is meant the discharge quantity of the pump at the specified head and speed in
a definite period of time. It ia normally expressed in litres per riec or min, or m /hr. But for
boiler feed and circulating pumps, the effective discharge is often expressed in tons per hour.

Power
The power input known as b.h.p (brake horse power) or s.h.p (shaft i horse power) is
calculated by using the basic formula as below which takes into account the efficiency of the
pump.
Where, values of the factor A"i depend on the pump data as below:
Where, values of factory depend on the pump data as below:
When Q is expressed in metric tonnes per hour, H in kg/cm
2
and y in gm/cm
3
(or kg/dm
3
), the
power input in metric horse power (PS) is calculated as
(For water at 4C, Y = 1) T\p is the efficiency of the pump
Separation:

Whenever flow takes place from a low pressure region to a higher pressure
region, there is a possibility of separation. In case of sudden expansion, there is a danger of
water particles separating out from main stream and trying to flow back resulting in
formation of eddies. Thus separation takes place which in turn, causes heavy energy loss and
reduce pump efficiency. However, improved design of vane profile and canal section has
minimized the loses and pump with higher efficiency (up to 90%) are manufactured.
GENERAL
CHARACTERISTICS
CURVES
Understanding Centrifugal Pump Performance Curves
The capacity and pressure needs of any system can be defined with the help of a
graph called a system curve. Similarly the capacity vs. pressure variation graph for a
particular pump defines its characteristic pump performance curve.
The pump suppliers try to match the system curve supplied by the user with a pump
curve that satisfies these needs as closely as possible. A pumping system operates where the
pump curve and the system resistance curve intersect. The intersection of the two curves
defines the operating point of both pump and process. However, it is impossible for one
operating point to meet all desired operating conditions. For example, when the discharge
valve is throttled, the system resistance curve shift left and so does the operating point.

Figure D.01: Typical system and pump performance curves
Developing a System Curve
The system resistance or system head curve is the change in flow with respect to head of the
system. It must be developed by the user based upon the conditions of service. These
include physical layout, process conditions, and fluid characteristics. It represents the
relationship between flow and hydraulic losses in a system in a graphic form and, since
friction losses vary as a square of the flow rate, the system curve is parabolic in shape.
Hydraulic losses in piping systems are composed of pipe friction losses, valves, elbows and
other fittings, entrance and exit losses, and losses from changes in pipe size by enlargement
or reduction in diameter.
Developing a Pump Performance Curve
A pump's performance is shown in its characteristics performance curve where its capacity
i.e. flow rate is plotted against its developed head. The pump performance curve also shows
its efficiency (BEP), required input power (in BHP), NPSHr, speed (in RPM), and other
information such as pump size and type, impeller size, etc. This curve is plotted for a
constant speed (rpm) and a given impeller diameter (or series of diameters). It is generated
by tests performed by the pump manufacturer. Pump curves are based on a specific
gravity of 1.0. Other specific gravities must be considered by the user.
Normal Operating Range
A typical performance curve (Figure D.01) is a plot of Total Head vs. Flow rate for a specific
impeller diameter. The plot starts at zero flow. The head at this point corresponds to the
shut-off head point of the pump. The curve then decreases to a point where the flow is
maximum and the head minimum. This point is sometimes called the run-out point. The
pump curve is relatively flat and the head decreases gradually as the flow increases. This
pattern is common for radial flow pumps. Beyond the run-out point, the pump cannot
operate. The pump's range of operation is from the shut-off head point to the run-out point.
Trying to run a pump off the right end of the curve will result in pump cavitation and
eventually destroy the pump.

Curves Relating Different Factors
A centrifugal pump operating at a constant speed delivers variable quantity of liquid
from zero to the maximum, depending upon the total head- The quantity decreases as the
head increases, and the quantity becomes zero when the head is maximum. The power
consumption also varies within definite limits. Even at zero discharge certain power will be
needed to overcome friction. However, it is usual to plot head, power, efficiency and NPSH
against flow capacity at 'constant speed and they are labeled as Q -ff, Q - P. Q r| and Q -'
NPSH curves.
a) Q - H curves: AM explained above, the centrifugal pump possesses the property of being
self regulating with regard to flow quantity and total head. This property is shown by the Q -
H curves.
The actual shape of the Q - H curve depends on the design of the pump. There are two
principal forms,
i) the stable (continuously falling as delivery increases from Q = 0), and
ii) unstable (in which the curve begins to rise as the delivery increases and then falls). Other r
forms are:
iii) Steep curve - discharge decreases with the increase in head. There is little difference in
discharge over a considerable change in head;
iv) Drooping Curve the head rises from shut-off point and , then falls steeply and
v) Flat Curve - the head remains almost constant (with minor-variations) corresponding to
any rate of discharge. All these forms ofQ-H curves have been shown in Fig.
b) Q - P curve The curve for power consumption (i) rises with increasing delivery Q when
the pump has a low specific speed. It is ii) nearly horizontal for pumps with a higher specific
speed, and it iii) falls when the specific speed is very high. These are shown in Figs. 3.10(i),
(;i) and (iii).
In addition, the curves may also be classified as i) non-overloading curve which rises to a
limiting height upto the designed point and then falls as the discharge increases. It is
generally related to the stable Q - ff curve; ii) over-loading curve which increases
continuously with the increase in capacity.
These are shown in Fig
c) Q - 11 curve The curve for efficiency, n starts from zero at zero capacity and rises to a
maximum within certain capacity and then falls to zero again. However, it is better to operate
the pump near the peak of the efficiency curve as shown in Fig.
d) Q - NPSH curve This curve as given in Fig. shows the 'NPSH required' by a pump at
different capacities. This 'NPSH required' is a design function of the pump.
The Constant or ISO Efficiency Curves (or Muschel Curves)
Any variation in the speed of a given centrifugal pump with a given suction condition
produces a corresponding change in the characteristic curves- These different curves may be
plotted on the same diagram and points with the same efficiency joined by a series of curves
as shown in Fig., thus forming the ISO-efficiency curves of the pump. These curves help in
finding the required speed and the efficiency for any head capacity condition within the
limits.
Similarly, the Iso-efficiency curves are drawn as shown in Fig. for the different diameters
of the impeller which permit in finding the required diameter of an impeller and the
efficiency for any particular head-capacity condition within the limits. From these curves, the
line of maximum efficiency may be obtained as shown in Figs
System Head Curves
The total head related to system head is a combination of pipeline system friction losses,
static head and discharge velocity in the system.
A curve showing the relation between the quantity of liquid flowing through the pipeline
and the friction head loss in the pipeline is known as pipeline system resistance curve or
system head curve only. The curve, thus obtained, is a parabolic curve because the friction
head varies as the square of the discharge.
The total static head is constant if the suction and discharge levels are constant.
Superimposing the Q H curve on the system head curve an intersecting point is obtained
at which a particular pump will operate in the system, as shown in Fig
System Head with Varying Static Head
Pumping installations along river banks meant for town water supply systems
and irrigation of fields in rural areas mostly use Centrifugal pumps. Since there are
considerable variations in the Static head during the monsoon and non-monsuon periods, use
of pumps with Steep Q - f-f curve give satisfactory result by maintaining a stable '
discharge even without actuating the Valve in discharge line.
Pump Performance due to Wrong' Estimation of System Head
The estimation of system head must be done correctly otherwise the
discharge or head expected from a pump cannot the obtained. When actual system head is far
less than the estimated system head, the pump will discharge more and the motor will get
overheated causing frequent tripping of the starter. The cavitation problem also will be there
if NPSH can not cover NPSHr- Then immediate remedy is to throttle the delivery valve and
reduce the discharge.
If the system head estimated is wrong, and at lower value than the actual higher system head
at site, the pump will discharge less.
Correction of these faulty estimations is: possible only by
(i) Changing the delivery pipe using higher size pipe for reducing the friction head, or,
ii) Changing the pump with a now one having a steep Q H Curve that gives more
discharge and higher head at operating point. Since this correction needs additional
investment of funds, the owner has to take judicious decision depending upon tho actual need
on the value of H or Q.
Therefore, it is desirable that the planning engineer must make the estimation of system
head correctly and forward the same to pump supplier to recommend find supply a suitable
pump (Type & model) which will meet the site requirement.
Series Operation
When high head is required in a pumping installation, it becomes necessary to put two or
more pumps in series. Liquid from one pump is brought to the inlet of another pump which
increases (boosts) the head further. Instead of putting two or more pumps in operation in
series, two or more impellers can be put in a single casing to decrease the cost of equipment-
Such a pump is called a multistage pump, each impeller forming a stage of the pump. These-
arrangements are shown in Fig.
Head developed by a centrifugal pump is generally restricted to 50m. However, in some
special pumps, higher heads upto 100m may also be developed.
When two or more pumps are in series operation, the individual Q - H curve should be
combined as shown in Fig. in order to arrive at a resultant curve, i.e., the heads should be
added at the
Parallel Operation
When the quantity of liquid required to be pumped cannot be handled by a single stage
pump, two or more pumps are put in parallel or two or more impellers are put in parallel,
each forming a parallel stage. These arrangements arc shown in Fig.
Important factors to be kept in view while considering two or more pumps for parallel
operation are:
1. Parallel operation of two or more centrifugal pumps of the same design and rated
capacity: When pumps in parallel discharge into the same delivery-line, the Q H curve for
the performance of the group is found by adding the individual flow quantities at the same
head The operating point of the group is same as is the case with a single pump working at
the intersecting point of Q - H curve with the pipe line characteristic curve as shown in Fig.

2. Parallel operation of centrifugal pumps of different capacities: If the operating point for
the group is horizontally extended, it will intersect the Q - If curves of each pump, from
which volume of discharge by each pump as well as the efficiency of each pump can be
found out, as shown in Fig
3. Parallel operation of a centrifugal pump with a reciprocating pump: Tlie system of
operation is given in Fig.


4. Parallel operation of centrifugal pumps having flat characteristic curves and steep
characteristic curves: In such operation, flow rate of each pump drops below the normal
flow rate obtained when run alone. This becomes more prominent when the Q - H curve is
flatter and the pipe line characteristic curve is steeper. This is shown in Fig
5. Parallel operation of centrifugal pumps with unstable characteristic curves: In single
operation, if a centrifugal pump has an unstable characteristic curve, the head developed by it
at Q = 0 must be greater than the static head for its smooth starting against the completely
Filled discharge line. This is shown in Fig.
If the head developed at Q = 0 is less than static head the pipeline characteristic curve will
intersect the Q -H curve at two points and the pump will be unable to start against the
completely filled discharge line. In such a case, the pipeline must be partially emptied till the
static head is brought down below the head developed by the pump at 9=0. Then only the
pump will start. Pump performance is extremely unstable if the pump characteristic curve
intersects the pipeline characteristic curve at a small angle. Parallel operation of centrifugal
pumps having unstable characteristic curves is, therefore, possible if the intersecting angle
between the pump characteristic curve and the pipeline characteristic curve is fairly large.
This situation has been shown in Fig.
(i) With pipeline characteristic curve, C
1
second pump cannot be switched on.
(ii) With pipeline characteristic curve, Cg second pump can be switched on.
Similarly, for any other combination of pumps in parallel operation, the pump and
pipeline characterization; curves must be drawn and operating points studied for trouble free
operation.
Throttling Operation
When the required discharge of a pump is less than the normal discharge of the pump
running at constant speed, throttling in the discharge line is adopted. This causes an increase
of the friction losses as shown in Fig. The delivery head rises with a consequent drop in the
discharge quantity^ thus ultimately lowering the efficiency of the pump.
If speed of the pump can be regulated to achieve the required flow rate below the normal
discharge point, the operating point can also bo shifted along the pipeline characteristic
curve, thereby eliminating the throttling losses- This has been shown in Fig
Throttling in the suction pipe is never recommended as it increases the suction head and thus
gives rise to cavitation.
Throttling is achieved by inserting orifice plate (as shown in Fig.) in the discharge line.
The required diameter of orifice, W depends on the magnitude of flow rate, Q expected, the
pressure difference, H between upstream and downstream sides of the orifice-plate and also
on a throttling co-efficient, K which in turn depends on the orifice ratio, m =
2

,
_

D
d
. The
value of K is obtained from Fig. 3.30. The value of 'cT can be calculated from the Equation.
H Q K d /
Since the orifice ratio is not known, a trial value of K is assumed and initial approximate
value of d obtained. Then by differing the value of d further trials are given until the exact
value of d is obtained.
FACTORS AFFECTING
PUMP PERFORMANCE
FACTORS AFFECTING THE PUMP
PERFORMANCE
Specific Gravity
Due to change3 in specific gravity of a liquid the changes in
pump performance will be as below
i. The pump will develop the same head in meters as the designed. The pressure
developed in Kg/cm
2
will however proportional to specific gravity.
ii. The pump will deliver the same quantity of volume but the quantity by weight will be
proportional to the specific gravity.
iii. The efficiency of the pump will be unaffected but the power requirement will be
directly proportional to the specific gravity.
iv. Permissible suction will vary with specific gravity.
Viscosity
Viscosity has following effects on performance of pump.
i. It reduces the Capacity and Head.
ii. It increases the power requirement and lowers the efficiency.
iii. It affects the suction head/ Lift.
Pressure
Pressure on the surface of the liquid to be pumped has a bearing on
the performance of a pump. The atmospheric pressure varies as per height of the pumping
installation. At sea level the physical atmospheric is equal to 1 atm. Absolute. (Equal to
1.0332 kg/cm
2
. abs.) This corresponds to 10.34 m WC at a barometric pressure of 760 mm of
Hg. The drop in atmospheric pressure as the altitude above sea level increases is at a rate of 1
m/1000m.
This reduces the permissible suction lift of a pump considerable due to the
liberation of dissolved gases which reduces the cross sectional area of suction for flow.
Temperature.
The temperature affects the
1. Viscosity
2. Specific Gravity
3. Vapor Pressure
4. Suction Capacity
Thus causing a change in pump performance. The required NPSH is also affected due to
change in vapor pressure. The suction capacity decreases as the temperature rises.
Net Positive Suction Head. (NPSH) and Cavitations

NPSH is the total suction head in meters absolute determined at inlet
nozzle of pump and corrected to pump datum less the vapor pressure head of the liquid in
meters absolute at pumping temperature. Thus it can be stated that it is an analysis of total
energy at the suction side of pump to determine if the liquid will vaporize at lowest pressure
point in pump.
Cavitations
This term is used to describe the phenomenon which occurs in a pump when
there is insufficient NPSH available. It is that situation where a liquid is vaporized by
reduction of pressure below the vapor pressure of liquid being handled by a pump. The
bubbles of vapor so formed at the eye of the impeller vanes to a higher-pressure area and
collapse. The collapse of the bubbles is so rapid that the resultant inrush of liquid into the
cavities causes a rumbling noise which may be heard. The forces developed during the
collapse are high enough to cause fatigue failure. Besides the impeller damage, cavitations
normally results in reduced capacity, reduced and an unstable head and erratic power
consumption. Vibration and mechanical damage like bearing failure may occur if pump is
allowed to run in cavitations.
To prevent the undesirable effect of cavitations and thus to ensure satisfactory
performance of the pump NPSH
A
must be grater than NPSH
R
.
Vapor Pressure

As the temperature of the liquid rises, vapor pressure also rises and hence
requires NPSH also increases.
Solid Contents.

Some times pumps are required to handle the solid contents in 6the form of
suspended materials. Obviously, the pumps need large flow areas in order to make a passage
for the solids. Centrifugal pumps are not capable of handling solids more than 10 % by
weight.
Non clogging pumps with robust impeller (generally open type) are capable of handling
solids up to 30% by weight. Thus for pumping different solid contents particular type of
pump is required.
Water Hammer.
In pumping installation energy necessary to move water through
the pipeline is achieved by the pump. If a valve is suddenly closed at her end of discharge
line, the moving water column is brought to stop. This K.E. is dissipated in the form of
pressure energy. If the pressure rise in the pipe is sufficient, it may rupture the pipe. The
pressure wave which started at the closed valve travels back upstream continuing its
dissipation of energy with in the water and pipe wall. The above phenomena is perceived as a
series of shocks sounding like hammer blows and known as water hammer.
Valve closing the maximum pressure rise above normal pressure in meter is given by h
max
and calculated as

H
max
= a V / g

For practical valve closure, the pressure rise and fall is given by

h = a (V
1
-V
2
) /g
Where
a = Velocity of pressure waves in m/s.
V= Velocity of water just before valve closure in m/s.
V
1
, V
2
= Initial and Final velocity of water in m/s during valve closure.
The magnitude of velocity of pressure wave is given as
________________
A = 1/ [/g {1/k + d/t* E}]
Where
= Specific weight of liquid.
k= Bulk Modulus of Liquid
d = Pipe diameter
t = Pipe thickness
E= Modulus of Elasticity of pipe material.
Protective Measures against water hammer

To reduce the effect of water hammer, the rise in pressure has to be
checked and that is possible by reducing the flow velocity. The following means can help in
accomplishing the reduction of velocity.
i. Pipe system designed with low velocity.
ii. Automatically control quick closing valves.
iii. Pressure relief valves (PRVs)
iv. Accumulators/surge tanks/ air vessels.
v. Fly wheels.
vi. Automatically controlled by passes.
Priming

In pumps the pressure has to be developed by machine itself. And this is possible
only when the pump is completely filled initially with liquid to be pumped. This operation is
known as priming.
This is achieved through various arrangements as described below.
Flooded suction.
A non return type foot valve.
A by pass around discharge check valve.
An ejector for priming.
A priming tank.
A vacuum pump.
Effect of Variation of Speed on Q, H, and P
.
Since the peripheral velocity

U= Pi DN/60
From above expression
U N
And W U
Hence W N as vane angle remains constant.

The discharge, Q = Area of flow * Velocity, W
So Q W as area remains constant.
There fore Q N

Q
1
/Q
2
= N
1
/N
2

H
1
/H
2
= (N
1
/N
2
)
2

P
1
/P
2
= (N
1
/ N
2
)
3

Effect of Diameter on Q, H, P

Using electric motor as deriving unit of pump, it is not possible to
change the capacity, head and power requirement of pump since the speed of electric motor
is fixed. There fore stress is given more on alteration of diameter to accomplish the minor
changes in capacity or head. The diameter of the impeller has to be enlarged or reduced
according to the head or capacity to be varied. To increase the diameter rings has to be
welded or fixed to the shrouds of the impeller and impeller blades have to be extended
maintaining same curvature of existing blades.
1. Keeping N as fixed U D

Also W D
2. By changing diameter area of passage changes and there fore
A D
As Q = A * W
Therefore Q D
2
Since H depends on U2, W2 etc. which are proportional to D, we may write

H D
2
Now power P Q* H
Therefore P D
4
By summing up we get\
Q
1
/Q
2
= (D
1
/D
2
)
2

H
1
/H
2
= (D1/D2)
2

P
1
/P
2
= (D1/D2)
4
And also if both speed and diameter is varying we may write

Q D
2
* N

H D
2
* N
2

P D
4
* N
3
SPECIAL PURPOSE
PUMPS
SPECIAL PURPOSE PUMPS
Special Duties
Normal pumps are generally installed for handling clean water or similar liquids. These
pumps are not suitable for special requirements like pumping of hot water, hot oil, acids and
alkalis, sewage, slurry, etc., unless some modifications in design are incorporated. Therefore,
'special-purpose pumps are designed with utmost care in different varieties according to
special duty requirements. These pumps are grouped into four types,
i) Pumps for high suction or high-pressure requirements
Borehole pumps, mining pumps, submergible pumps, fire fighting pumps, etc-, come
under this category.
ii) Pumps for transportation of viscous, slurry and corrosive liquids
Paper pulp, coal slurry, acid and alkali pumps come under this category.
iii) Pumps for very hot medium like hot water, hot oil etc.
Boiler feed pump, condensate pump, etc., come under this category.
iv) Special effect pumps
Like air lift pump, jet pump, hydraulic ram, etc.
Borehole Pumps (Wet Pit Pumps)
When water has to be pumped from boreholes having a depth of
30m or more with pipe diameter of 150 mm or more it poses a real problem i to the designer.
The designer faces with the problem of
i) water collection from the subsoil into the borehole;
ii) Pump designwith such a small diameter, and
iii) Drive arrangement/power supply to the pump at the bottom of the borehole. Also,
to accommodate the number of stages required which ranges from two to fifty or
more for the service is a problem. Considering all these aspects, it is clear that
normal pumps can no longer be adopted for the purpose explained-
It has been practically seen that the total discharge from a borehole is unlikely to increase as
fast as the square of the diameter. But the pump output varies as the cube of the diameter.
A designer's problem lies in matching of the pump diameter with the borehole diameter. With
small boreholes say of 300mm or less, water may flow into the hole quicker than it can be
got out.
The drive arrangement is planned in two ways: i) Drive arrangement whether electric motor
or I.C- engine is set above ground and the pump is run by means of a long shaft, and ii) the
submergible drive motor is arranged below the pump, electric cable for power supply being
led to the bottom of the bore hole, i.e., upto the motor. In later case no I.C. engine can be
used.
These borehole pumps are often described as deep well turbine pumps- The capacity of
these pumps varies from as low as 2 to ,')m''/hr. and as high as 5700 m^/hr or more and for
heads upto 300m. A typical bore hole pump assembly has been shown in Fig. 11.1
Mining Pumps
These are generally required to pump out water that percolates into the mining
areas and that would otherwise flood them. Motor driven multi-stage horizontal pumps are
usually suitable for this purpose. Since the mine-water is slightly corrosive, the impellers
may be of acid-resisting bronze or monel metal and the shaft may be protected with similar
material.
In open-pit mines pumping load is produced not from ground water but from rainfall- The
flow rate for pumping units becomes large when the rainfall is maximum and the mining area
involved is also large. In that case, pump capacities and number of units are to be decided
judiciously. The pumps should have stable head-discharge characteristics. When higher
capacity pumps are used, maximum two pumps may be connected to a single outlet/discharge
pipe. More than one pumping stations may he planned according to depth of mine. If it is less
than 360m deep, there may be only one pumping station. In case two stage pumping is
planned the principal pumping station may be at -90ni level with a smaller station at bottom
of the mine pumping to -90m level or directly to the surface.
If certain percentage of solids is present in the water in some areas of the mine, slurry pumps
may be selected and installed in that area for directly discharging to the surface.
Submersible Pumps
Vertical turbine pumps driven by submergible motors located at the bottom of the
pumps, as explained in case of borehole pumps, are' known as submergible pumps. There is
no suction piping in these pumps. The pump suction is through a perforated strainer located
between the motor and the first stage impeller. There is no shaft above the pump and the
discharge pipe supports the unit only.
Submersibles have the advantage of being able to work in the water source being pumped.
As a result the submersible is not subject to the suction lift limitations of other typical pumps.
No suction hose is required helping to save money and time while eliminating a potential
source of problems. The pump is limited only by the discharge head its capable of producing.
The pump motors use a vertical drive shaft to turn an impeller and generate the
velocity needed to create the discharge pressure. Water flows in through the bottom and is
discharged out the top of the pump casing. Submersible trash pumps use a vortex design that
allows the pump to handle some solids without passing them through the casing.

Combining electricity and water obviously brings a certain element of risk. Further, it is
difficult and often impossible to know if there is a problem once the pump is submerged. As
a result the pump should provide some built-in protections to ensure safety and guard against
damage to the equipment.

A high quality pump will have its motor housed in a watertight compartment and equip it
with thermal overload sensors that shut down the motor to prevent damage from over
heating. Pumps should also be used with GFCI protected circuits.

Maintenance is minimal and generally consists of periodically inspecting the electrical cord
and the mechanical seal lubricant. There are non of the concerns common with engine driven
pumps such as noise, fuel or emissions.

Control boxes and float switches are available for unattended operation of submersible
pumps. The boxes provide protection against voltage fluctuations and incorrect phasing while
float switches turn the pump on and off according to fluctuating water levels. A number of
different accessories are available but care should be taken that they meet the electrical
requirements of the pump.

Fire Fighting Pumps
These are self-contained pump sets, whole unit being carried either on a trailer or on a motor
vehicle- It is quite essential that the pump be got into action immediately it arrives at the fire
for the protection of lives and assets, such as hospitals, hotels, offices, residential buildings,
etc- These pumps are of a standard size and driven by I.C. engines. However, stationary fire
pumps are driven by electric motors.
These pumps are required to cope up with the wide range of head and discharge needed for
fighting fires at various altitudes. Since speed regulation of I.C. engines is very effective due
to better regulation of the fuel supply, the pumps driven by I.C. engines are preferred most.
These pumps are started automatically in case of necessity by installing a pressure signal
system from the pump discharge line. This type of arrangement is provided in fixed
installations. Also, a jockey pump is provided in the line to help in building up required
pressure which, in turn, will help in starting the main pump.
Horizontal centrifugal pumps are commonly used as fire pumps to handle clear water
only. Vertical turbine pumps are installed in permanent locations where water is to be
pumped from well, pond or canal, etc.
Jockey Pump
Generally the fire protection systems are designed to operate automatically
The starting sequence is initiated by a pressure drop in the system caused by activation of an
automatic sprinkler or a manual valve connecting to a hose. In order to keep the piping
system filled with water and pressurized without starting the main fire pump, a jockey or
pressure maintenance pump is used. This jockey pump is a smaller capacity pump having
pressure restoring capacity of .small magnitude. This cannot supply the large flows and
pressures required for combating fire. There is no clear-cut design of jockey pump. Any
pump suitable for the application may be used as jockey pump.
Booster Pumps
A booster pump is one that boosts the pressure of the liquid already flowing through a pipe in
a distribution system. It does not initiate the flow of liquid but only helps the liquid flow
along with higher pressure as it imparts additional energy to the liquid fed to it by the first
pump.
In long-distance supply lines, booster stations are provided which include in-tine vertical or
horizontal pumps connected directly to the pipe line or separate storage- reservoirs and
pumps. The second method is preferred, as because in the first method sometimes matching
of booster pumps with the capacities of incoming pipeline becomes a problem. Booster
stations having pressure-equalizing storage reservoirs fitted with horizontal or vertical,
booster pumps which take suction from storage reservoirs and return the liquid at higher
pressures to the mains are preferred most now-a-days. Pressure switches or floats
automatically start and stop the booster pumps thus eliminating continuous attendance.
Pump for Viscous Liquids
Centrifugal pumps handling viscous liquids usually develop loss head, and
deliver less quantity than when handling clean water. For this reason, it is necessary to
correct the water performance (as the pumps are tested only with clean water) of a pump
through charts and graphs established by the pump manufacturers for determining the viscous
performance of the pump. If the water performance is known, the respective correction factor
for viscous liquid can be obtained from ' Fig. 4.2, which multiplied with the water
performance values for capacity, head and efficiency give the equivalent values for viscous
performance. This has been discussed in detail in Clause 4.2.
The equations used for determining the viscous performance when water performance of
the pump is known, are as below:
Slurry Pumps
Positive displacement pumps are especially suited for slurry transportation. Coal, ore
etc., are usually slurried with water and
Therefore, an engineer is required to study his own requirement first and then select a pump
from the manufacturer's catalogue pumped at ambient temperatures. Double acting horizontal
piston pumps are suitable for this purpose.
To protect pumps from the ravages of the solids in motion, the pump parts are manufactured
from wear-resistant materials. The pump velocities are kept low, limited usually by the
settling velocity of the slurry, which is less than 3 m/s.
Depending upon the properties of the solid and liquid, pipe size and flow velocity, different
regimes of flow can develop. The major regimes (or modes) are homogeneous flow,
heterogeneous flow, flow with stationary bed and compound flow- .
In homogeneous flow, the solid particles are homogeneously distributed in the liquid. Typical
examples of slurries which give rise to homogeneous flow at normal velocities, i.e., 1.2 to 2.3
rn/a are -sewage sludge, mud, finely ground lime .stone and other minerals.
SLURRY PUMP
Depending upon the particle size and solid concentration, a slurry may exhibit the
Newtonian or non-Newtonian properties. If there are different sizes of solid present in the
slurry, the smaller particles may be transported in homogeneous flow and larger particles in
heterogeneous flow. This regime is referred as compound flow. Cradle-mounted centrifugal
pumps are also specially designed for slurry transportation. The impeller is designed with a
relatively large width at outlet (i.e., by) find only 3 or 4 blades are provided to ensure a
sufficient flow area. Protective rings made from wear-resistant steel are provided in between
impeller and the pump casing. To stop ingress of solid particles into the space between
rotating impeller and the stationary casing and other parts, clear water is supplied at higher
pressure through a connection. Double casings are also provided in case of heavy duty slurry
pumps.
Pulp Handling Pumps
Though attempts have been made to utilize a dry process for paper making, water is
required as the medium to convey fiber, i.e., pumps are used to transfer fibers suspended in
water. The pumps handling them must, therefore, have large passages and internal parts
capable of resisting abrasion. If a positive displacement characteristic is required, a screw
type pump may be used. Most of the pulps handling pumps are regarded as non-standard
types. .
SUGAR BEET CHIP PUMP IN A SUGAR FACTORY
Acid and Alkali Pumps
Centrifugal pumps fitted with resistant linings, like hard robber, heoprene
rubber, etc., are found suitable for acid and alkali medium. Also, pumps manufactured out of
polypropylene and polyvinyl chloride from stock material or as lining are suitable for highly
corrosive liquids like acids. However, considering the concentration of acids and alkalis, the
pump materials are to be selected as given in material selection Tables 8-3 to 8.7.
Temperature, mechanical properties and suitability for producing pump parts are the limiting
factors for selection of non-metallic materials.
PROCESS PUMPS IN LARGE CHEMICAL WORKS
Boiler Feed Pump
Horizontal multi-stage centrifugal pumps in which" impellers are arranged in series in the
assembly to meet the head requirement are almost invariably accepted by the designers for
pumping feed water to the boiler. A multi-stage pump is suitable for hot water because it can
resist the thermal expansion when the pump begins' to deliver hot water. Though the pump
expands in all the directions when heated up, the vertical and longitudinal expansions are
taken care of in design stage. Because of difference in thermal expansion of different
materials used in pump manufacture, it poses a major problem of leakage. Hence, cooling of
the Stuffing box is generally provided in boiler feed pumps.
Feed pumps handling hot water must be so located that the heater maintains a positive
pressure in the first stage impeller eye. This static head of liquid must overcome all Josses
due to water flow from the heater into the pump. In addition, a certain minimum static head
in excess of the vapor pressure must be available to get water into the first-stage impeller.
HIGH PRESSURE BOILER FEED PUMP
On the discharge side of the pump there is the water-level regulator. It is actuated by
water level m the boiler drum and controls this level within close limits by increasing or
decreasing the rate of flow to the boiler. The increase in flow is usually provided for in the
design and selection of feed pumps- These are often specified for a rated capacity about 20%
in excess of the normal working load.
While specifying a boiler feed water pump, the planning engineer has to furnish not only the
pump capacity, discharge pressure, suction conditions and feed water temperature but also
the chemical analysis of the feedwater, the pH value at pumping temperature and other
pertinent data. Preferably, a complete layout of the feedwater system , should be supplied to
the pump manufacturer for their study and to supply a suitable pump which would result in a
more economical operation.
Condensate Pumps
These pumps take their suction from the condenser hot well and
discharge either to the deaerating heater in open feed water system or to the suction of the
boiler-feed pumps in closed system. These pumps, therefore, operate with a very low
pressure at their suction from 25 mm to 75 mm Hg absolute- The available NPSH is obtained
by the submergence between the water level in the condenser hot well and the centre lire of
the first-stage impeller of the condensate pump. The available NPSH is extremely low, on the
order of 0.6 to 1.2 m. Because of this low available NPSH condensate pumps operate at
relatively low speeds ranging from 880 to 1750 rpm.
DOUBLE SUCTION COOLING WATER PUMPS
Both horizontal and vertical condensate pumps are used. Multi-stage pumps are used for
higher heads. The chief advantage of using a vertical condensate pump is that ample
submergence can be provided without the necessity of building a dry pit.
While designing the pump, the most extraordinary precaution required is to prevent air
reaching the boiler. This can be effectively ensured by using two impellers set eye-to-eye and
a common suction branch communicating with both the impellers from the space between
them. The stuffing boxes, which are source of air leakage remain outside the impellers.
Moreover, as the absolute pressure here is greater than atmospheric pressure, no air can
possibly get past the glands. In vertical pump design also care is taken to stop any air leakage
into the flow path of the liquid.
Air-lift Pump
The air is used as the medium in an air lift pump for lifting water from a pit or
well. The pump has no moving parts. Water gets mixed up with air and reduces its density
than that of pure water, ensuring movement of the mixture to greater heights (i.e., upward)
under atmospheric pressure.
The pump consists of a vertical water elevating pipe. P and a small size air supply pipe, A
maintaining a level difference of H, (immersion depth) below water level. Compressed air
from a compressor is supplied through the pipe A at the bottom of the pipe P or through
perforations at the bottom portion of the pipe A.\
MIXTURE
The released air from pipe, A forms bubbles and reduces the density of water in the pipe P.
This mixture of air and water of reduced density can now rise to total height of(H, +H)
meters under head H, and ensure continuous flow of water at delivery end.
Water is actually raised through a height of H meters. Best performance is obtained when
H is less than H^
Where, has = Hydraulic losses in the pipe, P.
The above equation shows that as the required water elevation height, H increases, it is
necessary to increase 'the height of immersion, H,.
Air pressure required for an immersion height \ H, is determined by the following formula
Where, AP is the pressure loss in air pipeline and aerator losses. The Table below can be
considered for practical use.
Table : Head, relative head and air flow relationship
H (meter) Relative Immersion depth, (H
1
/H) Q
a
/Q
Upto 20 3-2.5 1.5-2
40 2.0 3.5-2
60 1.5 5-5.5
80 1.2 6.5.- 7
100 1.0 8-9
Q
a
= Air flow rate t atmospheric pressure
Q = flow rate of water
The efficiency of such pump is very low and varies from 40 to 50% as regards energy
of compressed air, and amounts to only 15-20% as regards power consumption.
These pumps are very useful for lifting water from well where other types of pumps cannot
be used. Since their efficiency is low they are used to lift water only upto ground level.
Ground water is likely to contain different dissolved gases other than oxygen. While lifting
with air, the water gets aerated expelling out the dissolved gases. In the process it adds
oxygen to water also.
A jet pump differs from all pumps as it has no moving parts and its working member is the
liquid only. The pump consists of a pipeline connected with a nozzle at the end through
which liquid under pressure is supplied. The liquid is ejected from the nozzle at high velocity
into the mixing chamber connected with the sump. In the process when the liquid passes
through the nozzle, its pressure energy decreases and kinetic energy increases. It is so
designed that pressure at the throat area of converging diverging nozzle is negative and this
negative pressure is utilised to pump water from a sump. A pump
operating on such an arrangement is called a jot pump.
Jet pumps may be used for pumping air by "vacuum created in the mixing chamber with a
water jet. In boiler operation, jot pumps are even used to supply feed water by passing
circulating steam through jet which preheat the feed water also in the pumping process.
The efficiency of a jet pump is calculated as below: Let Q
1
be the discharge of water per
second from reservoir at head h
1
. Q
2
be the quantity of water sucked in per second.
Ag be the suction head and
h
a
the delivery head. The output of pump is proportional to
Hydraulic Ram
This typical pump works hydraulically on the principle of water '
hammer. A large quantity of water falling through small height is effectively utilised to raise
small quantity of water to greater height. ii, No external power is required to run this pump.
Therefore, it is useful I for water supply in countryside where power is scarce.
A hydraulic ram consists of a chamber which has two valves: (i) waste valve (w), and (ii)
delivery valve (D). The waste valve open to a waste water channel and the delivery valve to
an air vessel which is connected to a delivery tank at higher level,as shown in Fig. The
chamber is connected to a low level supply tank through a gradually sloping supply pipe.
Initially, the waste valve being open, when the water flows from the supply tank, it passes
through the waste valve to waste water channel. As the flow reaches its full value, the
acceleration of water columns increase the pressure in the chamber which acts instaneously
on the lower face of the waste valve forcing it to close. This sudden closure of waste valve of
waste valve creates high pressure which forces open the delivery valve and water flows into
the air vessel and the delivery pipe.
During the process some water is stored in the air vessel and some water is supplied to
delivery tank. The water flowing into air vessel compresses the air inside it, which pushes a
part of water into the delivery even when the delivery valve is closed. Thus the cycle is
continued.
Efficiency calculation
Let Q be the discharge of water through waste valve per sec and q the quantity of water
actually lifted by the ram per sec. then energy supplied to ram = (Q+q). h per sec.
Energy (Outputs) delivered by ram = qH per sec
Hence the efficiency of ram is
h q Q
qH
r
) ( +

which is known as D Aubisons efficiency.
Since quantity Q delivered by ram per sec possessed head h before entering the ram, the
actual energy output shall be taken as q (H-h) and hence the efficiency of ram is
Qh
q H q
r
) (

This efficiency is known a Rankines efficiency and is always less than D Aubuissons
efficiency. The maximum efficiency obtained for hydraulic ram is about 75%.
CAVITATION
CONCEPT OF CAVITATION

Cavitation is a common occurrence but is the least understood of all pumping
problems. Cavitation means different things to different people. Some say when a pump
makes a rattling or knocking sound along with vibrations, it is cavitating. Some call it
slippage as the pump discharge pressure slips and flow becomes erratic. When cavitating, the
pump not only fails to serve its basic purpose of pumping the liquid but also may experience
internal damage, leakage from the seal and casing, bearing failure, etc.
In summary, cavitation is an abnormal condition that can result in loss of production,
equipment damage and worst of all, personnel injury.
The plant engineers job is to quickly detect the signs of cavitation, correctly identify the type
and cause of the cavitation and eliminate it. A good understanding of the concept is the key
to troubleshooting any cavitation related pumping problem.
Meaning of cavitation in context of centrifugal pumps.
The term cavitation comes from the Latin word cavus, which means a hollow
space or a cavity. Websters Dictionary defines the word cavitation as the rapid formation
and collapse of cavities in a flowing liquid in regions of very low pressure.
In any discussion on centrifugal pumps various terms like vapor pockets, gas pockets, holes,
bubbles, etc. are used in place of the term cavities. These are one and the same thing and
need not be confused. The term bubble shall be used hereafter in the discussion.
In the context of centrifugal pumps, the term cavitation implies a dynamic process of
formation of bubbles inside the liquid, their growth and subsequent collapse as the liquid
flows through the pump.
Generally, the bubbles that form inside the liquid are of two types: Vapor bubbles or Gas
bubbles.
1. Vapor bubbles are formed due to the vaporisation of a process liquid that is being
pumped. The cavitation condition induced by formation and collapse of vapor bubbles is
commonly referred to as Vaporous Cavitation.
2. Gas bubbles are formed due to the presence of dissolved gases in the liquid that is
being pumped (generally air but may be any gas in the system). The cavitation condition
induced by the formation and collapse of gas bubbles is commonly referred to as Gaseous
Cavitation.
Both types of bubbles are formed at a point inside the pump where the local static
pressure is less than the vapor pressure of the liquid (vaporous cavitation) or saturation
pressure of the gas (gaseous cavitation).
Vaporous cavitation is the most common form of cavitation found in process plants. Generally
it occurs due to insufficiency of the available NPSH or internal recirculation phenomenon. It
generally manifests itself in the form of reduced pump performance, excessive noise and
vibrations and wear of pump parts. The extent of the cavitation damage can range from a
latively minor amount of pitting after years of service to catastrophic failure in a relatively short
period of time.
Gaseous cavitation occurs when any gas (most commonly air) enters a centrifugal pump
along with liquid. A centrifugal pump can handle air in the range of % by volume. If the
amount of air is increased to 6%, the pump starts cavitating. The cavitation condition
is also referred to as Air binding. It seldom causes damage to the impeller or casing. The
main effect of gaseous cavitation is loss of capacity.
The different types of cavitation, their specific symptoms and specific corrective actions shall be
explored in the next part of the article. However, in order to clearly identify the type of
cavitation, let us first understand the mechanism of cavitation, i.e. how cavitation occurs.
Mechanism of cavitation.
Unless otherwise specified, the term cavitation shall refer to vaporous cavitation. The
phenomenon of cavitation is a stepwise process as shown in Figure 2.
Figure 2: Phenomenon of Cavitation
Step One, Formation of bubbles inside the liquid being pumped.
The bubbles form inside the liquid when it vaporises i.e. phase change from liquid to vapor.
But how does vaporization of the liquid occur during a pumping operation?
Vaporization of any liquid inside a closed container can occur if either pressure on the liquid
surface decreases such that it becomes equal to or less than the liquid vapor pressure at the
operating temperature, or the temperature of the liquid rises, raising the vapor pressure such
that it becomes equal to or greater than the operating pressure at the liquid surface. For
example, if water at room temperature (about 77 F) is kept in a closed container and the
system pressure is reduced to its vapor pressure (about 0.52 psia), the water quickly changes
to a vapor. Also, if the operating pressure is to remain constant at about 0.52 psia and the
temperature is allowed to rise above 77

F, then the water quickly changes to a vapour.

Just like in a closed container, vaporization of the liquid can occur in centrifugal pumps when
the local static pressure reduces below that of the vapour pressure of the liquid at the pumping
temperature.
NOTE: The vaporisation accomplished by addition of heat or the reduction of static pressure
without dynamic action of the liquid is excluded from the definition of cavitation. For the
purposes of this article, only pressure variations that cause cavitation shall be explored.
Temperature changes must be considered only when dealing with systems that introduce or
remove heat from the fluid being pumped.
To understand vaporization, two important points to remember are:
1. We consider only the static pressure and not the total pressure when determining if the
system pressure is less than or greater than the liquid vapor pressure. The total pressure is the
sum of the static pressure and dynamic pressure (due to velocity).
2. The terms pressure and head have different meanings and they should not be confused. As
a convention in this article, the term pressure shall be used to understand the concept of
cavitation whereas the term head shall be used in equations.
Thus, the key concept is - vapor bubbles form due to vaporization of the liquid being
pumped when the local static pressure at any point inside the pump becomes equal to or less
than the vapor pressure of the liquid at the pumping temperature.
How does pressure reduction occur in a pump system ?
The reduction in local static pressure at any point inside the pump can occur under two
conditions:
1. The actual pressure drop in the external suction system is greater than that considered
during design. As a result, the pressure available at pump suction is not sufficiently high
enough to overcome the design pressure drop inside the pump.
2. The actual pressure drop inside the pump is greater than that considered during the pump
design.
The mechanism of pressure reduction in the external and internal suction system of a pump
system is explored next.
Pressure reduction in the external suction system of the pump

The pump takes suction from a vessel having a certain liquid level. The vessel can be
pressurized (as shown in the Figure 3) or can be at atmospheric pressure or under vacuum
Figure 3: External Suction System
Calculation of the Total Suction Head, H
s
The external suction system of the pump provides a certain amount of head at the suction
flange. This is referred to as Total Suction Head (TSH), H
s
.
TSH can be calculated by application of the energy balance. The incompressible liquid can
have energy in the form of velocity, pressure or elevation. Energy in various forms is either
added to or subtracted from the liquid as it passes through the suction piping. The head term
in feet (or meters) is used as an expression of the energy of the liquid at any given point in
the flow stream.
As shown in Figure 3, the total suction head, H
s
, available at the suction flange is given by
the equation,
H
s
= hp
s1
+ hv
s1
+ h
s
- hf
s
+ hv
s2
(1)
For an existing system, Hs

can also be calculated from the pressure gauge reading at pump
suction flange,
H
s
= hp
s2
+ hv
s2
(2)
Equations 1 and 2 above include the velocity head terms hv
s1
and

hv
s2
,

respectively.


A word about the velocity head term:
There is a lot of confusion as to whether the velocity head terms should be added or
subtracted in the head calculations. To avoid any confusion remember the following:
o Just like a static tube of Pitot, a pressure gauge can measure only the static
pressure at the point of connection. It does not measure the dynamic pressure as
the opening of the gauge impulse pipe is parallel to the direction of flow and there
is no velocity component perpendicular to its opening.
In Figure 4 below, flow through a pipe of varying cross section area is shown.
Figure 4: Measuring Static Pressure
As the cross section at point B reduces the velocity of flow increases. The rise in kinetic
energy happens at the expense of potential energy. Assuming that there are no friction losses,
the total energy (sum of potential energy and kinetic energy) of fluid at point A, B and C
remains constant. The pressure gauges at point A, B and C measure only the potential energy
i.e. the static pressures at respective points. The drop in static pressure from 10 psi (point A)
to 5 psi (point B) occurs owing to rise the dynamic pressure by 5 psi i.e. increases in velocity
at point B. However the gauge at point B records only the static pressure. The velocity
decreases from point B to C and the static pressure is recovered again to 10 psi.
At a particular point of flow, the total pressure is the sum of the static pressure and
the dynamic pressure.
Thus, theoretically, the velocity head terms must always be added and not
subtracted, in calculating Total Suction Head (TSH), H
s
.
However, practically speaking, the value of these terms is not significant in comparison to
the other terms in the equation.
hv
s1
: In industrial scale suction vessels, the value of hv
s1
is practically zero and it can
be safely ignored.
hv
s2:
It is good piping design practice to reduce the friction losses and prevent
unnecessary flow turbulence by sizing the suction pipes for fluid velocities in the
three to five feet per second range only. The velocity head corresponding to a
velocity of 5 ft/s at the suction flange is only about 0.4 ft. Thus, for all practical
purposes, in high head systems the velocity head at the suction flange is not
significant and can be safely ignored. Only in low head systems does the factor need
to be considered.
Therefore, neglecting the velocity head terms, Equations 1 and 2 simplify to:
H
s
= hp
s1
+ h
s
- hf
s
(3)

H
s
= hp
s2
(4)
Two important inferences can be drawn from the above equations:
The pressure reduction in the external suction system is primarily due to frictional loss in
the suction piping (Equation 3).
For all practical purposes, the total head at the suction flange is the static pressure head
at the suction flange (Equation 4).
Therefore the pumps external suction system should be designed such that the static pressure
available at the suction flange is always positive and higher than the vapor pressure of the
liquid at the pumping temperature.
For no vaporization at pump suction flange,
(p
s2
> p
v)
or

(p
s2
- p
v
) or (hp
s2
- hp
v
) > 0

(5)
As the liquid enters the pump, there is a further reduction in the static pressure. If the
value of p
s2
is not sufficiently higher than p
v
, at some point inside the pump the static pressure
can reduce to the value of p
v
. In pumping terminology, the head difference term
corresponding to Equation 5 (hp
s2
- hp
v
) is called the Net Positive Suction Head or NPSH.
The NPSH term shall be explored in detail in the next part of the article. For now, the readers
should focus only on how the static pressure within the pump may be reduced to a value
lower than that of the liquid vapor pressure.
Pressure reduction in the internal suction system of the pump
The pressure of the fluid at the suction flange is further reduced inside the internal suction
system of the pump.
Flow path of fluid inside the pump
The internal suction system is comprised of the pumps suction nozzle and impeller. Figures
5 and 6 depict the internal parts in detail. A closer look at the graphic is a must in
understanding the mechanism of pressure drop inside the pump.
In Figure 7, it can be seen that the passage from the suction flange (point 2) to the
impeller suction zone (point 3) and to the impeller eye (point 4) acts like a venturi i.e. there is
gradual reduction in the cross-section area.
Figure 7: Pump Internal Suction System
How pressure reduction occurs as the fluid flows inside the pump?
According to Bernoullis principle, when a constant amount of liquid moves through a path
of decreasing cross-section area (as in a venturi), the velocity increases and the static
pressure decreases. In other words, total system energy i.e. sum of the potential and kinetic
energy, remains constant in a flowing system (neglecting friction). The gain in velocity
occurs at the expense of pressure. At the point of minimum cross-section, the velocity is at a
maximum and the static pressure is at a minimum.
The pressure at the suction flange, p
s2
(Point 2) decreases as the liquid flows from the suction
flange, through the suction nozzle and into the impeller eye. This decrease in pressure occurs
not only due to the venturi effect but also due to the friction in the inlet passage. However,
the pressure drop due to friction between the suction nozzle and the impeller eye is
comparatively small for most pumps. However the pressure reduction due to the venturi
effect is very significant as the velocity at the impeller increases to 15 to 20 ft/s. There is a
further drop in pressure due to shock and turbulence as the liquid strikes and loads the edges
of impeller vanes. The net effect of all the pressure drops is the creation of a very low-
pressure area around the impeller eye and at the beginning of the trailing edge of the impeller
vanes.
The pressure reduction profile within the pump is depicted in Figure 9.
Figure 9: Pressure Profile in a Pump
As shown in Figure 9, the impeller eye is the point where the static pressure is at a minimum,
p
4.
During pump operation, if the local static pressure of the liquid at the lowest pressure
becomes equal to or less than the vapor pressure (p
v
)

of the liquid at the operating
temperature, vaporization of the liquid (the formation of bubbles) begins i.e. when p
4
p
v.
It is at the beginning of the trailing edge of the vanes near the impeller eye where the
pressure actually falls to below the liquid vapor pressure. The region of bubble formation is
shown in Figure 10.
Impeller Cavitation Regions
In summary, vaporization of the liquid (bubble formation) occurs due to the reduction of the
static pressure to a value below that of the liquid vapor pressure. The reduction of static
pressure in the external suction system occurs mainly due to friction in suction piping. The
reduction of static pressure in the internal suction system occurs mainly due to the rise in the
velocity at the impeller eye.
Step Two, Growth of bubbles
Unless there is no change in the operating conditions, new bubbles continue to form and old
bubbles grow in size. The bubbles then get carried in the liquid as it flows from the impeller
eye to the impeller exit tip along the vane trailing edge. Due to impeller rotating action, the
bubbles attain very high velocity and eventually reach the regions of high pressure within the
impeller where they start collapsing. The life cycle of a bubble has been estimated to be in
the order of 0.003 seconds.
Step Three, Collapse of bubbles
As the vapor bubbles move along the impeller vanes, the pressure around the bubbles
begins to increase until a point is reached where the pressure on the outside of the bubble is
greater than the pressure inside the bubble. The bubble collapses. The process is not an
explosion but rather an implosion (inward bursting). Hundreds of bubbles collapse at
approximately the same point on each impeller vane. Bubbles collapse non-symmetrically
such that the surrounding liquid rushes to fill the void forming a liquid microjet. The micro
jet subsequently ruptures the bubble with such force that a hammering action occurs. Bubble
collapse pressures greater than 1 GPa (145x10
6
psi) have been reported. The highly localized
hammering effect can pit the pump impeller. The pitting effect is illustrated schematically in
Figure 11.
Figure 11: Collapse of a Vapor Bubble
After the bubble collapses, a shock wave emanates outward from the point of collapse. This
shock wave is what we actually hear and what we call "cavitation
In nutshell, the mechanism of cavitation is all about formation, growth and collapse of
bubbles inside the liquid being pumped. But how can the knowledge of mechanism of
cavitation can really help in troubleshooting a cavitation problem. The concept of mechanism
can help in identifying the type of bubbles and the cause of their formation and collapse. The
troubleshooting method shall be explored in detail in the next part of the article.
General Symptoms of Cavitation and its Affects on Pump Performance
and Pump Parts
Perceptible indications of the cavitation during pump operation are more or less loud noises,
vibrations and an unsteadily working pump. Fluctuations in flow and discharge pressure take
place with a sudden and drastic reduction in head rise and pump capacity. Depending upon
the size and quantum of the bubbles formed and the severity of their collapse, the pump faces
problems ranging from a partial loss in capacity and head to total failure in pumping along
with irreparable damages to the internal parts. It requires a lot of experience and thorough
investigation of effects of cavitation on pump parts to clearly identify the type and root
causes of cavitation.
A detailed description of the general symptoms is given as under.
Reduction in capacity of the pump:
The formation of bubbles causes a volume increase decreasing the space available for the
liquid and thus diminish pumping capacity. For example, when water changes state from
liquid to gas its volume increases by approximately 1,700 times. If the bubbles get big enough
at the eye of the impeller, the pump chokes i.e. loses all suction resulting in a total
reduction in flow. The unequal and uneven formation and collapse of bubbles causes
fluctuations in the flow and the pumping of liquid occurs in spurts. This symptom is common
to all types of cavitations.
Decrease in the head developed:
Bubbles unlike liquid are compressible. The head developed diminishes drastically because
energy has to be expended to increase the velocity of the liquid used to fill up the cavities, as
the bubbles collapse. As mentioned earlier, The Hydraulic Standards Institute defines
cavitation as condition of 3 % drop in head developed across the pump. Like reduction in
capacity, this symptom is also common to all types of cavitations.
Thus, the hydraulic effect of a cavitating pump is that the pump performance drops off of its
expected performance curve, referred to as break away, producing a lower than expected
head and flow. The Figure 12 depicts the typical performance curves. The solid line curves
represent a condition of adequate NPSHa whereas the dotted lines depict the condition of
inadequate NPSHa i.e. the condition of cavitation.
Figure 12: Pump Performance Curves
Abnormal sound and vibrations:
It is movement of bubbles with very high velocities from low-pressure area to a high-
pressure area and subsequent collapse that creates shockwaves producing abnormal sounds and
vibrations. It has been estimated that during collapse of bubbles the pressures of the order of
10
4
atm develops.
The sound of cavitation can be described as similar to small hard particles or gravel
rapidly striking or bouncing off the interior parts of a pump or valve. Various terms like
rattling, knocking, crackling are used to describe the abnormal sounds. The sound of pumps
operating while cavitating can range from a low-pitched steady knocking sound (like on a
door) to a high-pitched and random crackling (similar to a metallic impact). People can easily
mistake cavitation for a bad bearing in a pump motor. To distinguish between the noise due
to a bad bearing or cavitation, operate the pump with no flow. The disappearance of noise
will be an indication of cavitation.
Similarly, vibration is due to the uneven loading of the impeller as the mixture of vapor and
liquid passes through it, and to the local shock wave that occurs as each bubble collapses.
Very few vibration reference manuals agree on the primary vibration characteristic
associated with pump cavitation. Formation and collapsing of bubbles will alternate
periodically with the frequency resulting out of the product of speed and number of blades.
Some suggest that the vibrations associated with cavitation produce a broadband peak at high
frequencies above 2,000 Hertz. Some suggest that cavitation follows the vane pass frequency
(number of vanes times the running speed frequency) and yet another indicate that it affects
peak vibration amplitude at one times running speed. All of these indications are correct in
that pump cavitation can produce various vibration frequencies depending on the cavitation
type, pump design, installation and use. The excessive vibration caused by cavitation often
subsequently causes a failure of the pumps seal and/or bearings. This is the most likely
failure mode of a cavitating pump,
Damage to pump parts:
Cavitation erosion or pitting
During cavitation, the collapse of the bubbles occurs at sonic speed ejecting
destructive micro jets of extremely high velocity (up to 1000 m/s) liquid strong
enough to cause extreme erosion of the pump parts, particularly impellers. The bubble
is trying to collapse from all sides, but if the bubble is lying against a piece of metal
such as the impeller or volute it cannot collapse from that side. So the fluid comes in
from the opposite side at this high velocity and bangs against the metal creating the
impression that the metal was hit with a "ball pin hammer". The resulting long-term
material damage begins to become visible by so called
Pits (see Figure 11), which are plastic deformations of very small dimensions (order
of magnitude of micrometers). The damage caused due to action of bubble collapse is
commonly referred as Cavitation erosion or pitting. The Figure 13 depicts the
cavitation pitting effect on impeller and diffuser surface.
Figure 13: Photographic Evidence of Cavitation
Cavitation erosion from bubble collapse occurs primarily by fatigue fracture due to
repeated bubble implosions on the cavitating surface, if the implosions have sufficient
impact force. The erosion or pitting effect is quite similar to sand blasting. High head
pumps are more likely to suffer from cavitation erosion, making cavitation a high-
energy pump phenomenon.
The most sensitive areas where cavitation erosion has been observed are the low-
pressure sides of the impeller vanes near the inlet edge. The cavitation erosion
damages at the impeller are more or less spread out. The pitting has also been
observed on impeller vanes, diffuser vanes, and impeller tips etc. In some instances,
cavitation has been severe enough to wear holes in the impeller and damage the vanes
to such a degree that the impeller becomes completely ineffective. A damaged
impeller is shown in Figure 14.
Figure 14: Cavitation Damage on Impellers
The damaged impeller shows that the shock waves occurred near the outside edge of
the impeller, where damage is evident. This part of the impeller is where the
pressure builds to its highest point. This pressure implodes the gas bubbles,
changing the waters state from gas into liquid. When cavitation is less severe, the
damage can occur further down towards the eye of the impeller. A careful
investigation and diagnosis of point of the impeller erosion on impeller, volute,
diffuser etc. can help predict the type and cause of cavitation.
The extent of cavitation erosion or pitting depends on a number of factors like
presence of foreign materials in the liquid, liquid temperature, age of equipment and
velocity of the collapsing bubble.
Mechanical deformations
Apart from erosion of pump parts, in bigger pumps, longer duration of cavitation
condition can result in unbalancing (due to un-equal distribution in bubble formation
and collapse) of radial and axial thrusts on the impeller. This unbalancing often leads
to following mechanical problems:
bending and deflection of shafts,
bearing damage and rubs from radial vibration,
thrust bearing damage from axial movement,
breaking of impeller check-nuts,
seal faces damage etc.
These mechanical deformations can completely wreck the pump and require
replacement of parts. The cost of such replacements can be huge.
Cavitation Corrosion.
The implosion of bubbles destroys existing protective layers making the metal surface
permanently activated for the chemical attack. Thus, in this way even in case of slight
cavitation it may lead to considerable damage to the materials. The rate of erosion may be
accentuated if the liquid itself has corrosive tendencies such as water with large amounts of
dissolved oxygen to acids.
Cavitation heart attack of the pump
Thus fundamentally, cavitation refers to an abnormal condition inside the pump that
arises during pump operation due to formation and subsequent collapse of vapor filled
cavities or bubbles inside the liquid being pumped. The condition of cavitation can obstruct
the pump, impair performance and flow capacity, and damage the impeller and other
sensitive components. In short, Cavitation can be termed as the heart attack of the
pump.
DIFFICULT SERVICE
CHARACTERISTICS
MECHANICAL AND FLUID
PROBLEMS
Symptoms
Different symptoms & their possible causes of troubles that may be observed during
malfunctioning of pumps, are as follows:
Sr.
No.
Symptoms Possible Causes Of Troubles
1 Pump does not deliver liquid 1,2,3,5,10,12,13,14,16,21,22,25,30,32,38,40,
2 Insufficient capacity
delivered
2,3,4,5,6,7,7a,10,11,12,13,14,15,16,17,18,21,
2223,24,25,31,32,40,41,44,63,64,
3 Insufficient pressure
developed
4,6,7,7a,10,11,12,13,14,15,16,18,21,22,23,24,
25,34,39,40,41,63,64,
4 Pump loses prime after
starting
2,4,6,7,7a,8,9,10,11,
5 Pump requires excessive
power
20,22,23,24,26,32,33,34,35,39,40,41,44,45,61,
69,70,71,
6 Pump vibrates or is noisy at
all flows
2,16,37,43,44,45,46,47,48,49,50,51,52,53,54,55,
56,57,58,59,60,61,67,78,79,80,81,82,83,84,85
7 Pump vibrates or is noisy at
low flows
2,3,17,19,27,28,29,35,38,77,
8 Pump vibrates or is noisy at
high flows
2,3,10,11,12,13,14,15,16,17,18,33,34,41,
9 Shaft oscillates axially 17,18,19,27,29,35,38,
10 Impeller vanes are eroded
on visible Side
3,12,13,14,15,17,41,
11 Impeller vanes are of
invisible side
12,17,19,29,
12 Impeller vanes are at
discharge near center
37,
13 Impeller vanes are eroded a
discharge near shrouds or at
shroud/vane fillets
27,29,
14 Impeller shrouds bowed out
or fractured
27,29,
15 Pump overheats and seizes 1,3,12,28,29,38,42,43,45,50,51,52,53,54,55,57,58,59,
60,61,62,77,78,82,
16 Internal parts are corroded
prematurely
66,
17 Internal clearances wear too
rapidly
3,28,29,45,50,51,52,53,54,55,57,59,61,62,66,77,
18 Axially-split casing is cut
through wire-drawing
63,64,65,
19 Internal stationary joints are
cut through wire-drawing
53,63,64,65,
20 Packed box leaks excessive
bt or packing has short life.
8,9,45,55,57,68,69,70,71,72,73,74,
21 Packed box: sleeve scored 8,9,
22 Mechanical seal leaks
excessively
45,54,55,57,58,62,75,56
23 Mechanical seal: dam faces,
sleeve, bellow
45,54,55,57,58,62,75,56
24 Bearings have short life. 3,29,41,42,45,50,51,54,55,58,77,78,79,80,81,82,83,84,
85
25 Coupling falls 45,50,51,54,67
Possible Causes Of Problems
The numbers mentioned in above table for possible causes are as follows:
Suction Problems
1. Pump not primed
2. Pump suction pipe not completely filled with liquid
3. Insufficient available NPSH
4. Excessive amount of air or gas in liquid
5. Air pocket in suction line
6. Air leaks into auction line
7. Air leaks into pump through stuffing boxes or through mechanical seal
7a. Air in source of sealing liquid
8. Water 8eal pipe plugged
9. Seal cage improperly mounted in stuffing box
10. Inlet of suction pipe insufficiently submerged
11. Vortex formation at suction
12. Pump operated with closed or partially closed suction valve
13. Clogged suction strainer
14. Obstruction in auction line
15. Excessive friction losses in suction line
16. Clogged impeller
17. Suction elbow in plane parallel to the shaft (for double-suction pumps)
18. Two elbows in suction piping at 90 to each other, creating swirl and prerotation
19. Selection of pump with too high a suction specific speed
Other Hydraulic Problems
20. Speed of pump too high
21. Speed of pump too low
22. Wrong direction of rotation
23. Reverse mounting of double-suction impeller
24. Uncalibrated instruments
25. Impeller diameter smaller than specified
26. Impeller diameter larger than specified
27. Impeller selection with abnormally high head coefficient
28. Running the pump against a closed discharge valve without opening a by-pass
29. Operating pump below recommended minimum flow
30. Static head higher than shut-off head
31. Friction losses in discharge than calculated
32. Total head of system higher than design of pump
33. Total head of system lower than design of pump
34. Running pump at too high a flow (for low specific speed pumps.)
35. Running pump at too low .a flow (for high specific speed pumps)
36. Leak of check valve
37. Too close a gap between impeller vanes .and volute tongue or diffuser vanes :
38. Parallel operation of pumps unsuitable for the purpose
39. Specific gravity of liquid differ from design conditions
40. Viscosity of liquid differs from design conditions
41. Excessive wear at internal running clearances
42. Obstruction in balancing device leak-off line
43. Transients at suction source (imbalance between pressure at surface of liquid & vapor
pressure at suction flange)
Mechanical Problems in General
44. Foreign matter in impellers.
45. Misalignment
46. Foundation insufficiently rigid.
47. Loose foundation bolt
48. Loose pump or motor bolts
49. Inadequate grouting of base plate.
50. Excessive piping forces and moments on pump nozzles.
51. Improperly mounted expansion joints.
52. Starting the pump without proper warm up.
53. Mounting surfaces of internal fits (at wearing rings, impellers shaft sleeves,shaft nuts,
bearing housing and so on) not perpendicular to shaft axis.
54.Bent shaft
55 Rotor out of balance
56. Parts loose on the shaft
57. Shaft running off-center because of. worn bearings
58. Pump running at or near critical speed.
59. Too long a shaft span or too small a shaft diameter
60. Resonance between operating speed and natural frequency of foundation, base plate or
piping.
61. Rotating part rubbing on stationary part.
62. Incursion of hard solid particles into running clearances.
63. Improper casing gasket material
64. Inadequate Installation of gasket
65. Inadequate tightening of casing bolts
66. Pump materials not suitable for liquid handled.
67. Certain couplings lack lubrication.
Mechanical Problems (Sealing Area)
68, Shaft or shaft sleeves worn or scored at packing.
69. Incorrect type of packing for operating conditions.
70. Packing improperly installed
71, Gland too tight, pre flow of liquid to lubricate packing
72. Excessive clearance at bottom of stuffing box allows packing to be forced into pump
interiors.
73. Dirt or gas in sealing liquid
74. Failure to provide adequate cooling l water cooled stuffing boxes
75. Incorrect, type of mechanical seal for prevailing conditions
76. Mechanical seal improperly installed
Mechanical Problemsbearings
77. Excessive radial thrust in single volute pumps
78. Excessive axial thrust caused by excessive wear at internal clearances or, if used, failure
or excessive wear of balancing drive
79. Wrong grade of grease or oil
80. Excessive grease or oil in rolling element-bearing housings
81 Lack of lubrication
82. Improper installation of rolling element bearings such as damage during installation,
incorrect assembly of stacked bearings, use of unmatched bearings as a pair, and so on
83. Dirt getting into bearings
84 Moisture contaminating lubricant
85. Excessive cooling of water-cooled bearings
Centrifugal Pump Hydraulic Performance and Diagnostics
Any successful mathematical model of the mechanics of head generation in
centrifugal pumps should do more than just make accurate predictions of pump
performance; it should also be capable of identifying the cause of operational difficulties.
Unlike mechanical malfunctions, which can be detected, analyzed, and corrected, many
of the problems caused by hydraulic forces cannot be corrected in the mechanical sense
they are the unavoidable side effects of head generation in a rotating pressure field. For
example, a thrust bearing may fail from lack of lubrication, from misalignment, or
because an under rated bearing has been used. These are n failures that can be corrected.
A thrust bearing may also fail from a complex pattern of dynamic loading that reflects
pressure pulsations of high intensity and a broad spectrum of frequencies during
operation at reduced flow. This is an example of a failure from hydraulic causes and can
be corrected only by resorting to an oversized bearing or modifying the operation of the
pumping sys tem to avoid low-flow operation.
Whenever a consistent correlation can be made between the known dynamics of head
generation and operational problems, it is possible to devise a strategy to improve
operation and reduce mechanical failure. The most significant problems caused by
hydraulic dynamic forces can be listed as follows.
Suction And Discharge Recirculation
Cause and Effect
Recirculation occurs at reduced flows and is the reversal of a portion of the flow back
through the impeller. Recirculation at the inlet of the impeller is known as suction
recirculation. Recirculation at the outlet of the impeller is discharge recirculation. Suction
and discharge recirculation can be very damaging to pump operation and should be avoided
for the continuous operation of pumps of significant energy Level or pressure rise per stage.
Diagnosis from Pump Operation
Suction recirculation will produce the previously mentioned loud crackling noise in and
around the suction of the pump. Recirculation noise is of greater intensity than the nose from
low-NPSH is a random knocking sound. Discharge recirculation will produce the same
characteristic sound as suction recirculation except that the highest intensity is in the
discharge volute or diffuser.
Diagnosis from Visual Examination Suction and discharge recirculation produce cavitation
damage to the pressure side of the impeller vanes. Viewed from the suction of the impeller,
the pressure side would be the invisible, or underside, of the vane. Figure 1 shows how a
mirror can be to examine the pressure side-of the inlet vane for cavitation damage from
suction recirculation. This is unlike-cavitation damage from inadequate.
NPSH that occurs on the low pressure surface of the inlet vanes. Damage the pressure side of
the vane from discharge recirculation is shown in Figure 2. Guide vanes in the suction may
show cavitation damage from impingement of the backflow from the impeller eye during
suction recirculation. Similarly, the casing tongue or diffuser vanes may show cavitation
damage on the impeller side from operations in discharge recirculation.
Instrumentation
The presence of suction or discharge are can be determined by monitoring the pressure
pulsations in the suction and in the discharge areas of the casing. Piezoelectric transducer
installed as close to the impeller as possible in the suction and in the discharge of the pump
can be used to detect pressure pulsations. The data may be analyzed with a spectrum analyzer
coupled to an XY plotter to produce a record of the pressure pulsations versus the frequency
for selected flows. Figure 3 shows a typical plot of pressure pulsations versus capacity. As
can be seen, a sudden increase in the magnitude of pressure pulsations indicates the onset of
recirculation.
The onset of suction recirculation can be determined by an impact head tube (or pitot tube)
installed at the impeller eye, as shown with the tube directed into the eve, the reading in the
normal pumping range is the suction head minus the velocity head at the eye. At the point of
suction recirculation, however, the flow reversal from the eye impinges on the head tube with
a rapid in the gage reading.
Corrective Procedures
Every impeller design has specific recirculation. The characteristics are inherent in the design
andcannot be changed without modifying the design. An analysis of the symptoms
associated with recirculation should consider the following as possible corrective procedures:
1. Increase the output capacity of the pump.
2. Install a bypass between the discharge and the suction of the pump.
3. Substitute an improved material for the impeller that is-more resistant to cavitation
damage.
4. Modify the impeller design.
Axial Thrust
Cause and Effect
Axial thrust is the thrust imposed in the direction of the shaft. It may occur in either the
inboard or the outboard direction and is usually composed of a dynamic cyclic component
superimposed on a steady-state load in either direction. The dynamic cyclic component
increases in the recirculation zone and may impose excessive stresses in the shaft, which
could ultimately result in failure from metal fatigue. The static component may impose an
excessive load in the thrust bearing, causing unacceptable bearing temperatures. The majority
of thrust-bearing failures are caused by fatigue failure of the bearing components from
dynamic cyclic axial loads.
Diagnosis from Pump Operation
High axial loads usually produce high thrust-bearing temperatures and short thrust-bearing
life.
Diagnosis from Visual Examination of Damage
HEARING DAMAGE Static thrust in excess of the bearing rating will cause cracking of the
balls or rollers and of the race in rolling element bearings and metal scorings of the shoes in
tilting-pad bearings. Bearing failure from dynamic loading in excess of the bearing rating
will cause fatigue failures of the balls or rollers and race in rolling element bearings.
It is important to differentiate clearly between static load failure and fatigue failure. This can
be done by examination of a cross section of the failure zone under the microscope. Fatigue
failure from dynamic loading will show a hammering effect caused by points of impact.
Fatigue failure from excessive static loading will show metal fatigue without the hammering
effect of impact loading. .
SHAFF FAILURE Shaft failure at the outbo or unloaded end of the shaft in multistage or
double-suc pump may he a fatigue failure in tension resulting the high cyclic stresses induced
in the shaft when the pump is operated in the discharge recirculation zone. Axial cyclic
stresses can be reduced by increasing the pump output or, if this is not probable, by installing
a recirculation line to bypass sufficient flow to move the pump total flow rate beyond the
point where damaging discharge recirculation occurs. The pump manufacturer can advise the
recommended minimum continuous flow for a specific pump design.
Instrumentation Displacement-type pickups should be used to determine the axial movement
of the shaft relative to the bearing housing. The deflection of the thrust bearing housing can
be determined by seismic instruments. Axial loading of the tilting-shoe type of thrust bearing
can be monitored by a load cell permanently installed in the leveling plate. A typical
installation is shown in Figure 5.
Corrective Procedures To determine the most effective procedure to correct axial thrust
problems, it is necessary to determine whether the loads are static, dynamic, or a combination
of both If it is a static failure the thrust can usually be reduced by restoration of the internal
clearances Most shaft and bearing failures from axial thrust, how ever, are fatigue failures If
the failure is a4atig failure, loading can usually be decreased by increasing the capacity of the
pump is not possible, shaft failures can be reduced by substituting a shaft material of higher
endurance limit. Rolling element bearing failures can be addressed in large, between bearings
pumps by substituting a tilting-shoe type of thrust bearing. The high cyclic axial forces are
better absorbed in the oil film of the tilting-shoe bearing than in the rolling element hearing.
Radial Thrust
Cause and Effect Radial thrust is-the thrust imposed on the pump rotor and directed toward
the center of rotation of the shaft. The forces are usually composed of a dynamic cyclic
component superimposed on a steady-state load. The dynamic cyclic component increases-
rapidly at low-flow operation when the pump is operating in the recirculation zone. The static
load also increases with low- and high-flow operation, with the minimum value at or near the
maximum efficiency capacity
Diagnosis from Pump Operation High radial thrust is difficult to determine from pump
operation. Persistent packing or mechanical 8eal problems may indicate excessive shaft
deflection from radial loads. M in the case of high axial loads, high radial load may produce
high bearing temperatures with reduced life
Diagnosis from Visual Examination of Damage
BEARING DAMAGE Static radial loads in excess f e rating will cause cracking of the balls
or rollers and the races in rolling elment bearings. In the case of sleeve bearings, the bearing
metal will be worn in one direction only and the journal will be worn uniformly. If the
opposite is true (that is, the bearing is worn uniformly and the journal excessively in one
direction), the cause of the failure is most likely unbalance or a bent shaft and not excessive
bearing loads.
SHAFT FAILURES Shaft failures from excessive radial loads usually occur at the midpoint
of the shaft span in double suction or multistage pumps. In the case of end-suction pumps,
shaft failures usually occur at the shoulder of the shaft, where the impeller hub joins the shaft
sleeve, or at the location of the highest stress concentration, if elsewhere.
Instrumentation
It is difficult to devise instrumentation to determine excessive radial loading of the shaft and
bearings. Temperature rise of the bearings may or may not be symptomatic of excessive
radial loading. High bearing temperatures may occur from misalignment, inadequate
lubrication, or excessive axial loading of the thrust bearing. These causes should be
eliminated before concluding that the radial loads are excessive.
Corrective Procedures
Most bearing and shaft failures caused by excessive radial loads occur when the pump
operates at low flow rates. Radial loads can be reduced by operating the pump at higher
capacities or by installing a bypass from the pump discharge back to the pump suction or
suction source. For pumps handling water, the life of the shaft may be extended by
substituting a martensitic stainless (13% chrome) steel shaft for car bon steel. If there are
signs of corrosion as well as fatigue failure, an austenitic stainless steel shaft may also be
considered. Physical properties should be evaluated carefully, as the endurance limit of the
300 series steels may be lower than that of chrome steels in fresh water. For liquids other
than water, the endurance limit of the shaft material in the liquid being pumped may be a
significant determining factor in the life of the shaft in the presence of high dynamic loading.
Pressure Pulsations
Cause and Effect
Pressure pulsations are present in both the suction and the discharge of any centrifugal pump.
The magnitude and frequencies of the pulsations depend upon the design of the pump, the
head produced by the pump, the response of the suction and discharge piping, and the point
of operation of the pump on its characteristic curve. The observed frequencies in the
discharge may be the running frequency, the vane passing frequency or multiple of each. In
addition, random frequencies with pressure pulsations higher than either the rotating r the
vane passing frequencies have been observed. The cause of these random frequency
pulsations is sometimes difficult to determine. System resonance, acoustic behavior, eddies
from valves and poor upstream piping, and so on, are sometimes involved. However, such
random pressure pulsations should not be dismissed as spurious or irrelevant data in any
analysis of symptomatic operational problems -
The observed frequencies in the pump suction are much lower than in the-discharge. Typical
frequencies are in the discahrge of 5 to 25 cycles/s, and they do not appear to bear any direct
relation to the rotational speed of the pump or the vane passing frequency.
Diagnosis from Pump Operation
In most pumping installations of 435 lb/in (3MPa) [ is, 1000 ft (305 m) of head in water] or
less of head per stage, there is little outward manifestation of pressure pulsations during
normal pumping operation. Other than for specialized applications, such as white water
pumps for paper machines (where the discharge pressure pulsations may affect the quality of
the paper) or quiet pumps in marine there are few external symptoms of internal pressure
pulsations For high-head pumps, and discharge pressure pulsations may cause instability of
pump controls, vibration of suction and discharge piping, z high levels of pump noise.
Diagnosis from Visual Examination Of Damage
In this case of high-head pumps, any failure of internal pressure-containing members should
be investigated with consideration given to the possibility that the failures are fatigue failures
from internal pressure pulsations. Examination of the fracture will determine whether the
failure is a fatigue failure or not. Fatigue failures may have one or n markings, known as
striations, are often present on the fracture surface. Metallurgical examination of the fracture
surface will also disclose striations on a microscopic scale. These markings represent growth
of the crack front under cyclic stress.
If it is a fatigue failure, the cause can usually be traced to high cyclic stress induced in the
pressure-containing member from high-frequency pressure pulsations.
Instrumentation
Pressure pulsations are usually measured with piezoelectric pressure transducers and
recorded as peak-to-peak pressure pulsations over a broad frequency band. Recorded on tape
or strip charts, a spectral analysis may be performed for any operating condition.
Corrective Procedures
A spectral analysis of the pressure pulsations at the suction and at the discharge of the pump
is necessary before a strategy for corrective procedures can be developed. After the spectral
analysis is available, problems associated with pressure pulsations can usually be reduced by
implementing the procedures shown in Table 1,
TABLE 1 Corrective Procedures for various problems
Problem Corrective Procedure
1. Vibration of suction or
discharge piping
a. Search for responsive resonant frequencies in the piping
or supports. If any part of the system responds to the
frequency of the pressure pulsations, alter the system to
shift the resonant frequencies.
b. If possible, increase the output of the pump by
changing the mode of operation or by installing a bypass
from the discharge to the suction of the pump.
c. If the piping responds to the vane passing frequency of
the pump, the impellers can be replaced with a unit
containing either one fewer or one more vane.
2. Instability of pump
controls
a. If possible, increase the output of the pump by changing
the mode of operation or by installing a bypass from the
discharge to the suction of the pump.
b. Install acoustical filters to reduce the magnitude
pressure pulsations.
3. Fatigue failure of
internal pressure
containing components
of the pump from
pressure pulsations
a. If possible, increase the output of the pump by
changing the mode of operation or by installing a bypass
from the discharge to the suction of the pump.
b. Redesign the failed components to reduce the induced
cyclic stresses to below the endurance limit of the
material.
c. If the spectral analysis shows that the maximum
pressure pulsations corre to the vane passing frequency of
the impeller, the impeller can be replaced by one having
either one fewer or one more vane of the same design.
DESIGN OF IMPELLER
Choice Of Impeller Diameter, Exit Width, And Exit Blade Angle
will choose the values of the input variables needed by the performance calculation
computer program. Execution of the performance calculation will show whether the desired
characteristics and efficiency have been attained. Modifications can then be tested to
optimize the design. After a satisfactory overall design has been achieved, detailed design of
the componentsthe impeller blading, volute configuration, or return passage vanescan
proceed.
In most cases the rotational speed N (rpm), design flow rate Qo, and head H will be
prescribed. Electric motor drive prescribes standard motor speeds. Often. the maximum size
of the impeller diameter D is limited. Since the head can hardly exceed U a fast check can be
made to see if a reasonable impeller size can achieve the desired head or if several stages will
be required [ = 32.2 ft/sec m The tip speed (12 is calculated from
To eliminate the effect of the losses for the time being. a target efficiency will be assumed.
The pump specifications often prescribe such an efficiency target. The prescribed efficiency
can be checked against the efficiency derived from the plot in Fig.
Which shows typical. Industry wide efficiencies as a function of flow rate and
specific speed) The Hydraulic Institute (1994) also offers an efficiency prediction method.
(Since the design head, flow rate, and speed are given, the specific speed can be calculated)
Desired efficiencies higher than those given by the plot would not be easy to achieve, and
would require an extensive combined analytical and experimental development process.
By dividing the given design head H by the efficiency i the theoretical head H can be
calculated. which does not depend on the losses, and which determines how much energy the
im has to impart to the fluid. To facilitate the choice of subsequent variables the
dimensionless plot of Fig. 11.2 is introduced. \\h shows the theoretical hc d, represented by
the head coefficient Ii. against the I rate, represented by the flow coefficient o. These
coefficients are related to head rise across the pump H. flow rate Q. efficiency i tip speed U
diameter D:. and exit width B of the pump by the expressions
Care must be taken when comparing these head and flow coefficients with those appearing in
other publications, because some may be defined differently. Sometimes head coefficients do
not take the efficiency into account and are based only on the net head rise of the pump.
Sometimes, the head is normalized with U/2g instead of U/g as is done above.
The definitions used here are chosen because they connect the theoretical head or energy
input of the pump directly to the absolute tangential velocity at the impeller exit and the flow
rate with the idial velocity at the impeller exit. The dimensionless head coefficient corresp to
the absolute tangential velocity at the impeller exit c divided by the rIp speed U The
dimensionless flow coefficient corresponds to the radial eL at the impeller exit C divided by
the tip speed U
The plot shown in Fig. 11.2 actually : the velocity diagram at the impeller exit in a
dimensionless form. The tangential direction is along the vertical axis, and the meridional
direction aong the horizontal. As the flow rate changes, the operating point of the pump r es
alomz the straight line of constant angle 1
The veiocities, C, proportional to the theoretical head, and Cm proportional to the flow rate,
fully determine the pump performance.
Impeller Exit Width:
The expression of the flow rate determines the effective impeller exit width B The
geometrical impeller width can be made a few percent larger to account for blockage from
the blades, from boundary layers, or from separation:
Typical values for the head coefficient are 0.4 to 0.7, and for the flow coefficient are = 0.05
to 0.2. For high-specific pumps lower head coefficients and higher flow coefficients are
appropriate.
The choice of the head and flow coefficients from the plot as below.
From this plot we can also determine the impeller exit blade angle. which in a typical
pump is 68 from radial or meridional and 22 from tangential. It corresponds o the angle of
the inclined, straight line, which represents the operating line of the pump. The line intersects
the vertical axis at a value that is numerically equal to the slip coefficient. If the number of
impeller blades is as t example. Si slip coefficient can be calculated from Wiesner
correlation, and the ifltC of the operating line and the axis on the plot of hg. 11.2 can be ch
or. The line in the plot reproduces the expression for calculating tlw absolute tangential
velocity at the impeller exit in a dimensionless form:
Number Of Blades
The number of impeller blades can be selected on a trial basis, usually six, give or
take one. The effect of more or fewer blades can be explored easily with the performance
calculation computer program. More blades guide the flow better, increase the slip
coefficient, and therefore increase the head somewhat. On the other hand, friction losses are
increased, and the blockage produced by the blade thickness at the inlet could become
excessive.
Impeller Inlet Diameter
The value of the impeller inlet diameter D is usually selected to minimize the inlet
relative velocity. Low velocities favor low losses (Vlaming 1989). Low inlet relative
velocities minimize the diffusion, the ratio of inlet to exit velocity / HP. in the impeller,
which may lead to flow separation if excessive.
Theoretically an optimal inlet diameter exists, as a trade-otT between two opposing trends.
The vectorial sum of the circumferential velocity U and the axial velocity at design
conditions C adds up to the relative inlet velocity fl/. lt is assumed here that no prerotation
exists.
Inlet Blade Angle
As discussed above, the choice of the inlet diameter D and the elocities at the inlet C
and U also determine the inlet blade angle f However, the inlet blade angle usually does not
remain constant along the leading edge and must be calculated at several locations. In the
case of a radial leading edge. the circumferential velocity decreases with decreasing radius
along the leading edge in proportion to the radius, while the axial velocity remains the same.
Therefore. the inlet blade angle . measured from the axial direction, becomes smaller toward
the axis of rotation of the impeller. The blades become steeper.
For a first, approximate design. an inlet blade angle f of 55 from ihe meridional direction, or
up to 65 on low-specific-speed pumps. sh he adopted on the mid-streamline.
(In practice, the leading edge of the blades is not radial but is swept back, as shown in Fig.
.
The flow becomes three-dimensional. Because of the curvature of the streamlines, the
meridional inlet velocity becomes higher at the shroud than on the hub. Often the leading
edge is not perpendicular to the direction of the inlet velocity. However, the inlet blade angle
must still be measured in the plane of the relative velocity W and its meridional projection C
= . Obviously, the velocities and the blade angle will vary along the leading edge. The
numerical value of the blade angle must be calculated separately at three locations at least:
the hub. midspan and shroud. Impeller blade drawings usually show the projection of the
blade on a radial (rO) plane, which is perpendicular to the axis of rotation. The blade angle
on the drawing. fir] measured from the radial direction, differs from the actual blade
/ I tioni the meridional direction. The meridional direction C ttR tangent of the streamline
in the axialradial plane 5 in tin l cross section in Fig. 11.3. If the meridional direction
makes the radial direction, the actual blade angle is given by the dat i
Vaned Diffuser And Crossover Inlet
Considerable kinetic energy remains in the flow leaving the impeller, a portion of
which should be converted to pressure head with a diffuser Fig.
In multistage pumps the flow leaving the impeller must be returned to the inlet of the :iiext
stage, and some pressure recovery is desirable in the process. The inlet section of the return
passage often acts as a diffuser. The inlet leading edge of the diffuser, or of the return
passage. must align with the direction of the absolute velocity leaving the impeller C The exit
velocity and its components in the radial or meridional and tangential direction are known
from the impeller exit velocity diagram. The kinetic energy or head of the flow, and the
desired diffuser vane angle /33 measured from the meridional direction, are gi by
In these calculations the effective vidth B should he assuni smaller than the actual
geometrical measurement, to allo for bloekace. If he diffuser closely follows the diffuser,the
diffuser inlet throat must accommodate the flow rate at the exit velocity C which determines
the diffuser width, or vane height B
Note that consistent units must be used in these expressions, and a conversion factor may be
necessary, since velocities are usually given in ft/sect, the impeller geometry in inches, and
the flow rate in gpm [ = Q(gpm) 231 in /gall)( 1 min/6osec)].
The diffuser width B can be corrected for vane blockage, If there are Z vanes, t thick, the
width becomes
The inlet of the vaned diffuser follows closely the impeller exit, the radial distance being
perhaps 5% of the impeller radius. In the case of a return passage. more space is left, and a
correction needs to be made when calculating the inlet velocity, as explained below.
The number of diffuser or return passage vanes usually exceeds by one the number of
impeller blades. If the number of blades were the same. all blades would pass the vanes at the
same moment, the corresponding pressure fluctuations would be synchronized, and the blade
passing noise and pressure fluctuations would be amplified. The intensity of the blade
passing noise also depends on the spacing between the impeller and the diffuser inlet.
Return passages in vertical column pumps are typically oriented in the axial direction, and
the diameter of their centerline at the inlet D is larger than the impeller diameter D Therefore,
the tailgential component of the impeller exit velocity decreases in inverse proportion to the
diameter, conforming to the principle of conservation of angular momentum. The return
passage inlet velocity C becomes
The volute consists of a spiral-shaped passage surrounding the impeller exit, and collects the
flow from around the impeller periphery (Fig. 11.6). The volute cross section, of circular or
trapezoidal shape, increases gradually from the volute tongue to the volute throat, where the
flow exits from the pump casing. The circle, centered on th axis of rotation and tangent to the
volute tongue, is called the base circle. Its diameter is made about 10% greater than the
impeller diameter. At flow rates below the design flow rate, some of the flow returns into the
volute, passing between the impeller and the tongue, instead of exiting through the volute
throat. Therefore, the space between the impeller and the tongue must not be made too small.
In some designs. radial space permitting, a radial vaneless space, wit parallel walls, exists
between the impeller exit and the volute. In this case the volute tongue.is located at a distance
more than 10% of the impeller radius. The width of the vaneless space is made slightly larger
than the impeller exit width, and only a small clearance remains between the impeller rim
and the vaneless space walls at the inlet. The purpose of the vaneless space is to recover
some pressure by slowing the flow, due to an increase in the radius, as explained below.
Ideally, the volute cross section should accommodate the flow, which leaves the impeller
without any velocity change. This consideration implies that the iu area i snoulu increase in
proportion to the circumferential angle 6, measured from the tongue. However, since the
center of the cross-sectional area moves out radially to increasingly larger radii, the
circumferential, or tangential, velocity of the fluid will gradually decrease, in agreement with
the principle of conserving its angular m9rnentum. If the center of the volute throat, the
final cross section above the tongue, is at a radius of D the ideal volute crossection can be
calculated from the expression
Note that consistent units must be used since the flow rate is usually in gpm. the
velocity in ft/sec, and the area in in
In practice, the volute cross-sectional area . should be made greater by 15 to 25% than the
ideal cross section, because losses slow the velocity and boundary layers build up. Also, it is
easier to modify volute casting patterns to reduce than to increase the volute cross-sectional
area. Volute design also depends on any diffuser and pressure recovery, which is expected to
follow the volute throat. If the velocity in the volute throat has the same magnitude as the
velocity at the iimp exit flange, no further diffusion and pressure recovery can be expected.
On the other hand, if an effective diffuser is to follow the volute. it makes sense to conserve
kinetic energy and keep volure velocities relatively high in the volute. If the volute losses
already slow down the velocity to its value at the exit flange. further diffusion, or attempt of
pressure reco cry, is futile. If there is no intention to recover the velocity head at the pump
exit, it may as well be lost in the volute. The exit flange of standard process pumps is often
located vertically on the centerline of the impeller, with a sharp bend between the volute
throat and the exit flange. No diffusion and pressure recovery can be expected beyond the
volute throat
The best approach to dete iine preliminary layout drawing. n radial impellers, when the inlet
diameter D: is about half or less of the impe er diameter D2, the shroud inlet radius of
curvature should be about half of the inlet radius. As a first approximation one can assume
that the meridional velocity, already estimated at the inlet and exit with the performance
calculation program. declines slowly along the mean streamline. The needed approximate
flow cross section and width B from hub to shroud. perpendicular to the meridional velocity
vector, can he calculated from the meridional velocity if and the flow rate Q at a given radius
r:
The leading edge will usually be slanted and should be drawn so that the average axial: inlet
velocity C = Q/(itD should not change from the inlet flange to the leading edge. Once the
location of the leading edge is chosen, approximate streamlines can be sketched in, and their
radius of curvature can be estimated. This geometrical information cai be used to calculate
approximately the velocities at various locations along the leading edge, according to the
procedure outlined above. The computer program INLET is provided for this purpose. A
sharp curvature on the shroud will result in high velocities and possible early cavitation. The
shroud curvature and leading-edge location can be revised to optimize inlet conditions. The
meridional velocity C and the circumferential velocity U at various locations along the
leading edge also define the blade angle fl. which here is measured from the meridional
direction, the direction of the velocity Crnt:
It will be noted that along a slanted leading edge. the increase in the tangential veloci due to
the increasing radius can compensate. at least partially. for the increase in meridional
velocity due to the curvature of the streamlines. The/ meridional blade angle is not the angle
shown on the usual view of the axi projection of the drawings, as explained above.
In the case of mixed flow pumps. when the flow path in the impeller is inclined toward the
axis of rotation, the hub and shroud contours are often straight lines.I There can be a
curvature at the shroud inlet to provide a smooth transition, Ideally, the radius should be
constant along the exit, the trailing edge of the blades. However, a slanted exit is often used.
Especially in mixed flow pumps.
Design of Plain Vane Profile
The vane angles and 2 and diameters D and D having been determined, the next step
is to construct the vane shape. There are several methods to construct the vane shapes. The
one used in practice consists of tangent circular arc. The radius of the Circular arc contained
between the rings D and D is given by
In Fig. 5.7, 0 is the centre of rotation of the impeller and the circular arc AB of radius R
having its centre at M is the vane shape between the concentric rings of radii R and R
The angle OAM has one side perpendicular to Uj, and the other one perpendicular to
a tangent to the curve AB at A and, hence, angle OAM equals to 3 Similarly, the angle OBM
equals to [
While using this method, the impeller is divided into a number of concentric rings,
not necessarily equally spaced between R and R The value of R for any two consecutive
concentric rings is calculated using the Equation [ and vane shape is plotted which is actually
an arc tangent to both the rings. An accurate vane shape can be obtained by joining the areas
as shown in the diagram.
The intermediate values of R and 3 are to be taken from a figure to be plotted as
shown in Fig. against the initial and final values of R & f calculated.(Fig on next page)
The simple method of constructing vane profile as shown in fig. 5.10 is to draw a
single radius circular arc with the calculated angles & P2 and radii R R But this has serious
implications in the performance of the pump. However, the construction method is given as
below:
:
i) Draw a line AM at an angle 132 to AO.
ii) Draw an angle 13i + 132 at 0 with the radius OA.
iii) Draw a line from A to the point B, the intersection point on radius R and extend it upto D.
iv) Draw a perpendicular line in the middle of AD, which intersects at M.
v) MA will be radius of arc and arc AD will be the vane profile
Manufacturing Requirements
Manufacturing methods profoundly aft impeller blade design. Prototype impellers are
sometimes machined. With advanced, numerically controlled machine tools. Just about any
shape can be produced if cost is not an issue. Mass- produced impellers are most often cast.
The metal casting and mold preparation process imposes severe limitations on the blade
design. Often. it is not teasibility hut cost which decides the use of a particular casting
process. In the mold preparation process a wooden model is made of the impeller and its
blades. casting sand is packed around the impeller model, and then the wooden model must
be pulled from the mold, leaving a cavity that is an exact replica of the form to be cast. The
geometrical shape of the blades must he such that it should be possible to pull them from the
mold. Evidently, twisted blade shapes would be impossible to remove.
When the blade, shape does not depend on the axial z coordinate, the simplest blade
configurations are two-dimensional blades. The surface of all blades consists of axial
generator lines. In the radial plane the blades are generally spiral shaped and are fully defined
by the radial rand circumferential 0 coordinates. The trace of the intersection .01 the ,blade
with the hub and shroud sufface over when viewed from the axial direction. Impeller models
with such blades can be pulled from the mold in the axial direction, in one piece, with a
simple movement which is easy to mechanize and relatively inexpensive to implement. Note
that the leading edge need not necessarily be in the1 axial direction, nor need the hub and
shroud contours be radial.
In a more complex mold configuration the blades are pulled out individually, m a direction
inclined to the axial direction. This approach offers much greater flexibility for blade design
but is more expensive to produce, requiring that each blade be handled separately. The
surface of each blade consists of straight-line generators, all of which are inclined in the same
direction, at an angle to the axial direction. The blades need to be slightly tapered in the
direction in which they are pulled, which is usually toward the hub.
Finally, separate molds can be prepared for individual blades of quite arbitrary shape. The
molds divide into two parts, one for each face of the blade, and the blades do not need to be
pulled out. The individual blade molds can be assembled for casting. However, handling of
the individual blade molds makes the process expensive. Also, the individual blade molds of
the assembly can shift during casting, increasing the reject rate.
Exceptionally, investment (or lost wax) casting can be used when high accuracy is desired at
any cost. A wax model of the impellers or blades is embedded in casting sand and the wax
model is melted out, leaving a cavity for the metal. Manufacturing techniques more often
used recently, such as stamping or polymer molding impose special requirements which
cannot be described in detail here. However, the design tools offered here are suitable for the
design o such pumpsonly the feasibility criteria differ.