National Role Conceptions in the Study of Foreign Policy Author(s): K. J. Holsti Source: International Studies Quarterly, Vol.

14, No. 3 (Sep., 1970), pp. 233-309 Published by: Blackwell Publishing on behalf of The International Studies Association Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3013584 . Accessed: 08/10/2011 03:28
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in Study RoleConceptionsthe National ofForeign Policy

K.
UNIVERSITY

J.HOLSTI
OF BRITISH COLUMBIA

Introduction*

of relations often and officials, theorists international Historians, which suggest patpolicy behavior terms by characterize foreign Typical decisions actions governments. and by terned recurring or "bloc "bal"non-aligned," leaders," classifications include would and as When a ancers," "satellites." we classifystate "non-aligned," we imply in a variety international of contexts situations, and that will with itsdiplomatic-military anddecisions be consistent actions the"rules" category classofstates or under general the subsumed called"non-aligned." term a The summarizesbroadbut typical and behaviors attitudes. antiof Theseinclude range diplomatic and toenter blocinto colonial unwillingness predispositionspolicies, of aid a of alliances, receipt foreign from variety sponsored military forces of countries' maintenance other against sources, prohibition and on on the state's independent judgment territory, praticing all rules kinds or Not of world issues. everyone most agrees upon the with nathat and decisions actions areconsistent thenon-aligned
* This study a was made possiblethrough Canada CouncilSeniorResearch workin the middlesectionwas carriedout Most of the empirical Fellowship. and Studies Affairs the Commonwealth of at the Royal Institute International to bothin London.I am especially grateful Linda FreemanforhelpInstitute, to portions, Ole R. on ing in the researchand commenting the theoretical and to the and constructively scrutinizing manuscript, Holsti for carefully variousstagesof the research. McVicarforassisting Meena Marooand Kenneth
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in leaves a lot to be desired theway of pretionalrole-the term of of cision-but as a crudesummation the generalorientation a and government toward the externalenvironment, particularly common understanding. toward military blocs,it elicits Theorists international of politicshave for some time made in to rolesas possible causalvariables theoperareferences national the policies tionof international systems, in explaining foreign or Mostversions thebalanceof powertheory of of individual nations. each of whichis to make positthree kindsof statesin thesystem, is roles-if the system to recertain typesof commitments-enact a group mainstable:an aggressor or group states, defending state of of states, If and a "balancer." thestatesdo notplaytherolesposon (e.g., if the balancerdoes not intervene tulatedin the theory of transwar, behalf thedefensive coalition), imbalance, and system result. problem A withthebalanceofpowerformulation formation in is thatit does notindicate the whether keyvariables explaining of are and the dynamics the system the definition fulfillment of or the functions essenroles (nationalattributes), whether system to stateofbalanceorimbalance (system tially according theoverall attributes). much the of of rolesalsopermeates Thenotion national implicitly of the contemthe majorcharacteristics literature that describes will reflection suggest that international A system. moment's porary crudeand worldare unnecessarily of mostportrayals the present role typesgermane with to reflect strong a preoccupation national modelformostanalyses-thepolar the cold war. The underlying of of rolesand functions bloc leaders, worldcomposed thenational for be and states-may meaningful some allies, satellites, nonaligned in and but of types investigation, it seemsinappropriate lacking debased on thepolarmodel Treatments other tailformany purposes. the of oftheworldgenerally variety rolesthatsmaller ignore great are and The states regions. smallstates playin thesystem invarious between greatpowers. the as analyzed primarily objectsof rivalry little workhas been done on the Withsomeimportant exceptions, or of subordinate Africa, SouthAsia,except systems LatinAmerica, at the pointswhere these are linkedto the cold war rivalry.1
1 Some of the important "The Middle East are: LeonardBinder, exceptions 10 WorldPolitics, (April1958), pp. 408-29; System," International Subordinate and Asian Studies: The Subordinate Relations Michael Brecher, "International
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Whether arguesthattheworldis stillessentially one polaror that it is tending toward balanceof powerconfiguration, cold war a the a dimension contemporary of international politicsremains filter through whichregional relationships viewed. are of Representing worldin terms blocs and neutrals onlya the is roughcategorization reality, perhapsincreasingly of and obsolete. Just designating as persons judge,professor, politician as or does notindicate fulfill within adequately thetaskstheseindividuals all theirformal so positions and casual relationships, the termsbloc leader,satellites, allies,and non-aligned not revealall the bedo havioral variations observable the different of relationships in sets intowhich states enter. If itis agreedthat descriptive explanatory our and studies forof eignpolicyand international systems a need moreprecision, numberofquestions, of come focusing around concept national the roles, to mind.Fromtheobserver's vantage, whatare themajornational roletypes thecontemporary in a system? we constructtypology Can of national rolesthatis richer detailand moresensitive disin to in tinctions actual diplomatic behaviorthan the ones currently fashionable? usingan approach Or, based on perceptions, can we inquire:how do policymakers the rolestheirnations view should playin international affairs? Does theterm non-aligned adequately summarize rolesandfunctions theleaders Egypt, the that of Burma, in or Sierra Leoneperceive their states sets fulfilling different ofrelationships? does it hide important Or, differences perceptions? of Shouldwe continue assume to thatgovemments their organize dipand lomatic military actions fulfill a single to roleconception? only not thatpolicymakers manystates Is there evidence in of conceive theirnationsas playingseveral roles simultaneously-including somethatare incompatible? Whataboutthosegovernments whose leaders appearto haveno conception all ofan appropriate at orienof 15 StateSystem Asia,"WorldPolitics, (January 1963), pp. 213-35; Brecher, The New Statesof Asia (London: OxfordUniversity Press, 1963), Chaps. 3 and 6; W. I. Zartman, "Africa a Subordinate as State System International in International 21 Relations," Organization, (Summer 1967), pp. 545-64;Zartman, "Decision-Making Among African Governments Inter-African in Affairs," 2 Journal Development of Studies, (January 1966), pp. 98-119; Zartman, Interin Relations the New Africa(Englewood Cliffs: national Prentice-Hall, 1966); and LarryW. Bowman,"The Subordinate State Systemof Southern Africa," International StudiesQuarterly, (September1968), pp. 231-61. 12
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environment? do they How tation their of statetoward external the bloc leader,alliancepartner, fitintothe traditional and satellite, non-aligned categories? Otherinteresting are of questions also suggested the notion by national whatare the sources role conceptions of roleconception: in held by policymakers? theregradations the specificity Are and of national roleconceptions? so, whatare If structure policymakers' for the likelyconsequences foreign policydecisions and actions? will of Underwhatconditions knowledge national role conceptions us forms diplomatic of or behavior? permit to explain predict typical from of theoretiMoving descriptive questions thistypeto more we cal concerns, may inquireinto the relevance nationalrole of both and in conceptions, as independent dependent variables, forIn the is eignpolicyanalysis. the first instance, problem whether, or to whatextent, of role conceptions held by knowledge national policymakers wouldallowus to explainor predict deciindividual sions and actions.In the second,it will be arguedthat in any it generalapproachto the studyof foreign policy, may be more to fruitful explainnational role conceptions variablessuch as by thoseproposed Snyder al.2thanto attempt explain et to by individdecisions. ual, and often unique,diplomatic about the structure processes an of What can we predict and if international of system we have detailed knowledge thenumber, of types,and distribution nationalrole conceptions among the of Can policymakers that system? we usefully compare international of systems using the distribution nationalrole conceptions a as criterion? reviewing relevance roletlheory After the distinguishing of to foreign the policyanalysis, willexplore number, we types, charand of acteristics, distribution national roleconceptions, derived as from survey recent a of foreign policystatements seventy-one from This of governments. empirical portion the studywill providea the basis forexploring questions raisedabove. The concept rolein socialscience of thatindividual The notion behavior to the maybe patterned fit of expectations others goes back at least to the beginning this of century. John Dewey, amongothers, distinguished aspectsof be2 RichardC. Snyder, H. W. Bruck,and BurtonSapin, (eds.), Foreign PolicyDecision-Making (New York: The Free Press,1963). INTERNATIONAL STUDIES QUARTERLY

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needs and thosewhich psychological haviorwhichderivedfrom

were organized to be consistent with expectations developed or relationships formalpositionsin organizathroughinterpersonal tions.George HerbertMead exploredthe impact of the behaviorof

and self-conceptions made usefulconon "others" an individual's and the betweenthe "self' and the "alter," ceptual distinctions Today,the notionof role and thatof the participant. observer's or on texts sociology socialpsyin of concept roleis discussed most of the illustrate impact role studies empirical and chology numerous and social psychologists on expectations behavior.Sociologists, marital, to adjustment sexual, personal have anthropologists studied on with roles;childdevelopment, emphasis the growth or kinship norms as of the child'sconceptof himself a role player;cultural and, and organizations, smallgroups; work, to relating sexbehavior, Macroof the morerecently, examination small groupdynamics. the social rolesfrom individuals abstract of scopictheories society amongrolesas theprimary and viewrelationships them occupying focus. analytical presidency such Studiesof institutions as the American exponents. and thatconstitutional and the emphasize limitations opportunities ways thatinas norms place on incumbents, well as the political of self shape theinstitution-their conceptions role-but cumbents are to of applications role theory politicalphenomena systematic
few.The notableexceptionis the workof Wahlke,Eulau, Buchanan, the concept of role has found fewer Among political scientists

of research survey on which, thebasis of extensive and Ferguson3 to role constructs types help explainthe acfour statelegislatures,

not only in theirmutual relations, tionsand decisionsof legislators with personsoutinteraction and unofficial but also in theirofficial side legislatures. The authors found that legislators developed

up making towardthe norms "orientations" different significantly

are definedas the legislators'own diverse roles. Role orientations

of performance theirduties. For instance,in theirrepresentational

in theyoughtto exhibit the of expectations the kindsof behavior

or as wereclassified trustees, politicos, delegates. roles,legislators legissector), with (clientele-roles relations pressure groups In their
3 JohnC. Wahlke, Heinz Eulau, William Buchanan and Leroy C. Ferin guson, The LegislativeSystem:Explorations LegislativeBehavior (New Wiley,1962). York:John VOLUME 14, mDEIB

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latorswere classified facilitators, as neutrals, resisters. major or A purposeof this studywas to exploreand explaindifferences in legislators' orientations linking role by themto demographic, personality, ecological, institutional and variables. whichemploy Despitethelargenumber socialscience of studies the conceptof role,consensus definitions on the empirical on or referents theconcept of does notyetexist.4 withthenotions of As "power"1 "interest," or scholars tendto define term suittheir the to research needs.Sincetheconcept roleis usedat so many of different levelsof analysis-from exploration a groupof children of learning to conform theexpectations their to of elders, theories society to of -it is little wonder thata universal meaning theterm notyet of has of developed. a Nevertheless,number definitions to converge seem aroundthefollowing propositions. Wahlke, concept role To the of refers to a coherent of "norms" behavior set of whichare thought by thoseinvolved the interactions in beingviewed,to applyto all
.

personswho occupy [the same] position. . ion.5

that[individuals] awareofthenorms tulates are constituting the role and consciously to adapt their behavior themin somefash-

. The concept pos-

us Wahlkealso reminds of thedistinction between norms the comprising roleandtheactions attempts actin conformity the or to with those norms. RalphTurner emphasizes differences between status, a or position, role,and between and roleand behavior. to Role refers behaviorrather than position, thatone may so enacta role but cannotoccupya role.... Role is a normative to or It concept. refers expected appropriate behavior is disand tinct the from manner whichtheroleis actually in enactedin a whichis role behavioror role performance. specific situation, is a Whilea norm a directive action, roleis a setofnorms. to ... Theroleis madeup ofall those norms are which thought apply to to a person a occupying given position.6
4 For example, see the list of definitions Lionel Neimanand JamesW. in Hughes,"The Problemof a Conceptof Role: A Resurvey the Literature," of Social Forces,30 (1951), pp. 141-49. B Wahlke,et al., The Legislative System, 8, 9. pp. 6 Ralph H. Tumer,"Role-Taking, Role Standpoint, and Reference Group American Behavior," Journal Sociology, (1956), p. 316. 11 of
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and the or a distinguishesposition, status, Ralph Lintonsimilarly to appropriate it. norms The individual aspectof a status. the A rolerepresents dynamic to and occupiesit withrelation other a assigned status is socially the whichconstitute and rights duties Whenhe putst-he statuses. a role.7 he status intoeffect, is performing role (or role thatthe term then, Thereseemsto be consensus, to refers behavior(decisionsand actions) and can performance) whichare the roleprescriptions, from distinct be keptanalytically or institutions, groups societies, cultures, normsand expectations of The positions. foundations humanbehavior, attachto particular and and the norms are to according roletheory, boththe position thus Role theory the expectations alterprojectson the position. of betweenthe role prescription the the interaction emphasizes (ego). of of theroleperformance theoccupant a position alterand are thatsome aspectsof behavior us, Eulau reminds however, social,or thanorganizational, rather on bestexamined thepersonal of Role prescriptions thealtermaybecomeparamlevels.8 cultural of is to whileattention shifted the"ego's"ownconception his eters to and positionand functions, the behaviorappropriate themvalues,and The whatwe shall call a roleconception. perceptions, thusbecomethe crucial a of attitudes theactoroccupying position In role in variables explaining performance. real life, independent of goals a from combination self-defined results behavior of course, and variables, social of a of and norms conduct, variety situational makesthe man,"the reIf and expectations. "theposition norms the for and verseof thecoinis thatmaninterprets defines himself associof forms behavior and privileges appropriate duties, rights, in Ideally,any and relationships society. ated withhis positions emphawhichrespectively theseapproaches, shouldcombine study It variables. may of size thestates thealterand ego as independent while one to however, emphasize sourceof behavior be legitimate, and forpolitics of In the neglecting other. thestudy international thereare reasons-tobe notedbelowin eignpolicy, particular,
1936), 7 Ralph Linton,The Studyof Man (New York: Appleton-Century, p. 114. 8 Heinz Eulau, The Behavioral in Persuasion Politics(New York: Random House, 1963), pp. 39-46.
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forassuming thattheroleperformance (decisionsand actions)of to governments be explained may primarily reference thepolicyby ownconceptions their or makers' of nation's rolein a region in the international system a whole. as we that Thusfar, havefour foreign concepts willhelpus analyze the depolicy:(1) roleperformance, whichencompasses attitudes, and actions take (2) selfcisions, governments to implement their from anating, undervarying circumstances, the alter or external Action environment. (4) that alwaystakesplace within a position, of is, a system roleprescriptions. to Approaches the studyof behavior usingthe notionof role in are illustrated Figure1. Thischaracterization, notallowing while of the thatbehavior for complexity roletheory (whereit is assumed role situations that actors'orientations and occursin multiple to the between different willvary),suggests distinction roles studies norms and states thealterand sources thealter's of of emphasizing
(A) RolePerformance & (decisions actions) (E)
conceptions

definednational role conceptionsor (3) the role prescriptions em-

(B)

(C)
-

Ego's role
4

|ost1

Alter's prescriptions

of sources I (F) Interests, goals and Attitudes values Personality needs

of sources 1(D) Culture Social institutions Organizations

Laws

FIGURE Role Theoryand the Sourcesof Human Behavior 1.

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on for and expectations an explanation behavior, thosefocusing as of theactors' own perceptions role. the Most social sciencestudiesemploying conceptof role exmodalbehavior patterns (A)-by examinplain behavior-usually components of ingtherelationship between(B), (C), and various intothe and Moment,9 have inquired (D). Some,suchas Zaleznik that and connections between conceptions roleprescriptions, is, role between(E), (C), and (B). Phenomenological studieshave exbetween(B), (E), and (F), plained(A) in terms relationships of policy analysis, or more (E), and (F). Foreign frequently, between as in particular, the of emphasizes self-conceptions policymakers neglects (national interest) generally and determinants behavior of statesin the is, theroleprescriptions thealter-that oftheother of A onlypartof a larger problem. major system. This is, however, to of question whether concept rolecan be appliedfruitfully is the to theanalysis foreign politics, a milieu of policyand international society formal or thatis different theintegrated from organization. The extension roletheory foreign to policyanalysis of immediately. conceptof The One problem becomesapparent "setting" withmore or less wellposition connotes behavioral a rights, privileges. mayalso indicate and It defined functions, duties, a regularized of activities organizations. associated withformal set Within integrated an the society organization, alter'srole preor the are in scriptions, directed toward position, critical establishing Behavior by incumbent. and maintaining conformity the position's unionleader, withsuch positions legislator, as banker, associated or military groupsor defined reference by chiefis usuallyclearly of formal relatively littlelatitude enactments, leavingincumbents choicein organizing actions. People are,in a sense,representheir tatives thesepositions. of such as the United Withinsome international organizations Nationsor NATO, statesdo appear to occupypositions. Rights, and special responsibilities particular for statesare estabduties, in bothin charters roleofthemajor powers theSecurity lished (the traditional multipractices.Traditional, Council), and through directed towardAmerican behaviorwithin nationalexpectations
9 AbrahamZalesnikand David Moment,The Dynamicsof Interpersonal Wiley,1964). Behavior(New York:John
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it must extensive. suchexamples, would In NATO, forexample, be to be quite feasible applyformal to role theory analyzenational behavior. Most foreign policybehaviordoes not occur,however, in a setting is strictly that analogous a socialposition. to Sincenation-states multi-functional are collectivities, operating withininin numerable of bilateral sets and multilateral relationships a comparatively unorganized milieu, is difficult applythe concept it to ofposition (systems roleexpectations) it has been developed of as instead the of has We might employ notion statusas thatterm stratification. inof come to be used in analyses international Any difof whichreflects has ternational system a pattern stratification of the of ferentials involvement the affairs thesystem, extent in of economic-techforeign commitments, military capabilities, prestige, terms such as "great nologicallevels,and the like. Conventional indicatehow much power"or "middlepower"do not necessarily influence stateswield withinany set of relationships, diplomatic but theydo suggest or roughdistinctions status. of Whether not thesedistinctions crucialin theminds policymakers be are of may difficult test.Nevertheless, seemsreasonable assumethat to it to thoseresponsible making for decisions and taking actionsforthe stateare aware of international statusdistinctions thattheir and "small" policies reflect awareness. instance, this For states frequently offer in mediation peace-keeping or services conflict situations becauseoftheir lackof direct involvement crisis in areas.Theirlower statusand level of international involvement allow themto may undertake certain tasksthatwouldbe deniedby the contestants to themajor powers. must We keepin mind, however, thenotion that of statusin the international context morevague than thatof is in position the social context. Positions includewell defined, and sets usually specialized, of functions are based on explicit and role often of prescriptions, drawnin the form rulesor laws describing conduct.10 is appropriate Status, however, notnecessarily linkedto its on functions; consequences foreign policybehavior largely are unknown unexplored."1 and
10 TheodoreR. Sarbinand VernonL. Allen,"Role Theory"in The Hand book of Social Psychology, Vol. I, ed. GardnerLindzey & Elliot Aronson (Reading,Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1968), pp. 497-98. 11 See, however,Gustavo Lagos, International Stratification Underand
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Another majorproblem applying in role theory the analysis to of foreign policyor international politics the differing is impact of thealter's roleprescriptions thesocialand international in contexts. We have alreadynotedthatrole performance, conducted within the setting a position, influenced the expectations peer of is by of groups, organizational rules, socialmores, cultural valuesand traditions, laws,as well as by self-conceptionsrole.Can we sugand of gestthatpolicymakers' national role conceptions theirforeign and policydecisions and actionsare similarly influenced restrained or by theinternational counterpart thesocialalter, of thatis,by internationallegal norms, the expectations othergovernments, of or "worldopinion"? Mostcommentators agreethatit is premature to speak of an international "society." Indeed,some observers inof ternational politics characterize environment a "state war" the as of (whichpresumably integrated an society not), wherecommon is institutions law-making application not exist. of and do The component units thesystem of must relyprimarily upontheir own definitions interests standards action. of as for The expectations other of governments, international norms, "world legal or opinion" explain fewaspectsof national behavior, particularly conffict in situations. In international politics, then,the fact of sovereignty implies derive and actions(roleperformances) that decisions foreign policy needs and domestic role primartly from policymakers' conceptions, in or environment. and events trends theexternal demands, critical exof the Generally, expectations othergovernments, norms legal and available pressedthrough custom, generalusage, or treaties, are or to sanctions enforce these, ill-defined, flexible, weakcompared and particularly within to thosethatexistin an integrated society When incompatibility betweenhighly exists formal organizations. and the normsof behaviorestablished valued nationalinterests and treaties the like,the latter through normally give way to the in conffict selfthat former. is precisely the acute international It national conceptions role of or defined ("bastion revolution" "arsenal take overexternally derived of democracy") seemingly precedence roleprescriptions.12
of (Chapel Hill: University NorthCarolinaPress,1963), developedCountries Journalof Peace Theoryof Aggression," and JohanGaltung,"A Structural 2 Research, (1964), pp. 95-119. are 12 According to Eulau, "If no stable points of behavioralreference
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a of What we see, however, primarily difference degreeof is role influence. arguethatin the international To context prescripare tions thealter relatively of are primitive notmeanthatthey does negligible, even in non-existent thattheir or impactis necessarily crisis situations. legal norm, instance, an activeor potenAny for is system, tial restraint the behaviorof some decision-making on in whether individual, group, governmental.delimits one way or It or another whatindividuals complete freedom choice;it specifies of or morecomplexdecision-making various bodies,when enacting situaroles, must must do,maydo, or maynotdo in certain do, not by tions.International laws,though primarily interpreted the govare ernments whose behaviorthey are intendedto control, no betweenthe different their in restraining function. difference The milieuis thatin the integrated socialcontext theinternational and governed by former largeportion humanactionis effectively a of matters such legal enactments, whilein thelatter primarily routine as shipping communications effectively governed interby and are national legal machinery. the between socialand international the Considering differences less and relatively effective norms lack of positions contexts-the in of and sanctions the alter-theframework Figure1 wouldhave in of it before can be employed theanalysis foreign to be modified status of The concept position by policy. maybe replaced theterm and whichmay or may not have appreciable ternational system whattheybedefine on consequences thewaysthatpolicymakers or international orientations tasksfor lieve to be the appropriate of The position the alterwill be denotedby broken their nation. from source this and that linesindicating roleprescriptions sanctions that and While acknowledge the are potential intermittent. we must environmentrelevant foreign is to alteror external policyanalysis, it willbe on thedefiwillconsider a constant. thisstudy Emphasis and of role sources those nition national conceptions thedomestic of will assumethatroleperformance results or We from, conceptions.
the cues are forthcoming, actor,unable to cope available and no directional in with ambiguity any otherway, will definehis role forhimself falling by thatmay or may not be objectively back on personalvalues and experiences The Behavioral to Persuasion Politics, in in himself others." relevant orienting p. 104.
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which denotes only a rough estimateof a state's rankingin the in-

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(A)

Foreign policy role performance and (decisions actions) (E) Policymakers'

national role
conceptions
-.---*

it

~~~~~~~~~~~~I
(B)

(C) Alter's role

Nation'sstatus

4 ---prescriptions

t 4t
sources of systemstructure system-wide values general legal principles treatycommitments informalunderstandings "world opinion"

sources of

location,resources of state capabilities socio-economic needs national values, ideology traditionalroles public opinion personality, political needs

and FIGuRE2. Role Theoryand ForeignPolicy: NationalRole Conceptions as Prescriptions IndependentVariables

is consistent conceptionsof theirnation'sorienwith,policymakers' in the international tationsand tasks systemor in subordinatereare derived role prescriptions gional systems. Status and externally but relevantto role performance, will not be exploredfurther. as We may now definenational role performance the general It foreign policybehaviorof governments. includes patternsof attitoward tudes, decisions, responses, functionsand commitments other states. From the observer'spoint of view, these patternsor typical decisions can be called national roles. A national role conof own definitions the general ception includes the policymakers' kinds of decisions,commitments, rules and actions suitable to their
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on if state,and of the functions, any, theirstate should perform a systemor in subordinaterecontinuing basis in the international gional systems.It is their "image" of the appropriateorientations of or functions theirstate toward,or in, the externalenvironment. with Typical nationalrole conceptionswould be regionaldefender, the function protecting of otherstatesin a definedarea, or mediator, conflict with the continuingfunctionof assistingin international resolution.National role conceptions are, in short,an important decisions settingin which day-to-day aspect of the total intellectual on foreign policy are made.13 states To explain different nationalrole conceptionsin different (e.g., Sweden as a mediator Burma as an isolate), we mightlook to such varied sources as: location and major topographicalfeaturesof the state; natural,economic and technicalresources;availpolicies; socio-economicdemands and able capabilities; traditional needs as expressed throughpolitical parties,mass movements,or interestgroups; national values, doctrines,or ideologies; public or opinion"mood"; and the personality politicalneeds of keypolicya research problem to find out what sorts of makers. It remains existbetween national role conceptionsand these variconnections states. ables in different National role conceptionsare also related to, or buttressedby, The the role prescriptions coming fromthe externalenvironment. of would include the structure sources of these role prescriptions the international values; general legal princisystem;system-wide commanduniversalsupport(such as the docples which ostensibly trineof the sovereignequality of states); and the rules, traditions, and expectationsof states as expressedin the chartersof internaand "world opinion,"multilateral tional and regionalorganizations, and bilateraltreaties;and less formalor implicitcommitments "unThe extentto which these externalrole prescriptions derstandings." in become significant developing national role conceptionsvaries situations. fromstate to state and in different considerably conTo summarize:role theory, transposedto the international for a text,offers framework describingnational role performance and role conceptionsand for exploringthe sources of those role
13 A discussion a of roles and role conceptions providing settingfor as is decision-making in HerbertA. Simon,Models of Man (New York: John Wiley,1957), p. 201. INTERNATIONAL STUDIES QUARTERLY

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critical differconceptions. is necessary, It however, acknowledge, to societiesin ences in the characteristics nominally of integrated uninnation-states, organizations, groupsand the relatively and tegrated milieu.The concepts position of and alter intemational raise particularly difficult problems when transposed foreign to policyanalysis. Individual can foreign policydecisions and actions be seenas attempts enactnational conceptions; to role typical decisionsareat leastconsistent these with conceptions. international The can system be conceived analytically onlyas patterns internot of but role action, also as a particular distribution various of national at conceptions anygiventime. Descriptions national of roles:The literature units maintain The idea that orienindependent political general tations toward external the and certain environment fulfill functions within international the system as old as the written is analysis of inter-societal relations. of Observers inter-state relations China in the in the during Chou dynasty, India during Chandragupta period, and in Greeceduring system city-states the of frequently employed of or broader thanthe objectives stateaction, the means concepts forachieving theseobjectives. theArthasastra, instance, In for Kautilyadescribes "types" foreign six of policy (accommodation, hostility, indifference, attack, protection, double policy),each of and whichcontains actions.14 Accommodation be manycomponent may fulfilled through variety policies, a of such as cessionof a partof one's territory, agreement hand overproducefrom land,or to the other self-abnegating actions. his of Kautilya, however, goesbeyond six-fold category national role roles.He also specifies sourcesand hypothesizes relationships characteristics states.The main of betweenrolesand t-he internal roleis thestatus theruler. kingof inof A sourceof each national of or ferior status adoptsan orientation accommodation protection, of Monarchs superior rankand presto orresorts a "doublepolicy." of tigeadopt orientations hostility typeof cold war) or attack (a characterized conflict composed is Whena system (imperialism). by
14 See Frank M. Russell,Theoriesof International Relations(New York: "Kautilya:Foreign 1936), 37-51, and GeorgeModelski, D. Appleton-Century, Systemsin the AncientHindu World," American Policy and International PoliticalScienceReview,58 (1964), pp. 549-60. VOLUMIE 14, NMER

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in the appropriate orientation, of kingsof roughly equal status, Kautilya's view,is "indifference,"as we knowit,a typeof nonor theory international of alignment. Kautilya notdevelopa formal did for relations, did he specify nor whatthe consequences a system foreign policy would be if its component unitsadopteddifferent of policyaction orientations. in developing But categories foreign of ends and means,he whichwerebroader thanconcepts specific of was suggesting something to the notions role performance akin and function. also that Versions thebalanceof powertheory use categories of are broader thantheobjectives stateactionand themeansused of to achievethem. Manywriters have arguedthatthebalanceis the majorobjective stateaction-a view whichhas littlehistorical of individual policyobjectives validity-but others have distinguished and the cumulative and actionswhich impactof policydecisions for system. result statesof equilibrium imbalance the entire in or For instance, the century were British statesmen during nineteenth of not alwaysconscious the consequences variousdistributions of of powerin theworld; of balancewas perpetuation somemythical not a major consideration day-to-day decision-making. They in such shipping wereconcerned withspecific interests, as protecting and lanes,securing independence the Low Countries, prothe of and for economic religious groups operatviding protection various or theseinterests ing in Africa. The result defending promoting of a between splendid isolation and was,however, pattern alternating formal commitments abroad. as the Viewing nineteenth century a unitof diplomatic history, one each uniquediplomatic thanemphasizing rather situation, can of in fulfilled tasks "balancer" a system the comarguethatEngland of At posed of manygreatpowers. leastthiswas the consequence and in actions diplomacy, itsmany alliance-making, war.Fromsuch of theorists thebalanceofpowerhave arguedthatif a perspective, for role,the consequences the the balancerplays its appropriate hencepeace and stability; wouldbe to maintain system equilibrium, have or of enactment the balancerrole,whether not policymakers conseof involves an actual role conception balancer, integrative quencesfortheentire system. from of Someversions thebalanceof powertheory distinct (as historical of of descriptions the distribution powerat a particular
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point) also hintat the sourcesof nationalroles and role conceptions, or but do not contain many explicitcausal statements hypotheses. Most discussionsof the balance of power imply that the national roles of bloc leader, bloc follower,and balancer emerge fromthe of distribution power in the systemand fromspatial relationships between states. Variables internalto the state, such as ideologies, are capabilities,and personalities not mentionedas possible sources of forthesenationalroles. The structure power and the characteriscoalitionsare the only detics of various diplomaticand military and responses toward commitments of terminants a government's in other states in the system.'5Nevertheless, suggestingcategories broader than ends and means of of behavior that are analytically policy,the theorydoes help us to thinkin termsof systems foreign behavior over a period of states, their components'characteristic national roles,and the consequences to the system of time,distinct of enactingor failingto enact these national roles. The theoryof balance of power has been subjected to serious nelack for criticism its oversimplifications, of empiricalreferents, policy,and of glect of internalattributes statesas factorsin foreign Until the recent developmentof morass of impreciseterminology. the systems"outlook,"however,the intellectualapparatus of the balance of power remained much in evidence in the literature. in particularly the last two decades, who did not Those writers, upon which to hang adopt the balance of power as the framework of their analyses, emphasized instead configurations activityand passivityamong statesin the system.FrederickSchuman'stext disMax Weber between "satiated"and "unsatiated"states.16 tinguished states and "expansive" states, but little in discussed "isolationist"
15 The sourcesof nationalroles in Kaplan's workalso appear to be preand its attending system wherethe type of international external, dominantly of and the determine orientations functions states. rules"apparently "essential is role function the integrative For example,"In the loose bipolar system, Thus it is dependent of upon the actor'sfreedom bloc association. dependent of of structuring the system the actorand the relationship upon the inherent withinthe international of of that system action to the otheractor systems Kaplan arguesthateach actor's"action however, of system action."Elsewhere, that characteristics,"' is, by its type by is pattern" determined its "organizational Politics MortonKaplan, Systemand Processin International of government. Wiley,1957), pp. 39 and 54. (New York: John 16 International Politics (3d ed.; New York: McGraw-Hill,1941), pp. 274-75,279.
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politics . . . reveals three basic patterns:that is, all political pheMills, eds., From Max Weber: Essays in 17 H. H. Gerthand C. Wright Press, 1946), Chap. 6. Sociology(New York: OxfordUniversity 18 The Super-Powers Brace & Co., 1944). (New York: Harcourt, A. Knopf,1960), Chap. 12. 19 WorldPolitics(New York: Alfred
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the W. betweenthese.17 T. R. Fox visualized worldas a struggle (the powernot to be coerced) betweenthe "questforsecurity" (the and the"questfordomination" powerto coerce).18 A. F. K. dimena has suggested satisfied-dissatisfied Organski morerecently continuum. or the active-passive strong-weak sion to cross-cut Thus,in his view the worldcan be seen as made up of powerful weakand satisstates, and powerful dissatisfied and satisfied states, states.19 fiedstates, weakand dissatisfied and it are thesedichotomies useful.Certainly is For somepurposes has and, as Organski not difficult place statesin each category to of of we distributions types states, various done,ifwe hypothesize of or possibilities stability conaboutthelong-range can speculate withthesecateThe problem system. an within international flict is however, thattheyare broad and do nothelp us linka gories, with Whataretheforeign behavior. diplomatic type specific ofstate We to a stateforbeingweak and dissatisfied? policyconsequences in themajorissueareas involved it mayexpect to becomeactively of imperialor on ofthesystem it mayembark a program regional the from ism.But,muchas Burmahas, it may also isolateitself and dissatisfied statemay adopt a a Similarly, powerful system. or of foreign policyorientations nationalroles. number different such as China, actor, revolutionary It couldbecomea system-wide to activities a particular region;it or it could confine expansionist or the for could define itself role of a balancer, it could attempt and its by to merely raiseitsprestige overcome dissatisfactions conThereis no logicalor empirical on development. centrating internal or to type reason believethatanyparticular ofstatemust, probably to in itself thesystem a or undertake specific policies orient would, or or strong weak or satisfied way because it is either particular dissatisfied. based in parton of also Hans Morgenthau usesa typology states the but policies continuum, in discussing resulting an active-passive roles."All of at he of each typeof state, hints thenotion national

A basictypes. political to policy can nomena be reduced oneofthree

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seeks either keep power,to increasepower,or to demonstrate to power.20 Fromthismaxim derives he three kindsof policiesin the international realm:policiesof the statusquo, imperialism, and policiesof prestige. his statement "thesepatterns interIn that of national politics notofnecessity do correspond conscious to motivation in the mindsof statesmen.. . . They may not be aware of the actualcharacter thepoliciesthey of pursue,' Morgenthau implies thatthesepolicies can be conceived national as roles, distinct from theuniquegoalswhichpolicymakers trying achievein speare to cific situations. threekindsof "policies" broader His are thanthe day-to-day actionsof governments. are patterns decisions They of encompassing sortsof unique objectives, all interests, values. and Hence,no matter whatthe concrete issueinvolved, imperialism is aimedat, or has theconsequence reversing powerrelationof, the shipsbetween twoor more nations overa periodof time.22 of Further three resemblance between Morgenthau's types policy of and thenotion national of roleis revealedin his discussion iminto perialism, where suggests subdivision imperialist he a of policies system-wide types, regional imperialism, local imperialist and roles, whereonlya powerdistribution betweentwo statesis involved.23 as Whatare thesources theseimperialist of policies? Just the balanceofpower theorists, Morgenthau ignores domestic, social,politithe cal, and personality variables. Imperialist policiesderivefrom A and of circumstances power distribution the system. state is "induced" adoptone of thethree to modesof imperialist policyby statusquo witha in the beingvictorious war (replacing pre-war a the hegemony), losing war (reversing status by quo postbellum), disor by facing powervacuum.Later in his book Morgenthau a of but cussedideologies imperialism, theseideologies appearmore as rationalizations coverup advantages to offered the distribuby thanas causalvariables. situation tionofpowerin theinternational and International Relations the only is Strausz-Hupe Possony's describes the postwar textfrom periodwhichexplicitly typesof in various forms isolation pasof roles.It discusses turn national (a
20 Hans J. Morgenthau, Politics Among Nations (4th ed.; New York: A. Alfred Knopf,1967), p. 36. 21 ibid.,p. 37, fn.3. 22 ibid., Chap. 4. 23 Ibid., pp. 52-54. VOLUME 14, NumMBER 3, SEPTEMBER

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sive role), "pseudo-isolation," neutrality, alnd types of alliance.24 Thoughthe authors the term"strategy" use insteadof role,themeanings are roughly equivalent: each strategyinvolves the general and its patorientation a state toward the externalenvironment of ternsof commitments and responses over a period of time. However,Strausz-Hupeand Possonydo not extendtheiranalysisbeyond describingthese strategies and some of the conditionswhich bring themabout or maintainthem.They do not speculate, forinstance, on the consequences for the system of various distributions of national roles. Following the emergenceof over fifty new states afterWorld of War II, the phenomenon non-alignment attractedthe attenhas tion of scholarsin international politics.Models of the world based on the earlyyears of the cold war have had to be modifiedto take into account the myriadactivities, needs, and interests the unof have derdeveloped countries. Recent treatises on non-alignment soughtto definewhat the termmeans (there is littleagreementon thispoint), what it does not mean, the sourcesof attitudesor "policies" of non-alignment strongemphasison internalsources such (a as need fornational unity,anti-colonial sentiments, religioustraditions, development,and the like), and types of non-alignment.25 of for Perhaps the most instructive these efforts, our purposes, is in and establishesuseful Peter Lyon's Neutralism26 whichhe defines with distinctions between categoriesof states'externalorientations, them clearly drawn. His view of the phenomenonis broader than thatof mostanalysts;he draws liberallyfrompre-twentieth century between "active" traditional neuexamples; he discusses differences tralssuch as Sweden and "passive" or conservative neutralssuch as he Switzerland;and unlike most commentators, recognizes signifiin cant differences the meaning of neutralismfor different underand India. The typology developed countriessuch as Afghanistan of national roles developed fromthe evidence in the succeeding
24 RobertStrausz-Hipe' and StefanPossony, International Relations(New York: McGraw-Hill, 1950), Chaps. 8 & 9. 25 The greatvariation typesof non-alignment the implication in and that the termconcealsmorethanit revealsis discussedby Fayez A. Sayegh (ed.), in The Dynamicsof Neutralism the Arab World: A Symposium (San Francisco: Chandler Publishing Co., 1964). 28 Peter Lyon, Neutralism (Leicester: LeicesterUniversity Press, 1964).
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and categories dein section confirms many ways the distinctions veloped by Lyon. There is as yet,however,no consensuson what preciselynonmeans. Is it a way of lookingat the cold war? Is it really alignment a role conceptionin the sense that it serves as the settingin which for all policy decisionsare made and suggestsunique functions the state in a system?Or, is it just a stance adopted toward the major powers? These questions,thoughtheyhave been posed in different have not been answered adequately. Clearly,the termnonforms, but not much, about the foreign aligned tells us only something, of policies or role conceptions such statesas Egypt and SierraLeone. The evidencegatheredin the succeedingpartof thisstudywill show exist in the national role conceptionsof differences that significant whose states are normallycalled non-aligned. policymakers policies, active-passive Underlyingthe discussion of strategies, is continua, nationalroles,a prevalentassumption thata statecan or Whetherin the old balance of power be placed onlyin one category. or of descriptions non-alignment alliances, or in Morton literature, states are seen as havsystems,27 of Kaplan's typology international ing only a single functionor role within the system.There is no place in Kaplan's loose bipolar model, for instance,for a state to at functions the system integrative be non-alignedand performing or adopting a revolutionary imperialist level, while simultaneously regionalsystem.Most of the literature nationalrole in a subordinate thatwhile a state ignoresthe possibility similarly on non-alignment may be non-alignedwith respect to cold war issues, it may very well be a bloc leader or some other type of role player at the regional level. Only a few writershave discussed the possibilitythat policyroles, or makers might conceive of their nation playing different in functions, separate issue areas, geographical serving different One of Kautilya'ssix foreign policy regions,or sets of relationships. of is tqrpes "double policy,"which requires a strategy appeasement toward one state combined with an active orientationof leading a cold war against another.In his analysis of American foreign BernardFensterwaldargues that century, policies in the nineteenth in deliberate non-involvement European diplomatic affairsrepre27

p. Politics, 39. and Processin International Kaplan,System 14, NUMBER 3,

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toward extemalenvironthe sentsonlyone of severalorientations tothe to ment. According Fensterwald, raisond'etre of aloofness Two ward Europewas the desireto expandin otherdirections.28 in toward orientations-non-involvement Europe and imperialism in Latin America and the Far East-served as the context which orienThe imperialist weretaken. decisions and actions individual and role by tation was rationalized different conceptions functions fromtyranny, -help the poor and weak, liberatethe oppressed or destiny," of the the bring natives blessings democracy, "manifest citizens bothprivate it it -but, however was enunciated, impelled make to intonewrelationships, and theAmerican government enter American interests defend abroadand ultimately new commitments in thoseareas. patthatmostgovernments suggest Kautilya and Fensterwald in role terntheiractionsand responses the lightof one national in but to or conception one situation set of relationships according view of theliterain The another different circumstances. standard strategy, policy or role conception, turethatonlya singlenational withevidence. needs to be examined for is relevant all situations, as attituof roleconception a fixed We shouldnotthink a national of leads to the whichinvariably dinal attribute each government sametypes action all issueareasor setsof relationships. of in does not recogliterature relations If mostof the international role aspectsof foreign nize the multiple policy,thereis at least that in considerable agreement statesare notequallyinvolved inseemsto be continuum affairs. Indeed,theactive-passive ternational as almost muchan assumption theliterature is thetraditional as of and weak states.The relationship betweenpowerful distinction has and between levelsof activity levelsof strength not been exit but ploredfully, forour purposes makesmoresense to talkof and weak ones. rolesthanof powerful activeor passivenational in to himself the exroledirects actoreither involve the A national or certainfunctions by undertaking ternalenvironment through that what form or uninvolved. Precisely commitments, to remain of takeis more thana problem power.Certainly should involvement are in literature based rolesdescribed the traditional the national
28 Bernard Fensterwald, and "The Anatomyof American'Isolationism' 2 Resolution (1958), p. 112. of Journal Conflict Expansionism," INTERNATIONAL STUDIES QUARTERLY

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more on explicitor implicitnotionsof an active-passivecontinuum than on power differentials. If we make a listof the nationalrolesthatare implied,suggested, or discussed in the disparate writingsof the field,we would end up with a typology such as thatin Table 1.
NATIONAL ROLES IN INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS LiTERATURE

TABLE 1

Role Primary RoleType Sources MajorFunctions 1. Revolutionary leader- system transformation;ideologies: rising of imperialist change power capabilities distribution 2. Blocleader bloc cohesionproexternal threats; of tection bloc memstructure ideology; bers;opposition to of system other bloc(s) 3. Balancer balanceunequalblocs; powerdistribution in international integralocation system; tion 4. Blocmember; ally increase capabilities of threat perception; bloc; support bloc location; ideological leader structure of affinity; insufficient system; capabilities 5. Mediator interposition bloc into location; traditional conflicts; integration policies 6. Non-aligned possible mediation of location; threat perbloc conflicts socio-ecoception; nomic needs; nationalism; insufficientcapabilities 7. Buffer separate bloc leaders location; insufficient or major powers capabilities 8. Isolate latent function of location; threat perneutralizing insufficient potential ception; conflict areas capabilities 9. Protectee serve economic and/or insufficient capabilities security interests of major power The role types listed at the top implythe greatestdegree of international activity involvement or and the ones at the bottomsuggest in passivity foreign policy behavior. of How do the perceptions contemporary policymakers regarding the roles theythinktheirstatesshould play in the international sysVOLUME

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tem,or its regionalor issue subsystems, compare to the list derived from literature? arriveat a typology contemporary the To of national role conceptions, revieweda large numberof speeches,parliamenI tarydebates,radio broadcasts,official and press concommuniques, ferences.The list of national roles found in Table 2 is based on statementsby the leaders of seventy-onegovernments, found in nine hundredseventy-two different sources.

National conceptions policymakers: role of Research procedures and examples

in Several rules to guide the researchwere formulated order to make the data as reliable and comparable as possible. First, only statementsfrom the highest-level policymakerswere used. They reflectthe foreignpolicy thoughtsand role conceptionsof presidents,primeministers, foreign or ministers. The only exceptionwas where an ambassador or otherofficial made a speech or statement thatobviouslyreflected views of the top leadership.This would the include generalforeign policy reviewsmade at the beginningof the annual sessions of the General Assemblyor broadcasts emanating fromgovernment-controlled radio stations,such as in the Communist countries.The recorded statements contain only direct quotations or official paraphrases. Editorials or interpretations by observers or statementsascribed to unidentified"high sources" were not used. The second rule was that to obtain a representative sample of of national role conceptionsfor each state, a minimum ten sources it would have to be available. This number is not arbitrary; was determinedmid-waythroughthe research.If it had been higher, the numberof statesin the sample would have been smaller,since on generalstatements foreign policy are rare formanygovernments. to If it were lower,say only five,some references different typesof national role conceptionsmight have been left out and the final of distribution national role conceptionsforeach state would have been considerablyless reliable. The finalselectionof the countries for the project was thus determinedprimarily the availability by numberof generalstatements, of this minimum duringa three-year For period, by top-levelpolicymakers.29 many of the smallercoun29

for Those 15 countries whichbetween5 and 9 sourceswere available

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of triesforeignpolicy statements this kind were eitherunavailable or did not exist. One example is Jamaica. A review of all parliaand one Kingston newsoffice publications, mentary debates,foreign paper for 1964, 1965, and 1967 turned up only three general policyand none of theseincludedevreferences Jamaicanforeign to idence of role conceptions.Countriessuch as Malta, Cyprus,Libya, Haiti, the small Africanstates, and most Latin American governmentspresentedthe same problem. whichmade For Ten sourceswere onlya minimum. govermments many statements speeches, all the major sources were included. or For instance, in searching for CommunistChinese policy statetheredifferent sources were used. It is difficult, ments,thirty-seven China. (ten sources) with Communist fore,to compareAfghanistan But ifthe analysisforChina and manyotherstateshad been limited to to onlyten sources,it would have been even more difficult decide which ten sources to use. Since we are concerned less with comof paring countriesthan with delimitingthe distribution national role conceptionsin the entiresystem,the total number of sources of used foreach nation beyond the minimum ten raises few problems. Third, the sources were derived primarilyfrom the period January1965 to December 1967. Exceptions were made in order numberof sources for each counto obtain a reasonable minimum try.For instance,ten speeches or generalforeignpolicy statements for were not available fromthe Laotian government this period; from1964 to hence it was necessaryto include several statements In changes bringthe totalto the minimum. othercases fundamental the period for in governmentpersonnel necessitated restricting which sources could be found. An example is Ghana, where the coup d'etat in 1966 resultedin substantialforeignpolicy changes. containsno sources fromthe previousNkruThe sample,therefore, mah regime.In the instancesof minorpersonnelchanges which did not appear to affectthe major lines of a nation's foreignpolicy (e.g., Belgium) the period 1965 to 1967 was used. Column 2 of Table 2 indicates the years fromwhich the sources were gathered for each country.
in of are listedseparately Table 5. Mostof the analysis the natureand distribudoes not includethe data forthesecountries. tionof role conceptions
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Fourth,all sourcesfrom which evidence of role conceptions was obtained were general foreignpolicy statementsor reviews. The sources do not include statements referring specificissues. For to instance, statements Secretary State Rusk or President by of Johnson on Vietnamwere not included except where these were couched in termsof the role of the United States as a regional defenderof all Southeast Asia. In some cases it was difficult establish rigid to criteria differentiating specific issues from general foreignpolicy reviews. Some govemments appear to focus attention almostexclusively on specificconflict issue areas, but rationalize their attior tudes and decisionsin generallanguage indicatinga broader frame of referenceor role conception.As an example, the statements of Chiang Kai-shekare couched in themesindicatingregionalroles of defenderof the faithor liberator, the contextof the statements yet is always NationalistChina's relationswithPeking.In these casesthe major examples are NationalistChina, both Koreas, East Germany,Jordan,and both Viet Nams-I have let the themes"speak forthemselves." With one importantexception,the sample for which at least ten sourceswere available is reasonablyrepresentative the variety of of statesin the international system. Most of the statesfromEurope, NorthAmerica,the Middle East, South Asia, East Europe, Southeast Asia, the Pacific,and the Far East are included. More than onehalf of Africa'ssub-Sahara states are also in the sample. The large gap comes fromLatin America and the Caribbean. Published reportsof foreign policyspeeches,whetherin the world'smajor newsare papers or government reports, rare,and thosethatdo appear are or extremein theirgenerality specificity. They tend eithertoward such as "supporting meaninglessgeneralizations peace," or concentrateon specificproblems,usually of a commercialnature. Hence, only threestates fromthese regions-Brazil, Cuba, and Guayanaare included in the sample. Argentinaand Venezuela are included in the group of fifteen states for which between five and nine sources were available (see Table 5). Following these rules, the researchprocedureinvolved reading a large number of sources which included partial or full texts of or statements speeches by high-levelforeignpolicy personnel,and notingthemeswhich gave evidence of the presence of national role conceptions.Despite the varied and colorful vocabulary in the
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most themes. sources, there was no great problem in identifying it Occasionally,because of vague language or garbled thought, was difficult decide which type of national role conceptionthe stateto the mentsor themesindicated.In these instances, themeswere read several times over a period of monthsand finallyclassified.If a theme or statement was considered ambiguous afterseveral readings,it was discarded. difThe projectstartedinductively witha surveyof seventy-five provided a list of ferent sources foreighteencountries;this sample twelve kinds of national role conceptionsas well as clues as to the ways themes might appear in other sources. The remainingfive major national role conceptions were defined from subsequent down verbatim, sources.When themesappeared, theywere written identifiedaccording to author,the situationin which the speech or statement was made, the year, and the source. Aftereach countrywas finished, simple tabulationsof the numberof sources used and the numberand typesof nationalrole conceptionswere made. These figuresappear in Table 2. policy reviews,conMany of the sources,thoughgeneralforeign tained no evidence of national role conceptions.We can draw no firm conclusionsabout the absence of certainevidence; it does not in prove that policymakers some states hold no national role conofficial forceptions.However,where a large numberof a country's to are eign policy statements confined specificissues,such as trade, and reveal no particularorientationtoward the externalenvironment, it does suggest that policymakershave little notion of a tasks.As an exglobal or regional role, or of specificinternational fromCommunistChinese and these two statements ample, contrast sources: Argentine The worldbelongsto the people. We are convincedthat,provided we follow the teachingsof our great leader Chairman Mao, we build a new world withoutimperialism. ... That will certainly is, provided we hold aloft the banner of opposing imperialism, unite with all those who oppose imperialismand colonialism, of firmly supportthe armed struggles the Vietnamesepeople and and Latin Americanpeoples and the revolutionof Asian,African, carrythe struggle ary movementsof the people of all countries, to and its lackeys t-hrough against United States-ledimperialism unite with the end, hold aloftthe banner of Marxism-Leninism,
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and Marxist-Leninists, carryon the struggle all the revolutionary againstmodernrevisionism.... uphold foreignpolicy are to firmly The objectivesof Argentina's . sovereignty . . [and] to develop a foreignpolicy inspired by highesthistoricalprecedents. . . ; in short,a forthe country's its eign policy which will affirm faithin the greatnessof national destiny.... by a statement, paraphraseof a statement Chou En-lai The first toward published in Peking Review, clearly implies an orientation and suggeststypes of actions appropriate the externalenvironment agent and to fillthe two national role conceptions-anti-imperialist an agent-that appear in it. The second statement, anti-revisionist ambassadorto Tokyo,is vague official declarationby the Argentine toward, or and in no way indicates orientations and unstructured The figuresin Table 2, functionsin, the external environment. which concolumn5 show the numberof sources foreach country tained no evidence of role conceptions.Some of the more outstanding examples of the lack of national role conceptionsinclude the policyspeeches generalforeign Congo (Kinshasa), where of twenty or statements, only five contained themes indicatingrole conceptions; Gambia (table 5), where none of the seven major foreign for yearscontainedevidence of national policypronouncements txvo of where fifteen the sample of ninerole conceptions;and Portugal, PremierSalazar and Foreign policy speeches by former teen foreign Minister Nogueira concentratedon very specific issues, usually defense of the Portuguese position in Angola, Mozambique, and PortugueseGuinea.

Some examples. role conceptions: The variety national of

sources for this study provided The nine hundred seventy-two evidence of seventeen role conceptions.A few role conceptions, and are noted mostlyunique to a single state,were also identified under the "other"column in Table 2. The list of national role conthe reflecting degree ceptionsbelow is arrangedalong a continuum or activityin foreignpolicy that the role conceptions of passivity seem to imply. hold that Some governments 1. Bastion of revolution-liberator. of revolutionary theyhave a dutyto organize or lead various types
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movementsabroad. One task of their state, as they see it, is to movements, liberateothersor to act as the "bastion"or revolutionary leaders can that is, to provide an area which foreignrevolutionary regard as a source of physical and moral support,as well as an ideological inspirer. The victoryof China's great proletariancultural revolutionhas not only opened a broad path for consolidatingthe dictatorship to the of the proletariat and carrying socialistrevolution the end, but has made it possible for China to be a more powerfulbase world revolution.(Peking Review, December 25, for supporting 1967.) La Tanzanie n'est pas loin des partiesdu sud de rAfriquequi ne sont pas encore libres. Nous sommes conscientsde notrerole, et notre devoir est d'aider par example le Mozambieque, l'Angola, la Rhodesie du Sud 'a se liberer.C'est pourquoi nous avons chez de nous le siege de la plupart des mouvements liberation.Nous (Julius Nyerere,quoted in devons liberer toute l'Afrique. Le Monde, April 16, 1965.) 2. Regional leader. The themesforthisnationalrole conception perthat a government refer to duties or special responsibilities ceives for itselfin its relationto states in a particularregion with such as internasubsystems or which it identifies, to cross-cutting movements. tional communist We considerthissignal honour [the location of the O.A.U. headof quartersin Addis Ababa] both a recognition Ethiopia's glorious as history a proud and free nation,as well as a challenge to the leadershipin the new continuation her presentrole of dignified of throneopenof (Haile Selassie speech from history the continent. November 2, 1964.) ing Houses of Parliament, Egypt has a special role in the issue . . . of jointArab action. It is up to Egypt more than the other Arab states to come forward witha suitableformula[forArab unityand againstIsrael]. Egypt, perhaps alone, is required to make an accurate assessment [of in conditions the region] .... This special role assigned to Egypt which Egypt must accept. is indeed a special responsibility 22, ("Voice of Arabs" radio broadcast,January 1968.) This role conception,though it perhaps 3. Regional protector. on leadershipresponsibilities a regionalor issue-area impliesspecial
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basis,places emphasis the function providing on of for protection adjacentregions. We have to helpprotect thosedeveloping countries whichgenuinelyneed and request help and which, an essential our as precondition, willingand able to help themselves. are [But] the UnitedStateshas no mandate from highto policethe world on andno inclination do so.... But... theirreducible remains to fact thatour security relateddirectly the security the newly is to of this: to help world.And our role mustbe precisely developing providesecurity those developing to nationswhich genuinely need and request help. (RobertMcNamara, our speechin Montreal, May 18,1966.) GreatBritain mustnotcommit ground troops Southeast in Asia, butourresponsibility provide is to sophisticated support from the sea and airwith theexpert all equipment they[Malaysia that and Singapore] cannot afford, necessary deter potential to a aggressor from launching sophisticated a attack... . To provide deterrent a . . . is ourrolethatwe shouldtakeup withMalaysiaand Singapore.Our commitmentnotto policetheworld. have made is We it clearthatwe do notbelievethatto be theroleof thiscountry. (HaroldWilson statement House of Commons, in 1967.) 4. Active statements Independent. Mostgovernment supporting theconcept non-alignment little of are morethanaffirmationan of "'independent' foreign policy, freeof military commitments any to of the majorpowers. of Thereare differences theseaffirmations in national independence, however. Mostmerely suggest thatforeign than policydecisions be madeto servenational will interests rather the interests others(see below under"independent"). of Others imply muchmorediplomatic activity. addition shunning In to permanentmilitary ideologicalcommitments, themessuggest or the activeefforts cultivate to relations withas manystatesas possible and occasional interposition bloc conflicts. roleconception into The at mediemphasizes onceindependence, self-determination, possible ationfunctions, activeprograms extend and to diplomatic comand mercial relations diverse to areasoftheworld. thatthegovernment Yugoslavia, which of [Mikezic]emphasized in has never believed theusefulness military of blocs. . . had for a of manyyearsbeen pursuing policyaimed at the extension whileat thesametime bilateral cooperation, actively participating
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controversial problems.... Thisis precisely aimofthepolicy the of non-alignment which,while developing cooperation among independent nations, remains opposed to all hegemony and to any sort of monopoly international in affairs. (Paraphraseof speechby Secretary StateforForeign of Affairs, MarkoNikezic, 1967.) The important aboutourforeign point policy that do notact is we policyis based entirely international on realities and national interests. Today,Turkey has greatly enlarged scope of her the foreign policy and has engaged in a many-sided policy.The changing political and strategic viewsof our geographic location and technological developments led us to thispath.We are have to determined enlargethe fieldof our foreign relations and to givea multi-faced nature ourforeign to policy. have tried We to establish new friendships to maintain ones. (Statement and old by PrimeMinister Demirelat pressconference, April22, 1967.) 5. Liberation supporter. Unlikethe bastionof the revolutionliberator national conception, liberation role the supporter does not indicate formal responsibilities organizing, for leading, physically or abroad.Moststatements liberation movements supporting supportand formal; movements ing liberation appearroutine theysuggest and to aboutactions unstructured vague attitudes rather required enacttherole conception.
tive aid to the Vietnamesepeople, . . . to the proletariatof the with prejudgement froma doctrinaire or basis.... Our foreign

in efforts . . in seekingsolutionsand the peaceful settlement . of

their The Chinese people ... have further strengthened senseof to and render moreeffecstill duty internationalism willcertainly

in to world, thepeopleof all countries their revolutionary strugnations theworldin their of gles,and to theoppressed struggle thus cause forliberation, contributing to the revolutionary duly ofthepeopleall overtheworld.(Partofspeechby Chou En-lai, December 1967.) quotedin Peking Review, 25, The Bulgarian peoplehave alwaysbeen and willalwaysbe with for and thepeoplesstruggling freedom independence. Theyhave in to of manytimes responded campaigns support thestruggling
peoples of the colonial and dependent countries.. . . Bulgaria the of warmly supports struggle all nations... whichare marching

alongtheroadto a freelife.(Editorialin BulgariaToday,February, 1966.)

14,
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as is 6. Anti-imperialist Whereimperialism perceived a agent. no to serious threat, manygovernments-by meanslimited commuagainst as nist partystates-see themselves agentsof "struggle" thisevil. Our peopleare living an extremely glorious periodof history. in Ourcountry thegreat honor beingan outpost thesocialof of has against peopleswhoarestruggling istcampand oneoftheworld's line of the responsibility greathonorto standin the front and aggresworldpeople'sstruggle againstUnitedStatesimperialist for sion. For the independence unification our country, and of camp,fortherevolutionary and cause thesecurity thesocialist of defense peace of theworldpeoples,our entire of people,united as one man, are resolvedto fulfill theirheavy but extremely by glorious duty.(Statement Ho Chi Minh,1960.) The SovietUnionhas beenfighting imperialist against aggressive of principle peaceof policy, theimplementationtheLeninist for forces to of have pushedmankind the brink a new worldwar. If at anysuchcritical socialist the Unionand other moment Soviet responsibilitiesthemost as countries failedto liveup to their had reacpolitics, worldimperialist important factor international in tionwouldhave been able to inflict heavyblows at the revoluof tionary movement, theadvanceoftheforces socialism.... halt 50thAnniversary Bolshevik of (Speech by MihailSuslovduring revolution, 1967.) foreign Somegovernments their view 7. Defender thefaith. of in value policyobjectives and commitments termsof defending thanspecified from attack. territories) Those who systems (rather presumof national role conception espousethe defender thefaith to ably undertake special responsibilities guaranteeideological for of purity a group other states. in interest defending humanitarian the tradiWe have a common West tionsof the EuropeansagainstAmericanism ruthless and That is our commonpurpose. (Walther Germanmilitarism. Ulbricht speech,1967.) forces to makeresort is to The primary purposeof our military of and force theadversaries freedom unprofitable dangerous. by
.
. . . imperialism, colonialism,and neo-colonialism. .

. We have the

ful coexistence....

Time and again .

. reactionary imperialist

will not 'We would like to live as we once lived. But history
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permitit. . . . We are still the keystonein the arch of freedom and I thinkwe will continueto do, as we have done in the past, our duty.Let everynationknow ... that we shall pay any price, oppose bear any burden,meet any hardship,supportany friend, any foe to assure the survivaland success of liberty.'(Statement by Dean Rusk, quoting JohnF. Kennedy,1966.) states,a In 8. Mediator-integrator. the sample of seventy-one perceived themselvesas capaconsiderablenumberof governments special tasks to or ble of, or responsiblefor,fulfilling undertaking between otherstates or groupsof states. (Statereconcile conflicts role in only one specificcrisis to mentswhich referred a mediatory were not counted.) The themes for this national role conception task to help adversariesreconof indicate perceptions a continuing cile theirdifferences. We have not deviated from [our mediatory]policy since 1958. to It is a policy that is based on constantefforts help clear the which arise fromtime Arab atmosphereand remove differences to time between Arab states. (Statement by Prime Ministerof Lebanon in Egyptian Mail, March 11, 1967.) It is obvious that our foreignpolicy should supportrealisticattemptsto obtain a continueddetente. Our position as a neutral naturalwhile at the same time giving statemakesthisparticularly groups withdifferent contacts for us special responsibilities fruitful of states. (From speech by Torsten Nilsson, Swedish Foreign 1966.) Minister, collaborator. The themesin thisnational 9. Regional-subsystem category from thosein the mediator-integrator role conceptiondiffer into in that they do not merely envisage occasional interposition commitfar-reaching theyindicate,rather, areas or issues of conflict; with otherstates to build wider commentsto cooperativeefforts subsystemssuch as the Communist munities,or to cross-cutting movement. The impressiveuniversal exposition of 1958 has proven that Belgium considersitselfas having a natural missionto facilitate betweenpeoples. The open doorpolicy... our receptivity contacts of on and the cohabitation our territory Latin to foreign cultures, and Germanicelements. . . predestines fus] to the role ofthe cataof (Statementby governor Province lystof European unification. 1964.) of Anvers,quoted by Belgian government,
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thatthe timehas come to consider Japan's I agreewithothers mission-asa stateand as a nation-intheworldmoreseriously. are fluid and I hopeto cope . . . Things considerably in Asiatoday in national misalwayskeeping mindJapan's withthissituation of will the fill roleas an Asiannation. its Japan assist development in duty, particular, It Asianneighbors. is Japan's less-developed toward cooperation its as tostrengthenmuchas possible economic to by Sato Asiancountries. (Statements press Premier and Foreign Minister Shiina, January, 1966.) national conception role indi10. Developer. The themes this in countries underdeveloped to cate a specialdutyor obligation assist Japanese role in the previous to (note the reference thisnational for References special skillsor advantages underto statement). tasks taking suchcontinuing also appearfrequently. If itself. it a outside I think smallcountry shouldhave a vocation wants be savedfrom to it provincialismshouldplaysomepartin in human arena.... I find all these[underdeveloped] thebroader Quite unexwith development. nationsa greatpreoccupation is beingsmall, able to playthisrole.... Israel,despite pectedly, of the and error, diversity social the Thevariety ourefforts, trial of a all experience, of thesemakeIsraelapparently veryconvenient process. arena in whichothernations can learnthe developing 1965.) interview, by (Statements Abba Eban on U.S. television her from position resulting . . . in view of [Kuwait's]fortunate it vast incomefrom she has alwaysconsidered her dutyto oil, by (Statement Prime Arab brothers. help her less fortunate to Minister Kuwait, of by paraphrased Kuwaitambassador London,1965.) meant be an oasisofliberty abundance to and in We werenever dreams.Our nationwas a world-wide desertof disappointed and of and created helpcastawaythechains ignorance misery to wherever keepmenlessthanGod meant them be. to they tyranny Stateof the Unionmessage,1965.) Johnson's (From President often Thisnational conception role 11. Bridge. appearsin vague from ifany, notseemapparent. do and deriving it, form, thepolicies role various forms diploof the Whereas mediator-integratorimplies into the matic concept interposition areasorissuesofconflict, bridge usually imply communicaa The is muchmoreephemeral. themes
INTERNATIONAL STUDIES QUARTMRLY

sion as a memberof the Asian family..

Japanwill activelyful-

STUDY OF FOREIGN POLICY

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of or tion function, is,acting a "translator" conveyor messages that as cultures. between peoplesof different and information in and place Cyprus civilization customs History and tradition, with world. However, wantfriendship all states. we theWestern the couldplayin the ... We do notoverestimate rolethatCyprus I arena. Nevertheless, believe thatits geographic intemational and threecontinents, otherfactors location, a bridgeuniting as role the to giveCyprus opportunity playan intemational greater by (Statement Presand thanthesize of itspopulation territory. 1968.) to House of Representatives, identMakarios Cyprus on of Its situation theperiphery theMiddleEast. . . and theFar of It factor. is [this]specialheritage East ... is ... a compelling of Pakistan . . . which is the most potentfactorin definition the and of nature and scopeofitsrole.... The totality its [historical of in circumstancessuchthat, theworld tomorrow, is geographic] is role. Pakistan play a significant If mankind to avoid the can willhaveto be a which in itspath,many bridge lie many pitfalls of willshowtheimportance thesituation geography theworld of of Pakistan, a factor thebuilding some,at least,of these of as in 1965.) Minister Bhutto, bridges. (Partofspeechby Foreign alli12. Faithful If one wereto count all contemporary up ally. and types ance commitments through mutual assistance other made wouldhave of treaties, almost one-half thestatesin the system of to be classified "faithful A as alliancepartners." reviewof foreign conclusions. quitedifferent and statements indicates policy speeches For many statesalliancesare potentially useful protective for purdoes not an guarantee poses,but thestatewhichreceives external though PakFor the reciprocate supporting guarantor. instance, by their leaders'foreign istanand Iran are alliesof the UnitedStates, no either thealliances to statements makevirtually references policy or to supporting UnitedStates its diplomatic the in objectives. The of role conception faithful is used in thisstudyonlywherea ally makesa specific the to commitment support policiesof government another Lookedat in thisway,manyalliancepartners government. faithful allies.The examples below indicate nor todayare neither for state's actions and policies. continuing support another itself itsownmeans, has Luxembourg by . . . toosmallto defend to Our itselfwith a largercollectivity. fidelity the integrated
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built. .

. A mere glance at the human, political, and physical

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the constitute alliance and our European convictions Atlantic Pierre in base ofourforeign policy. (Statement speechbyPremier Werner, 1967.) and neighbors intimate The Chinese peopleare notonlyreliable people,but also comrades-in-arms of brothers the Vietnamese A imperialism]. common on line fighting thesame front [against thick and thintoof of destiny ourtwo countries goingthrough weal and woe has closelylinkedour two getherand sharing ... people enemy theVietnamese nations. Faced witha common the willalways to [with Chinese]and win fight shoulder shoulder in victory together. (Statement speechat NationalDay ceremo1967.) delegation, Vietnamese by nies,Peking, head ofNorth for are Communists united lifeand deathwiththe We Bulgarian 1965.) by SovietUnionand C.P.S.U. (Statement TodorZhivkov, to commitment the afflrming Moststatements 13. Independent. will indicatethatthe government make policyof non-alignment than rather to according the state'sown interests policydecisions in The themes therole states. in support theobjectives other of of of all this of conception theindependent emphasize element policy conotherwise do notimply particular any they self-determination; in task tinuing or function thesystem. . withall countries wishes be on friendly to terms Afghanistan a on thebasisof mutual It respect. follows policyof non-particiobservance in blocs.... Ourcountry's and pation political military of the of theprinciples neutrality constitutes basis forthejudgeon by ment passesfreely international it issues.(Statements King ZahirShah,April5, 1966.) Mohammed to indeIt What is non-alignment?is a determination preserve and such independence soverto sovereignty, respect pendence, in statesand to declineto take sides in the major eignty other our carriage any nation's to engineand be drawnalong their after Kaunda, shortly by railwayline. (Statements President was October1964.) Zambia'sindependence established, This national roleconception the 14. Example. emphasizes imof in influence the interand gaining prestige portance promoting certaindomestic nationalsystem pursuing policies.The role by on is diconception placed at a low position thepassivity-activity
INTERNATIONAL STUDIES QUARTERLY

which rend the world.... We will not hitch ideological struggles

STUDY OF FOREIGN POLICY

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mension becauseit does notrequire formal diplomatic or programs specialtasks outside theboundaries thestatein question. of of Our role,we feel,is not onlyto dispelunwarranted pessimism [about China],but to reaffirm our own exampleand policy by that democracy a betteranswerto the social and economic is problems thisvitalregion of thanCommunism can be.... ever to We in Malaysia ourroleas one ofcontributingthestability see ofSoutheast through Asia socialand economic progress home]. [at (Quotations from articleby TunkuAbdul Rahmanin Foreign Vol. 1965), p. 620.) Affairs, 43 (July, The Philippines' is to showAsiathatdemocracy succeed role can and thatthere no need forthe political is shortcuts appear that to someleaders.... We believeindemocracy thewave ofthe as future we willshowtherestofAsia thatit works. and (Interview withpress by President Marcos,quoted in New York Times, March12, 1967.) 15. Internal has little Development. This concept reference to anyparticular or function task within international the system. The on is of emphasis, the contrary, thatmostefforts the government should directed be There toward problems internal of development. is a suggestion wishing remain of to noninvolved international in forms political matters, thestatements notpreclude but do various ofinternational cooperation, particularly economic technical in and matters. the The new Brazilian president [Costae Silva] announced decisionofhis government concentrate on to action essendiplomatic 'to tially economicmatters assure the bases of international and for The cooperation necessary national development. internal in on external of security thestatedepends thefinal analysis the of thathis solution the problem development.' indicated of He wouldbe oriented marforeign toward policy essentially gaining financial technical ... and obtaining and aid fair kets, obtaining pricesforexports. (Quotes are by President Costa e Silva in a speechin Brasilia, 1967.) A similar on is in emphasis internal development found portiolns Urho Kekkonen, whichhe in of a speechby Finland'spresident some statements Finland'sfirst quotes approvingly by president,

J.K. Stahlberg:
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try it nations, mustnaturally to the ranksof the independent it willencounter overcome thebestofitsability difficulties to the seek in must, mybelief, but there, a peopleoursize and character social,and cultural, tasksin thesphereof internal, its principal president of I quotethesewords ourfirst economic development." theystillset the linesof our national because,in my opinion, and to participate thebestofourstrength possiWe activity. must seekwithall We our lies all thesamewithin ownfrontiers. must of of the determination whichthe achievements our years of of are to independence proof, workfor the improvement our by (Statement President and cultural, economic, socialconditions. in Kekkonen New YearsSpeech,1967.) inoften role development conception 16. Isolate.The internal in particularly the ecocooperation, to cludes references external roleof theisolatedemands, fields. The national nomicand cultural variety. contacts whatever of of on thecontrary, a minimum external involvesuch Statements, as thosebelow,revealfearsof external ments anykindand emphasize of self-reliance. in on We We havegotto rely ourownstrength everything. cannot withanyone. to fault We dependon anybody. shouldnottry find can learnto runourowncountry, willlose it.Thiskindof aid we in aid [bilateral to nations theregion]does nothelp.It cripples. They learnto do for themselves. It paralyzes. recipients The never and In on money. the experts foreign relymoreand more foreign of by (Statements General end theylose control theircountry. Ne Win,1966.) by Cambodiadoes not wish to be approached Like a virgin, but Cambodiadoes WithChina,thereis onlyesteem, anyone. to not allow herself be seduced.Therefore, Cambodiadoes not because either, allow herself be seducedby you [Americans] to
you are too stupid. . We do not want to quarrel with anyone.... Unless we Burmese cooperation.. bilities also in international
.

sense . . . joined "When the Finnishpeople has in the international

. But our main task

1967.) Sihanouk, by (Statement Prince

. Cambodia loves only her independence.

Somegovernments alludeto theresponsibility of 17. Protectee. do otherstatesto defendthem,but otherwise not indicateany towardthe external enorientation, tasks,or functions particular refer to the position comments The of vironment. perhaps, more,
INTERNATIONAL STUDIES QUARTERLY

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and of thestatethanto a role.An example theprecarious troubled position the protectee of would be indicated the statement by of troops Vietnamese 1968whenNorth SouvanaPhoumain February on wereundertaking extensive military operations Laotianterritory: must If Savavanefalls, signatories theGenevaagreements the of meettheir to responsibilities. have obligedthemselves reThey of and integrity neutrality, territorial spect the independence, to Laos. Thus,it is their responsibility defendLaos. in characterized different though The position Czechoslovakia, of by in statement former the terms, essentially same,as revealed this is in Czechoparadeduring President Novotny a speechat a military Day celebration 1966: in slovakia's National and the Our defense backedby theSovietarmy, SovietUnion, is the Sovietpeople.Together withthe SovietUnionwe are projointly withthe armiesand peoplesof the tecting freedom our our our countries. freedom, security, prosOur fraternal socialist beingbackedby the SovietUnion.For thisreasonour affiance with Soviet of life. Union thefoundati9n ourfree is the Other roles.Severalother roleconceptions appearedin national was the sources, theirfrequency not greatenoughto include but in them thetaxonomy. only to The references theroleof a balancer the President Gaulle who often came from speechesof former de for some kind alludedto France'sspecial responsibilities creating For "France ofnew force between "twohegemonies." example, the be so she must independent that can playherownrolein theworld. of Towardwhat goal? Towardthe goal of balance,of progress, de that Francewas moving occasions, Gaullestated peace."On other "balanceto a of withthetaskofbringing to theforefront theworld and taskare the world's dividedglobe.France'svocation balance, so thateach peoplehas theplace it wantsto have." the of agents, Complementing self-image beinganti-imperialist or statements Chineseand Albanian Communist government party and mentioned specialresponsibilities tasksforfighting frequently We these national conceptions role "revisionism." can classify against is anti-revisionist The Arab counterpart the theterm under agent. forsomeWestern it nations is theantianti-Zionist agentrole,and communist agentrole conception.
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our abilityto develop . . . depend upon our pects forthe future,

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were references sources, In some of the Sovietand American role.Thesestatements are madeto a defender thepeace national of to region(regionalpronot qualified reference any particular by to commitment defend tector);theyseem to indicatea universal whatthelocale. to or against aggression threat peace,no matter any thisis evidence theworld of Others policeman might pointoutthat It that has raised so much discussion recently. role conception to that werefewreferences shouldbe pointed out,however, there thislatterconception and, in the case of the UnitedStatesand disavowalsagainstplayingany "world some firm Great Britain, role. policeman" undertake reassessments their of Finally,some governments or and to countries regions; commitments functions specific tasks, national role traditional are awayfrom they on thevergeofmoving conceptions no particular (or previousrole conception)and atof to new ones. Evidenceof reexamination traditempting define in was tional policy statements policies particularly apparent foreign and An from Australia GreatBritain. example: is So todaythe Australian government engagedin a thorough from Southeast of decision[to withdraw reappraisal the British to ofBritain developcontinuing playitsoldrolebut. . . ofBritain role and not ing its own distinctive forthe future; it is certainly role but of Australia a case of Australia takingover Britain's its role. (Statement Minister developing own distinctive by of External Affairs Hasluck HouseofRepresentatives, Paul to August 17, 1967.) withthe How doesthislistofnational conceptions role compare the of typesthathave been derivedfrom literature international leaderpolitics? Thereis someoverlap:the rolesof revolutionary ally, protectee, and liberator, regional defender, faithfully mediator, in on isolate, which either are mentioned discussed treatises interor national role conceppolitics, also clearly are revealedas national tionsof policymakers many in states. is If there someoverlap of between types national rolesdiscussed in the literature role conceptions revealedin foreign policy and differences. concept The pronouncements, are also significant there of the balancer, in often apdiscussed prominently the literature, de pearsonlyin a fewreferences madeby President Gaulle.WhatINTERNATIONAL STUDIES QUARTERLY

Asia] forour positionand our policies....

It is not a case either

STUDY OF FOREIGN POLICY

273

whether globalor regional, theydo notarticulate their self-conceptionsin terms the conceptof balance. Balances of power or of balancingroles are not an important part of the vocabulary of contemporary international politics. The national rolesof regional subsystem or leaderand regional collaborator seldom are mentioned descriptions models past in or of or contemporary international systems. Becauseour"grand" models of the worldhave so long focused thbe on activities the major of powers, they have neglected, aside from Western Europe,regional systems the importance cooperative and of ventures within them. antiOthernational role conceptions such as liberator-supporter, imperialist agent, defender thefaith, of developer, bridge, example, but and internal development not discussed the literature, are in theyappear prominently the foreign in policystatements conof temporary political leaders. In summary, evidencegained fromreadingthe diverse the sourcesin thisstudyindicates existence at least seventeen the of nationalrole conceptions that policymakers elaboratefrequently enoughto constitute of a nationalrole conception part typology. The number almost is doublethatderived from pastand contemporary treatises international on politics. Analysis of about the relevance the notionof of A number questions national to role conceptions t-he studyof foreign policyand interof national politics was raisedin theintroduction thepaper.Other of from seeming the questions derived inadequacies contemporary Do of modelsof the international system. the statements policyin to as makers, summarized Table 2, indicate any answers these can be divided The analysis based on the role themes questions? intofiveareas: 1. The problem singleversusmultiple of nationalrole concepthatmoststudiesor modelsof international tions, recalling of rolesamongthe actors the politics positor assumesingle system. of 2. The problem the descriptive adequacyof national roles, suchas alliancepartner non-aligned and state.
VOLUME 14, NUMBER

ever policymakers maythink about balances and power distributions,

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3. The issue whether to what extent thereare significant and of differences the clarity structure policymakers' in and nationalrole conceptions; raises the subsidiary this question whether highly structured clearlyarticulated and national roleconceptions an indicator a state's are of levelof involvementin theaffairs theintemational of system. 4. Whenall national conceptions aggregated, are whatkind role of"map" of worldpolitics results? Does it support bloc or balance of powermodels?Or does somenew configuration appear? 5. Whatdo thethemes revealaboutthesources national of role conceptions? we tryto explainthe presenceof certain If nationalrole conceptions a government, what sortsof in independent variables relevant? are a The traditional view thatstatesfulfill essentially singlefunctionorplaya single is out rolein international politics notborne by the statements policymakers. of Whatever of may be the utility single-role in from assumptions the studyof international politics, theaverage sets policymaker's of view,his statehas different point of established in a relationships theworldor within region(probroles ablyboth),and hencenormally several different in thesystem in and itssubsystems. statements Canadianpolicymakers Typical by theyears1965-1967, instance, for revealperceptions five of of types national from whichcertain and roles, attitudes, decisions, policies Threethemes repeated are derive. frequently enoughto constitute of orientations commitments and the evidence major toward outside the world.Within NATO or "cold war"subsystem, Canada's perceivedrolewas thatofthefaithful In thebroader international ally. Canada'smainexternal activities werethoseof a system, however, to and mediator-integrator (a commitmenthelporganize participate in UnitedNationsand Commonwealth peace-keeping activities), otherexamples Numerous and a developer. could be cited; they the of establish pointthatpolicymakers moststatesconceiveof of statein terms multiple sets of relationships multiple their and functions. rolesand/or In thesamplethe averagenumber different conceptions of role is per country 4.6. Even if we eliminate references rolesthat to that to appearonly once,on theground a single reference a national
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role is not adequate evidenceof any degreeof commitment, the averageis still3.4. Thereis no statein the samplewhosepolicymakers, revealedin theirspeechesand statements, as conceiveof onlya singlenational role;if we control again forpossiblelightly madestatements eliminating by thosethemes appearonlyonce, that onlyseven states-less than 10% of the sample-end up witha singlerole conception none at all. Therefore, or portrayals the of international system whichdo not acknowledge multiple rolesand the importance moststatesof rolesrelating regional to to issues will be empirically deficient exceptforlimited and purposes(e.g., analysis thedistribution military of of capabilities amongthemajor powers),theoretically inadequate. Similar can conclusions be drawnregarding descriptions of the rolesinmuch thetraditional contemporary of of and literature international for politics. There are considerable differences, example, in between allies,bloc leaders, and non-aligned statesas described the literature, the self-conceptions the governments which and of are commonly for Iran and Australia, classified undertheseterms. instance, bothallies of the UnitedStates.Yet, twelveforeign are policyspeechesor statements made by thehighest Iranianofficials did not reveal a singlereference Iran's commitments the to to or CENTO alliance, to support American for foreign policygoals; on thecontrary, thetwelve of roleconceptions appearedin the that ten in its Iran'sindependence foreign sources, emphasized policy, determination conductits foreign to to policyaccording its own internal needs and not to the interests, of defenceor otherwise, to Iran as an ally, otherstates.It is difficult, therefore, describe whatever formal its commitments. A direct on Soviet attack military Iran might well lead to a truealliancerelationship, shortof but thateventuality in day-to-day and the worldaffairs, classification for of "alliancepartner" Iran is neither accuratedescription an of interests commitments, is it Iran'spresent and nor foreign policy of likelyto be an adequate predictor future attitudes diplomatic for state most on and and actions that issues.29a regional international
29a In a study according pro-U.S.or roto whichidentified gyvernments votes on "cold war" issues in the United Nations,Iran raSeed Communist for voted fifty-fifththe pro-U.S.dimension the years 1963-1967.Australia on H. 100% pro-U.S.in the same period.See Frederick Gareau, The Cold War 1947 to 1967: A Quantitative Study.(Denver: The Social Science Foundation INTERNATIONAL STUDIES QUARTERLY

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more fits "alliance Australia, theother on hand, theterm partner" adequately. of the thirty-two Six themes the sourcesindicate in a definite commitment support to American foreign policyobjectives, particularly they as relateto theSoutheast Asianregion. The statements usually are couchedin unmistakably language.Unlike clear Iran, the sourcesincludeno themes emphasizing Australia's comin pletefreedom action foreign of policy. Differences theselfconceptions "alliancepartners" in of appear in also in theeastern bloc,reflecting well-known variations degree of independence the so-called "satellites"'foreignpolicies. in the madein itsforeign Though Rumanian government policystatements frequent references thenecessity cooperation to for between Communist of for parties, not a singlereference support Soviet in foreign policy objectives appearedin thesixty-one themes found twenty fourdifferent sources.Rumania, Poland,and the German Democratic Republic have similaralliance commitments the to SovietUnionvia the renewed1948 bilateral and security treaties the WarsawTreaty, onlyPoland and East Germany but give evidenceofseeingthemselves loyalsupporters the SovietUnion. as of Of theninethemes in appearing sixteen East German sources, four fullcommitment Sovietforeign indicated to policyobjectives; for Poland, outoftheninethemes five pledged faithfulnesstheSoviet to Unionand itsforeign policy interests. states which commonly are between Differences lumped together Two extreme as non-aligned even more apparent. are examples of wouldbe Burmaand Egypt.Bothhave avoidedreferences milito alliancesense), tarycommitments majorpowers(in the formal in but thatis about the onlysimilarity their foreign policystatein sources indiments. Eightof thetenthemes appearing Burmese in cateda strong desire remain to uninvolved themajorissueareas or Asiansubordinate ofeither system theSoutheast the The system. isolate a muchmore is of term roleappropriate summary Burma's or lack of role-in theworld.In contrast, Egyptian foreign policy tasksand restatements richin themes are indicating continuing In of in affairs. terms thepattern national of sponsibilities regional in that roleconceptions Egyptian be sources, country might classified and anti-Zionist as a subsystem leader. revolutionary anti-imperialist,
Studies,MonographSeries in World and Graduate School of Intemational Vol. Affairs, VI, No. 1, 1968-1969),pp. 49-50.
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India, whichis oftenlisted along with Egypt as one of the of showsa third pattern national states, leadersof thenon-aligned national role ThoughIndia and Egypthold three roleconceptions. and activeindependent, (subsystem leader, conceptions common in roleconceptions that they national liberator-supporter), have eight give Indian authorities are not ascribed by both.In particular, to mediator thefunctions role, to substantial emphasis theinternational India appears of whichare not duplicated the case of Egypt.30 in to in role conceptions, Zambiathan morecomparable, its national stateshold fourrole conto Egypt.The SouthAsianand African A analysis in and differ onlythree. complete on ceptions common of role of thenon-aligned states, according thenumber national to indicatethat aside would probably conceptions held in common, to alliancecommitments the major from their avoidanceof formal little movements, unites for powersand their support anti-colonial interests Theirregional or them foreign in policyoutlook interests. and positions too variedto lump themunderone role type. are in in Thereare also broadvariations levelsof involvement regional states the and to and world affairs in thedegrees which non-aligned articulate national roleconceptions. imone of the resulting If one were to read all 972 sources, in and pressions would be the variations specificity numberof and themes.Sources for some states nationalrole conceptions of but statements are includenot only a large number themes, of and functions, definite types commitments, succinct indicate and in world. Therewas little orientations toward outside the problem China, France,the the classifying themesof Egypt,Communist UnitedStates, VietNam,Sweden, Guinea,and manyothers. North In other themes vague, however, werefewin number, statements, to that role and in somecases difficult classify, suggesting national werenot significant policy(e.g., it aspectsof foreign conceptions to attitudes behavior and on wouldbe difficult predict diplomatic of thebasisof knowledge vagueroleconceptions). it These governments,seems,have no real foreign policyif by we set guiding day-to-day thatterm meana coherent of objectives
30 The lack of the mediatorrole conception in some "brands" of nonon is "Nehru,Nasser,and Nkrumah alignment discussed ErnestW. Lefever, by and Nonalignment in (New Neutralism," Laurance Martin(ed.), Neutralism A. York: Frederick Praeger, 1962), pp. 93-120.
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diplomatic actions, expectations abouthow changes theexternal in environment influence statein question, a wellthought could the or out"image" a desirable of future statefortheexternal environment. These statesappearto be objects, not actors, international but in relationships. Except forcommercial matters, theydo not tryto change external conditions their in favor, they no continuing and see external tasks themselves. their for Yet, internal is highly life vulnerable to disturbances comingfrom external the environment. Thoughvariations numbers national in of are role conceptions easy enoughto establish, differences theirspecificity based in are primarily impressions. precisetechnique content on A of analysis indicating degrees specificity structure national of and of role conceptions wouldbe desirable; theabsenceofsucha technique, in we might an indirect use indicator suchas theratioofroleconceptions mentioned the sourcesto the number sources. in of The assumption-based on general impressions derived from reading large the number sources-is thatthe frequency themes, saliency, of of or reflects specificity vagueness the themes or in themselves. If we construct scale measuring number national role a the of conceptions source, per differences between states becomeapparent. The scale ranges from average 4.5 roleconceptions source an of per in Sovietforeign policy statements speeches and downto Portugal, in whose nineteen sources, onlysix themes appeared,a rounded of figure .3. The averagenumber themesper sourcefor the of seventy-one nation sampleis 1.3. Statescluster aroundthe heavily .8 to 1.0 region. We can reducethe scale to fourroughquartiles, placingthestatesin each category. GroupI includes stateswhich havea highratio national conceptions source. of role The range per in thisquartile between roleconceptions source(United is 1.6 per Kingdom)to 4.5 roleconceptions sourcein the SovietUnion. per stateswhosegovernments GroupIV includes appearto have only of at or vague conceptions roles or functions eitherthe system to levels.According our assumptions, theirnationalrole regional are II conceptions vagueandunstructured. Groups and III areinterin withthestates listed theformer on mediate, verging thespecific, toward pole of vagueness. the and in thelatter tending has This listing fewsurprises. Most of the governments the in first two groupsare knownto have "foreign policies"and wellcommitments functions. and The or established regional world-wide
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TABLE 3

K. J.HOLSTi

QUARTILE RANKING OF STATES BASED ON NATIONAL ROLE CONCEPTIONS PER SOURCE RATIO

U.S.S.R. NorthViet Nam Indonesia Hungary Albania

Afghanistan New Zealand Guyana Japan Kuwait

Group I (1.6 to 4.5 conceptions source) per Republicof China Rumania Australia Canada Peoples Republic of China Iraq Group 11 (1.1 to 1.5 conceptions source) per Belgium France India Italy Sudan Group III (.9 to 1.0 conceptions source) per Sweden Tanzania SouthAfrica Brazil Bulgaria Ceylon (.3 to .8 conceptions source) per Liberia Poland Singapore Uganda Ethiopia GermanDemo. Republic Thailand
Group IV

Cuba Malaysia Egypt UnitedStates Yugoslavia UnitedKingdom

Guinea Lebanon Zambia Finland Netherlands

Algeria Burma Czechoslovakia FederalRep. of Germany Iran Mali

NorthKorea Morocco Pakistan Senegal Syria Turkey

Ghana Israel Laos Mongolia Nepal Switzerland Kenya

Tunisia Cambodia Congo (Braz.) IvoryCoast Niger Congo (Kins.) Portugal

possibleexceptions thisstatement to covering thirty-two governments wouldbe Hungary, Albania, Republic China, of Iraq,Kuwait, Sudan and New Zealand. The statesin the last two groupsare of mainly minor importance worldaffairs, in though someof them are activeat theregional level.Mostof their foreign policystateare ments notrichin roleconceptions revealneither senseof and a
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issues.The inoutsideof somespecific nor direction commitment in and East Germany thelasttwocategories West, of clusion Israel, withconflicts preoccupation strong by explained their is probably focuson immeIndeed,their involved. in whichtheyare centrally general aboutmore concern extensive diateissuesmaywellpreclude roles. or suchas regional universal policy, of questions foreign of is thesegroupings thatsomesort gainedfrom One impression and per of ratios roleconceptions source between exists relationship among statesin world or regional degreesof activity-passivity of withthe exception powers, All affairs. the majorand "middle" whilea large two are WestGermany, locatedin thefirst categories appear in the objects,and micro-states of number minoractors, the in The groups. ranking Table 3 wouldsuggest hypothesis bottom environment in a highly stateis involved theextemal thatthemore its structured national highly the is that measured), more (however not are. role conceptions Thoughwe mustbe careful to assumea of it causal relationship, could be arguedthatnotions necessary and special tasks functions international orientations, long-range involvement.31 intemational to, or from, are related extensive derive a There are yet two otherways of investigating relationship foreign and role conceptions an activity-passivity between national is criterion, merely usinga quantitative The first, policydimension. each role national conceptions govof to count number different the statesmention if the moreinvolved and see enunciates emment usinga qualitative The second, morerolesthanthepassivestates. by is criterion, to look at each of the role typesmentioned each passive type are t-hese primarily and government assess whether or development, active or isolate, internal rolessuchas independent, or defender, mediregional of rolessuchas bastion therevolution, ator-integrator. in of we that had somemeasure differenceslevels Let us assume would Suchfigures most states. contemporary among ofinvolvement and Japan, theUnitedStatesare more no doubtrevealthatFrance, issues thanare and activein regionaland international involved how to If IvoryCoast and Portugal. we were required illustrate then or was involved active, muchmoreor lesseach ofthesestates
31 The relationship mightalso be the reverse:the morehighlystructured the its nationalrole conceptions, moreinvolveda statewill become in interaffairs. and regional national
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tradefigures, it wouldbe necessary show through to of exchange and diplomatic missions, communications, thelike,whatthe differis enceswere.Our concemhereis onlyto see whether there some menrelationship between number national the of roleconceptions tioned eachcountry a generally or low levelof involveby and high mentand activity. listing statesin Table 4 would roughly The of
TABLE 4
NUMBER OF NATIONAL ROLES PERCEIVED BY GOVERNMENTS

Numberof Roles mentioned 8 7 6

Governments

5
4 3

2 1 0

UnitedArab Republic,UnitedStates SovietUnion ChinesePeoples Republic NorthViet Nam France,Hungary, Iraq, Rumania, Belgium,Federal Republic of Germany, Indonesia,Japan, Kuwait,UnitedKingdom Albania,Algeria,Australia, Czechoslovakia, Guinea, India, Malaysia,New Zealand, Sudan, Sweden,Syria,Yugoslavia, Zambia Afghanistan, Burma, Canada, Republic of China, Cuba, Ethiopia, Guyana, Italy, Laos, Lebanon, Mali, Mongolia, Netherlands, Singapore,Switzerland, Tanzania, Thailand, SouthAfrica Tunisia,Turkey, Brazil, Bulgaria,Cambodia, Congo (Kins.), Finland, German Democratic Republic, Ghana, Israel, Kenya, North Korea,Liberia,Nepal, Pakistan, Poland,Senegal,Uganda Ceylon,Congo (Braz.), Iran,Morocco,Niger,Portugal IvoryCoast

support hypothesis themoreactiveor involved stateis in the that a international regional or affairs, morenational the roleconceptions itsleaders willperceive.32 ofthemajor All powers(presumably the mostactivestates) have fiveor morenationalrole conceptions. Egyptrankshighest, along withthe UnitedStates,reflecting its in extensive involvement Middle Easternaffairs. The onlymajor the of between number roleconceptions levelsof and discrepancies wouldbe Hungary, Albaniaand Sudan, involvement Iraq, Kuwait, fouror morenationalrole enunciated all of whose govemments one In have expected conceptions. the three-role category, might and Laos, Mongolia, and Singapore lower. Italyto rankhigher
32 Singlereferences national The hypothesis role have been eliminated. to be again might reversed. INTERNATIONAL STUDIES QUARTERLY

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Moreevidence supporting hypothesis added ifwe use the the is fifteen states which for only to ninesources five wereavailable. With couldbe classified theexception Argentina, of thesestates of none active state. as a "middlepower,"regionalleader,or generally to the for references national Whenwe eliminate single roles, totals and Tobago mentions low.33 each stateare strikingly OnlyTrinidal number national of morethantwonational roles.The average roles
NATIONAL ROLE CONCEPTIONS IN STATES WITH FEW SOURCES No. of Roles mentioned more than once 2 0 1 1 1 0 1 2 0 1 2 0 3 1 1

TABLE 5

State Argentina Cameroun Central African Rep. Chad Gabon Gambia Jordan Luxembourg Malagasay Rep. Philippines Saudi Arabia Spain Trinidad& Tobago Venezuela South Viet Nam

Years 1965-68 1965-68 1965-67 1963-67 1965-68 1965-67 1966-67 1967-68 1965-67 1966-67 1965-67 1965-68 1963-67 1964-67 1966-68

Sources 5 5 5 5 6 7 5 6 5 6 8 5 5 6 5

Sources No. of with no Concep. Conceptions tions 6 1 3 6 4 0 3 8 1 6 10 1 6 3 7 3 4 2 2 3 7 2 1 4 3 1 4 2 3 2

No. Conceptions per source 1.2 0.2 0.6 1.2 0.7 0.0 0.6 1.3 0.2 1.0 1.3 0.2 1.2 0.5 1.4

No. of Roles perceived 3 1 2 4 3 0 2 3 4 5 1 3 2 6

forthegroupof fifteen states 1.1. For thesampleof seventy-one is it states, was 3.2. between role conceptions and A relationship typesof national of is revealedalso by arbidegrees international activity-passivity each and the trarily weighting oftheroletypes then applying values held roleconceptions by thedifferent to thenational governments. valuesof 2 to theindependent 1 to let For instance, us assign role, and theexample, zero to the isolaterole.Now assumethata gov33 Since the low numberof national role types mentioned mightbe a of function the small numberof sources,we can include single references. Doing this,the averagenumberof nationalroles perceivedforthe groupof statesample,the average,whensingle fifteen statesis 2.7. For the seventy-one was are references not eliminated, 4.6. VOLUME

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emnment makesin its diverse statements foreign on policysix referencesto theroleofisolate, twoto theroleofexample, fourto and theroleof independent. Sinceour concern withthetypes nais of tionalrolesreferred not the number instances to, of each role is we of mentioned, add up thetotals thevaluesassigned each role. to In thisexample, totalis three. all thereferences the govthe If by ernment referred theroleof isolate, totalwouldbe zero. to the The following valueswereassigned arbitrarilyeach oftherole to conception types: Bastion of revolution-liberator .... 5
. . Regional leader . Regional protector . Active independent .. Liberator supporter . Anti-imperialist agent . Defender of the faith . Mediator-integrator collaborator. Regional-subsystem . Developer . Faithful ally .... Independent . Bridge . Example . . Internal Development .. Isolate .. Protectee
. ..
. .. . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . .

. 3
. . . . .
.

5 4 4 4 3 3

.. .. .. ..
.

3 2
2

1
1

. .

.. ..

0 0

The values assignedforthe infrequently appearing(listed as in wereas follows: "other" Table 2) roleconceptions . . . Defender of the Peace 5 Balancer 4 .
Communistagent
...

25 scoreearned each state Column ofTable 2 is theweighted by after values assignedto each typeof role conception, is the that two or moretimesin the sources, have been added. mentioned to role Singlereferences a particula'r typehave been eliminated. devise "activity-passivity" in which an with We can then scale Egypt a totalof31 points at thetop and Ivory is is Coast,withno points, at thebottom. scale can be reducedto four The for rough quartiles
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are accordwithin each quartile arranged easieranalysis. states The ing to weighted Those at the top of the score, not alphabetically. thoseat the bottom, number points, of quartiles have the highest thelowest(e.g., in GroupI, Egypttotals31 points, 14 Yugoslavia points).
ACTIVE AND PASSIVE STATES AS MEASUREDBy TYPES OF ROLE CONCEPTIONS MENTIONEDIN SOURCES

TABLE 6

Egypt UnitedStates U.S.S.R. China (Peoples R.) Iraq Hungary

Algeria Australia India Syria Zambia Belgium

Canada Italy NorthKorea Malaysia Netherlands

Lebanon

Group I (14 to 31 points) Rumania NorthViet Nam France Indonesia Japan Guinea Group 11 (9 to 13 points) Rep. of China Fe',S. Rep. of Germany Sudan South Africa Cuba Czechoslovakia Group 111 (5 to 8 points) Switzerland Afghanistan Nepal
Congo (Kins.)

United Kingdom Kuwait Sweden Albania New Zealand Yugoslavia

Ethiopia Mali Mongolia Tanzania Turkey

GermanDemo. Rep. Ghana Group IV

(O to 4 points) Pakistan Brazil

Tunisia

Thailand

Guyana Kenya Senegal

Liberia Finland Morocco Niger

Congo (Braz.) Israel

Burma Cambodia Ceylon Iran

Laos Poland

Portugal Singapore Uganda IvoryCoast

The statesin thefirst of of quartile are,in terms the types national roleconceptions active.Statesin GroupIV are passive held, in the sensethatthe types national of role conceptions mentioned in thesources few involve commitmentsfunctions theexternal in or
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roles mention primarily of the environment. Statesin thiscategory development, protectee, isolatetypes. and independent, internal occursbetween statesin thesegroups the Considerable overlap and thevague,highly structured dichotomy in Table 3. There used more accuwhich probablyreflect are some changes,however, For in of rately degreesof involvement the affairs the system. inAlbania,and Malaysiamove fromthe stance,Canada, Australia, mostly the to first by per quartile measured themes sourceratio, as secondquartile, and some to the thirdgroup.Japanand France by to whenmeasured the moveup from secondgroup thefirst the to policy kindsof nationalrole conceptions whichtheirforeign role as by statements refer. Mostof thestates measured thenational category when in conceptions sourceratioremain the bottom per thesecondmethod used; thosewhichmoveup (Ghana,G.D.R., is group. of Kenya, etc.) do so onlyto thebottom thethird role based on assigning valuesto national The ranking states of of to conceptions addingthescoresforthetypes rolesreferred and in foreign sense seemsto conform ourcommon to policy statements emerge in WestGermany impressions. themajorpowersexcept All the upperquartile. regional leaders, Mostof the "middle" powers, and a statesare found thesecondgroup, in and activenon-aligned the fewrank thefirst in to It quartile. is moredifficult explain presenceofIraq, Hungary, Indonesia, Kuwait, and New Zealandin the role in of Theyare activestates terms their topcategory, however. of conceptions, theywould not be rankedso in terms their but quartile and the influence. bottom The worldwide evenregional or not quartile composed states commonly are of lower endofthethird policy.Perhapsthe onlysurprise associated withan activeforeign by hereis Israel.Its low position probably is explained theIsraelis' withthe immediate withthe Arab conffict strong preoccupation states. thatthe We can conclude, usingthesethreetypesof measures, and for of pattern roleconceptions anystateis a fairindicator posThose governments of involvements. sible predictor diplomatic whichperceive manyand activerole typeswill tendto be much or in of morehighly involved theaffairs thesystem in subordinate thanthosestateswhichhave few and passivetyperole systems as role conceptions A conceptions. testof theadequacyofnational of and wouldbe to compare of indicators degrees activity passivity
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therankings thesequartiles in with'"ard" data suchas volumeof trade, mutual visits headsofstate, of alliancecommitments, participationin international regional and size organizations, of military forces, thelike.34 and The pattern roleconceptions the international of in system As a characterizationtheconservative of aspects theeighteenth of and nineteenth century European-centered international systems, balanceof powerimagesof the worldmayhave been reasonably accurate.Shifting national alliances, of non-elimination "essential actors," increasing capabilities, Britain's balancing role,and development laws ofneutrality protect of to states which wished remain to non-involved confficts in were all essential aspectsof the system. the Similarly, polarmodelof theworldwhichled analysts conto centrate studies thedistribution capabilities on of between two the superpowers, the requisites crediblenucleardeterrence, for the sourcesof cohesion instability or within blocs,"missile the gaps," and theposition somekeynon-aligned of states suchas India,may the have presented essential and assumptions powerconfigurations of the immediate era. post-war But balance of power,polar,and do models notadequately evenmulti-polar alertus to someaspects ofcontemporary international suchas thegreat variation of politics, behavior coveredunderthe termnon-alignment. diplomatic Most thesemodelsignorethe greatimportance important, however, of and regionalissues,regional roles.Use of relationships, regional of olderframes reference particularly and with preoccupation "cold war"issueshas unfortunately analysts neglectthe studyof led to international intra-regional relations, exceptas theseare seen as towardsintegration. distribution nationalrole movement The of in whilein partsupporting polarview conceptions thisstudy, the
34 It is difflcult choose which of the threemethods to used here is the best indicator levelsof involvement activity. of and Thereis considerable overlap betweenthe quartilesbased on conceptions source and the quartiles per based on the weighted role types(Tables 3 and 6 respectively). Eleven (out in of 17) of the statesranked GroupI, Table 3 are foundin GroupI, Table 6. GroupIV in Tables 3 and 6 contain11 statesin common. GroupsII and III in the two tableshave muchless overlap:thesecontainonly4 and 3 statesin common, respectively. Thoughthe stateslistedin Table 4 cannotbe arranged into quartiles(too manystatescluster the 3 and 2 role categories),there in seemsto be considerable overlapbetweenthe rankings the list and thosein in Tables 3 and 6. VOLUME

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life of theworld, also emphasizes richand varieddiplomatic at a to national conrole theregional level.Whenreferences thevarious :35 ranking occurs ceptions added together, following are the
TABLE
GOVERNMENT REFERENCES

7
TO NATIONAL ROLES

Role Type

Number of Governments Referring to

Role Type

Total Numberof
References

1. Regional-subsystem collaborator 2. Independent 3. Liberator-supporter 4. Faithful ally 5. Mediator-integrator 6. Internaldevelopment 7. Developer 8. Anti-imperialist agent 9. Example 10. ActiveIndependent 11. Defenderof the faith 12. Bastion the revolutionof liberator 13. Regional protector 14. Isolate 15. Regionalleader 16. Bridge 17. Protectee 18. Other

54 39 33 28 22 21 19 18 15 14 10 9 9 9 8 8 4 12

(76%) (55%) (46%) (40%) (31%) (30%) (27%) (25%) (21%) (20%) (14%) (13%) (13%) (13%) (11%) (11%) ( 6%) (17%)

227 134 123 117 87 62 60 102 52 63 29 58 38 22 22 13 11 49

(17.8%) (10.6%) ( 9.6%) ( 9.2%) ( 6.8%) ( 4.9%) ( 4.7%) ( 8.0%) ( 4.1%) ( 4.9%) ( 2.3%)

( ( ( ( ( ( (

4.6%) 3.0%) 1.7%) 1.7%) 1.0%) 0.9%) 3.9%)

collaborator of The roleconception theregional-subsystem prein of dominates distinctively the list: fifty-four the seventy-one to commitment governments the samplerefer a continuing in to and promote facilitate within economicand politicalcooperation to one out of five Of roles,almost regions.30 all references national of collaboration. secondmost The "popu(18%) is interms regional is the role conception thatof the independent: govlar" national as whichsees itself freeto maneuver it wishes, as eschewemnment commitments bloc leadersor cold to ing all permanent military whichreflects nationalrole conception warriors. Indeed,the first
85 Singlereferences national rolesare includedin thisanalysis. to 36 This includesreferences Communist to governments the task of proby ratherthan This is subsystem unity and collaboration. motinginter-party collaboration. regional
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polarity, balanceof power, cold war,is ranked or fourth: twentyeightgovemments (40% of the sample) conceiveof themselves, amongotherroles,as faithful allies.However, onlynineper cent of all themes thesources in refer alliancecommitments. to which national includes If we devisea "coldwar-polar" category or to and roleconceptions relevant related thosetwoconcepts, one theimportance which labelled"subsystem is oriented-independent," In of regional international relationships again emerges. the "cold to war-polar" category would includereferences the national we rolesof faithful ally,anti-imperialist agent,defender the faith, of bastionof the revolution, and protectee. regionalprotector The totalnumber references thesenational of to rolesis 355,or 28 per to orientedcentof all references nationalroles.The "subsystem collaboraindependent" category includesthe regional-subsystem internal development, tor, independent, mediator-integrator,37 activeindependent, isolate and roles. The sources contain refer595 encesto these national roles;this number 47 percentofthetotal. is as of characterized polarin terms The worldmaybe appropriately thedistributionmilitary of issueareas, capabilities someselected and the but from pointof view of manygovernments, intemational regionalissuesand rolesare mostsalient. Thoughmanybecomeinvolvedin somemultilateral global issuesthrough United the and to chiefconcerns muchcloserto home.Contrary are Nations, their such of theportrayals thebalanceofpoweror loosebipolar systems, the international as those Kaplan, contemporary by system well may as not be defined subordinate system dominant, onlyin the sense but thatcritical decisions madebynational are actors, also because, are in rolesand problems of conto most states theworld, regional than system-wide issues. There is siderably greater importance it in whentheworld nothing startling thisobservation; is apparent thanthoseofpolitical in leaders thegreat is seenthrough other eyes Yet overlooked the theoretical in and powers. thefactis too often of literature international of Students interdescriptive politics.38
37 Almost references thisroleweremade in a regional all to context. Refer"cold war" mediatorrole are usually found in the ences to a world-wide, India and Yugoslavia. statements the active-independent of states,particularly 88 The importance regional of and interaction the inappropriateness the of with "hard" data in the workof RobertA. Bernstein polar model is explored and Peter D. Weldon. See their"A Structural Approachto the Analysisof Intemational Relations," Journal Conflict Resolution (June,1968), esp. of 12 VOLUME 14, NUMBER

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national at politics would do well to beginlooking systematically intra-regional diplomatic relations supplement greatpower to the "cold war"preoccupation recentdecades. of We have alreadymentioned somerolesimply that moreinternationalactivity thanothers. Implementation the national of role bastion therevolution of involves suchactions training as guerrilla leadersfrom other countries, and sending military other supplies to forces and revolutionary abroad,organizing leadingforeign political factions, undertaking and extensive ideological-propaganda proin grams.Involvement the affairs otherstatesand regimes of is extensive. Actions deriving fromthe role conceptions internal of development isolate or relatee theother on hand,primarily interto nal concerns; there a deliberate is attempt remain to non-involved in regional international or affairs-in some cases even to the exclusionof regional economic cooperation. an "active"category, In let us place the regional-subsystem collaborator, liberation supporter, mediator-integrator, developer, anti-imperialist agent,example,activeindependent, defender the faith, of bastionof the revolution, regionalprotector, and regionalleader roles. If the sampleof states reasonably is representative thetotal, is clear of it that"active" national role conceptions predominate thecontemin porary world. Theyconstitute references the 1269,or 68 per 861 of centofthetotal. The "passive" national roles-independent, internal development, isolate,and protectee, have only229 references, or 18 percentofthetotal. if we altered the Are thesefigures significantly eliminate major coldwaractors? other In do of national role words, most the"active" emanate from statements speechesof the leaders and conceptions of the greatpowers?When the statements the Soviet Union, of Communist China,and the UnitedStatesare totalled, theymake to national up 141,or 16 per centof all references "active" roles. so These states refercomprise only4 per centof thesample, their ences to "active"typeroles are disproportionate. However,their totalis hardly and that wereusually predominant, considering there
pp. 170-73.There has developed,of course,an extensive literature various on of The forms regional integration. comments hererefer onlv to studiesof more of betweenstates in variousregions.The typicalforms diplomaticrelations in increasedacademic interest regionalpoliticsis reflected the December in StudiesQuarterly, 1969 issue of International whichis devotedentirely the to subject.
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thanforothers, is notparmoresources it availableforthesestates ticularly impressive. pointis thatmanystatesat the regional The level are very active;they have their ownregional rolesto play,in most casesquiteindependently coldwarcontroversies power of and distributions. Activity involvement notthemonopoly the and of are great powers. Theyonly seekto spreadtheir influence more broadly thantheregional actors. Does thedistribution roleconceptions of about revealanything conflict collaboration the international and in system? Mostof the national conceptions be placedin one ofthetwocategories, role can conflict collaboration. and Others, such as example, and protectee, regional leader, hardto classify, willbe omitted. thecateare so In goryof "conflict" roles,let us includethe following, the type on assumption the diplomatic that attitudes underlying themand the actions takento fulfill them willprobably cause conflict other with states:liberator supporter, anti-imperialist agent,defender the of faith, bastion the revolution, regional of and protector. Collaborationtyperoleswouldincluderegional-subsystem mecollaborator, diator-integrator, developer, activeindependent, bridge. and Comparing twowe find the thatthere a difference totalreferences, is in butprobably a significant Thirty-five cent(450) of the not one. per references themes indicative collaborative or are of typenational roles;28 percent(350) are references conflict roles.When to type measured thestatesrather by thannumber references, find, of we in usingthefigures Table 7, that70 governments to conflictrefer national rolesand 117refer collaborative national type to type roles. The totals ofcourse, sincesomestatesare counted are, exaggerated twoor moretimes, theyreferred morethanone collaborative if to or conflict national rolesin thevarious type sources. particular No can conclusion be drawn from figures, thistypeof analysis the but in couldbe useful measuring for potential conflict stability or when different of comparing types international systems an historical on within samesystem. basis,or comparing the regions To whatextent does the sampleused in the studydistort t-he actualdistribution national of roleconceptions the world?It is in that likely theactive conflict rolesayeover-represented and type and thatpassive, not though necessarily collaborative, conceptions role are underrepresented. Many of the governments whomdata for werenotavailable represent inactive non-involved and small, states.
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Lack ofthemes thesestates thatgeneral for indicates foreign policy statements either are rareor are couched suchnebulous in terms as to be meaningless indicators diplomatic as of attitudes actions. and The listof states in theanalysis not includes majorpowersand no withtheexception Mexico, of Chile,and Nigeria, major no regional for powers.If themes the stateslistedbelow were available,the national roleconceptions wouldprobably primarily theindebe of internal pendent, development, isolate, and protectee types.
STATES FOR WHICH SUFFICIENT THEMES WERE UNAVAILABLE

TABLE 8

Austria Botswana Burundi Colombia Costa Rica Cyprus Dahomey Denmark DominicanRep. Ecuador El Salvador Greece Guatemala Haiti

Henduras Iceland Irish Rep. Jamaica Lesotho Libya Malawi Maldive Is. Malta Mauritania Mexico Nicaragua Nigeria Norway

Panama Paraguay Peru Rwanda SierraLeone Somali Rep. SouthKorea Togo Upper Volta Uruguay Yemen

The sources national conceptions role of a The preceding has analysis two majorgaps: it is essentially staticdescription the distribution nationalrole conceptions of of and offers discussion thesources national of roleconceptions. no of or These two questions are, of course,linked.A dynamic linear must on analysis theorigin changeofnational conceptions and role conditions assessthesources change:whatinternal external of and prompt policymakers reassesstraditional to rolesand adopt new ones.In thesample, and onlytwostates-Australia GreatBritainwere undergoing of reappraisal theirforeign policycommitments forthe periodunderreview.For Australia, reassessment was its aboutbytheBritish to extensive brought decision withdraw military commitments Southeast from Asia by 1971-that is, by a fundaof mental redistributionmilitary in capabilities theexternal environment. Domestic economic pressuresare cited as the main consideration desire abandon Southeast the to the underlying British
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of rolesin favor ultiregional protector Asianand MiddleEastern of Europe.Studies selected within filling leadingposition a mately about enableus to learnmore of should over countries a period time prompt similar which in and variables fluctuationsdomestic external national roleconceptions. of reappraisals traditional on politicsis rich in hypothesized The literature intemational relationships betweennationalroles,degreesof activity-passivity, on The literature the variables. and certain domestic and external Much of well-developed. is sourcesof non-alignment particularly of includesan assessment sources the analysisof non-alignment anti-colonial from twoblocleaders, the suchas perceptions threat of politicaland economic and nationalism, the domestic sentiments, is Non-alignmentseenas fulfilling of requirements thenew states.39 Therehave needsand pressures. a variety internal external of and importance or to the beenno efforts, however, rank potency relative states. for of theseindependent variables different of of revealthe origins The sources thisstudy notregularly do make occasional Statements national role conceptions. the various of policies, perceptions references commitments, to traditional adopting or one gainedfrom to advantages be threat, to specific or but environment, the linkanother orientation the toward external needs, pubsocio-economic suchvariables location, as agesbetween structure and nationalrole and system lic opinion, capabilities, are there Fortunately, wereenougb specified. conceptions notalways that exceptions-statements reveal clearlyfromwhichperceived are certainrole conceptions a and external conditions domestic at response-toenableus to construct least a partiallist.As one conKhan of Pakistan the example, speechesof fornerPresident that it location fact referred thatcountry's to (the geographic stantly with frontiers three including India), ecohascommon powers, great as the of nomic needs,and perception threat underlying role conof and of development. Perceptions external ceptions bridge internal citedas are threat insufficient and capabilities themainconditions role and Cambodianisolationist concepthe underlying Burmese
as the 39 See particularly following:RobertC. Good, "State-Building a ed., Neutralism of Determinant ForeignPolicyin the New States,"in Martin, The Elephantsand the Grass pp. and Nonalignment, 3-12; Cecil V. Crabb Jr., A. (New York: Frederick Praeger,1965); and Sayegh,ed., The Dynamicsof in Neutralism the ArabWorld:A Symposium.
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TABLE 9 Sources ideologicalprinciples; anti-colonial attitudes; desireforethnic unity superior capabilities; traditional national role of perception threat; geographic location; traditional policies; needs of threatened states anti-bloc attitudes; economicneeds-trade expansion; geographic location

Role Conception Bastionof revolutionliberator leader Regional Regionalprotector

Countries Com. China Cuba Indonesia NorthKorea Egypt Japan Australia New Zealand U.S.A. U.S.S.R.

Activeindependent

Liberator supporter

Anti-imperialist agent

Defender thefaith of Mediator-integrator

Regional-subsystem collaborator

Developer

France India Yugoslavia Rumania Zambia anti-colonial attitudes; mostAfrican, ideological principles Asian,and Communist states in sample ideologicalprinciples; Iraq of perception threat; Syria anti-colonial attitudes mostCommunist states perceptions threat; of Rep. China ideologicalprinciples; U.S.A. traditional national role North Viet Nam traditional national role; Lebanon cultural-ethnic composition Sweden of state;traditional noninvolvement conflicts; in location geographic economicneeds; sense Belgium of "belonging" region; to Ethiopia common political-ideolog- Guyana ical traditions; Japan location Sweden geographic Switzerland humanitarian Canada concem; anticipated France consequences of underdevelopment; Japan superior economiccapaKuwait bilities; balance U.S.-U.S.S.R. U.S.A. competition underin developedareas
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TABLE 9 (Continued) Role Conception Bridge Faithful ally Sources geographic location; multi-ethiic composition of state perception threat; of insufficient capabilities; traditional policies; ideologicalcompatibility anti-blocsentiments; anti-colonial sentiments; economic needs; threat perception no revealedsources socio-economic needs; perception threat of through foreign involvement of perception threat; insufficient capabilities perception threat; of insufficient capabilities Countries

297

Independent

Belgium Pakistan Albania Hungary Italy Portugal Great Britain manynew African states; Nepal,etc. Brazil Finland Indonesia Pakistan Burma Cambodia Laos Laos Czechoslovakia

Example Intemal development

Isolate Protectee

tions.Intensive analysis each country of would probably uncover relationships between thisnational roleand Burmese and Cambodiantraditional policies, various socioeconomic characteristics, public opinion, thepersonalities their and of leaders.The relationship between someofthenational conceptions communist role of regimes and official ideology are quite apparent. References Marxismto Leninism theultimate as fountain diplomatic of activity many are and varied. Table 9 abovelists sources national conceptions the of role which in appeared someofthestatements. countries which The in relationshipsareindicated thesources listed thethird in are in column. The Table shouldnot be interpreted meaning as thatall governments whichascribed each of the national to role conceptions attributed themto the same sources.The problem establishing of definitive remains area forfurther an relationships intenresearch, probably of sive study individual countries.
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The problem variables: as Nationalrole conceptions independent actions and between roleconceptions diplomatic of congruence
policy of A major assumption this analysishas been that foreign attitudes,decisions, and actions will be congruentwith policymakers'national role conceptions.If this assumptionis valid, we could predictwith reasonable accuracy typicalforeignpolicy decisions and actions on the basis of our knowledge of the patternof country. has been argued thatin It for role conceptions a particular operate as "guardians"of one or more policymakers manysituations The more these national role conceptions national role conceptions. become partof the politicalcultureof a nation,the morelikelythey sets limitson perceived,or politicallyfeasible, policy altematives, and the less likelythat idiosyncratic variables would be crucial in decision-making. is easy to speculate thathad Hubert Humphrey It policy decisions been elected presidentin 1968, some of his foreign might have differedsubstantiallyfrom those taken by Richard Nixon. It is unlikely,however, that he would have changed the such as develUnited States' establishednational role conceptions, in have been differences Humphrey'sand Nixon's prioritiesand styles of foreignpolicy, but their national role conceptions,and of hence the essentialcharacteristics most of theirdecisions,would where have been similar.There are, however,some circumstances knowledgeof national role conceptionswould not allow the invespolicy decisions tigatorto predicttypicalor modal typesof foreign and actions,thatis, where therewould be no truerole performance. cannot dictate every aspect Role conceptionsand prescriptions of foreignpolicy behavior. Role theoryallows for the exercise of if individuality; we apply some of the conceptsof thistheoryto the foreignpolicy setting,we must also expect some foreignpolicy with the expectations public opinion of decisionsto be inconsistent and foreigngovemments,declared national policy, treatyobligationsand stated national roles. Moreover,the relevance of national role conceptionsas an independentvariable may vary fromissue to issue. Normallywe would be concerned with explainingthose or typesof decisions and actionswhich are designed to implement and expectations. a technicalissue such On supportrole conceptions as delimiting fishing areas, however,most national role conceptions would be irrelevant.So, role and issue must be perceived to be
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can linked before knowledge roleconceptions be used to predict of typical responses, decisions, and actions(role performance). The rangeof behaviors roleprescriptions role concepand that tions coverwouldbe expected vary to with detailoftheir the specification. we haveseen,somenational are As roleconceptions more highlystructured than others.Thus, the first situation where a knowledge national of roleconceptions might serveadequately not as a basis forpredicting is typicalattitudes and decisions where thoseconceptions rapidly are changing, weak,or vague. of Thiscondition might relate particularly theleadership new to states to states and which onlyweakly are linked or involved to, in, themajorissueareasof the intemational system within or regions. The govemments manyof the new statessinceWorldWar II of nonare good examples. Whilemosthave proclaimed themselves relations aligned, concept provided this has guidelines onlyin their withthe leadersof the two majorcold war alliances. ordering In their mutual relations, policydirection general and orientation have been vacillating and often inconsistent. Thoughthe governments of Ghana,Egypt, and IndonesiaunderNkrumah, Nasser,and Sukamoheldcertain and national conceptions role consistently undertooka variety diplomatic military to of and measures givemeaning to thosenational roles, manyother new states have developed only thevaguest notion their and of foreign policyobjectives the appropriateorientations towardthe external environment. of the Part reason thisambiguity, doubt, that for no is many thesestates of are actorseven in regional affairs. onlymarginal Theirdecisions and actions havelittle impact theextemal on environment, the govand ernments' timeand attention focusedprimarily domestic are on concems. largenumber speeches of and sources many the in The of smallAfrican and Latin American countries whichcontained no evidence roleconceptions of this.Transactions other indicates with statesare confined routine to matters, communication, trade. and There little is in senseof direction foreign policy;extemal relations aredesigned-if all-to securesomecrucial at domestic need. of A secondsituation whichmight the diminish relevance nationalrole conceptions guidesto policymaking as predictors as or of typical decisions whereunprecedented, highly is or ambiguous arise environment. problem The circumstances in theextemal policyor makers face is to adjustas rapidlyas possibleto new threats
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and no and servative, fascist, pro-Ally pro-German groups, public existed leaderscould develop consensus upon whichgovernment set roles.Over the two decades no major a coherent of national foreign policydecision was "typical." It would also be difficult predictindividual to foreign policy is and actions wherethe leaderof the statein question decisions role in a position, traditional unrestrained popularsentiments, by or to role prescriptions, act capriconceptions, externally derived retribution diplomatic or retaliation. without ofpolitical fear ciously of of citesmanydescriptions autoThe literature political history cratswhosepoliciesand actionswere unrelated any set of coto of and roleconceptions to theexpectations friends allies. or herent In modemtimes, perhapsthe foremost exampleof a foreign and which all policydecision overturned foreign domestic expectaofficial national tionsand explicitly the contradicted government's in with rolewas Stalin's rapprochement Nazi Germany thesummer was of 1939.The reasoning the behind non-aggression treaty sound the to had gone but enough, considering great lengths whichStalin to portray SovietUnionas the world'sleadingforceagainst the fascism-defender the faithand anti-Fascist of agentrole conceptions-thereversal orientations madewitha suddenness of was that had disastrous for consequences Communist parties throughout the world. The decision was by no meanstakenlightly seemingly, nor, did it reflect particular in aberration Stalin's any personality. Howin ever,Stalinheld such a position the Communist Partythathe a couldpull off dramatic switch foreign in withpolicyorientations outworrying aboutforeign domestic or unduly repercussions. Conwiththat of Roosevelt the late 1930's.The trasthis position in American had to employall his persuasive president talentsfor several yearsto gettheAmerican peopleand Congress abandon to theirisolationist sentiments to support and defender the faith, of regional protector, arsenalof democracy and roles. one number atypical of Finally, couldexpecta higher decisions a government whichsubscribed incompatible from to national role Thereis probably inherent no conceptions. logicalincompatibility adherence a world-wide to between revolutionary and a conrole commitment undertaking to tinuing mediating functions. diploIn matic such wouldbe most practice, however, a combination unlikely are chosen their sincemediators often for in internon-involvement
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and no and servative, fascist, pro-Ally pro-German groups, public existed leaderscould develop consensus upon whichgovernment set roles.Over the two decades no major a coherent of national foreign policydecision was "typical." It would also be difficult predictindividual to foreign policy is and actions wherethe leaderof the statein question decisions role in a position, traditional unrestrained popularsentiments, by or to role prescriptions, act capriconceptions, externally derived retribution diplomatic or retaliation. without ofpolitical fear ciously of of citesmanydescriptions autoThe literature political history cratswhosepoliciesand actionswere unrelated any set of coto of and roleconceptions to theexpectations friends allies. or herent In modemtimes, perhapsthe foremost exampleof a foreign and which all policydecision overturned foreign domestic expectaofficial national tionsand explicitly the contradicted government's in with rolewas Stalin's rapprochement Nazi Germany thesummer was of 1939.The reasoning the behind non-aggression treaty sound the to had gone but enough, considering great lengths whichStalin to portray SovietUnionas the world'sleadingforceagainst the fascism-defender the faithand anti-Fascist of agentrole conceptions-thereversal orientations madewitha suddenness of was that had disastrous for consequences Communist parties throughout the world. The decision was by no meanstakenlightly seemingly, nor, did it reflect particular in aberration Stalin's any personality. Howin ever,Stalinheld such a position the Communist Partythathe a couldpull off dramatic switch foreign in withpolicyorientations outworrying aboutforeign domestic or unduly repercussions. Conwiththat of Roosevelt the late 1930's.The trasthis position in American had to employall his persuasive president talentsfor several yearsto gettheAmerican peopleand Congress abandon to theirisolationist sentiments to support and defender the faith, of regional protector, arsenalof democracy and roles. one number atypical of Finally, couldexpecta higher decisions a government whichsubscribed incompatible from to national role Thereis probably inherent no conceptions. logicalincompatibility adherence a world-wide to between revolutionary and a conrole commitment undertaking to tinuing mediating functions. diploIn matic such wouldbe most practice, however, a combination unlikely are chosen their sincemediators often for in internon-involvement
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for the nationalpoliticsand crisisareas. Similarly, requirements wouldseemtobe incompatible, ally beinga faithful and a mediator emphasized arise if a govemment would certainly and questions dewhileprofessing of orientation activeindependent an extemal of an on policyobjectives through alliance, the foreign pendence, to maintain commitments such state.Wheregovernments another difficulty considerable we national roles, couldexpect incompatible in roleswerebeingperformed any whichnational in determining roles national The set of circumstances. mainpairsof incompatible in the wouldbe those Table 10,whichalso presents in thetypology
TABLE 10
INCOMPATIBLE NATIONAL ROLES

Pairsof Roles Incompatible 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19.

States (See Table 2)

20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26.

none Bastionof revolution-mediator/integrator none Bastionof revolution-isolate none Bastionof revolution-bridge none Regionalleader-isolate none Regionalleader-protectee France,India, Japan,U.A.R. independent Regionalleader-active France,India,Sudan Ethiopia, Regionalleader-independent Malaysia,U.A.R. independent Regionalprotector-active Iraq Regionalprotector-independent Hungary, U.K., U.S.A. Regional protector-mediator/integrator none Regionalprotector-isolate none Regionalprotector-protectee Turkey France,G.D.R., Japan, ally Activeindependent-faithful none Activeindependent-isolate none Activeindependent-protectee su Nepal Liberator pporter-isolate Rumania, Mali, Hungary agent-system-wide Anti-imperialist mediator/integrator none agent-isolate Anti-imperialist Canada, France, Belgium, ally Mediator/integrator-faithful G.D.R., F. R. G., Hungary, Italy,Kuwait,Liberia, U.K., U.S.A. none Mediator/integrator-isolate Singapore, collaborator-isolate Pakistan, Regional/subsystem Switzerland Switzerland Developer-isolate Pakistan, Finland Bridge-isolate Canada, France,Iraq, Kuwait, Faithful ally-independent Sudan,Syria Portugal, none Faithful ally-isolate Laos Independent-protectee
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to simultaneously two moreor less incomstatesthatsubscribed patibleroles. some of from thislist.First, We can drawseveralconclusions than others.There are no the pairs appear more incompatible adhere to highlyactive and whichsimultaneously governments for leader and isolate, role conceptions-regional passivenational whichare on thislistenunciate example. Mostof the governments or but in viewsthataresomewhat conflict, notlogically empirically Important NATO and Warsaw Pact governments incompatible. West Germany, such as Canada, Belgium, France,East Germany, differences to to and Hungary emphasize commitmentstry reconcile themcharacterize betweentheseblocs,yet theysimultaneously In alliancepartners. the case of West Germany, selvesas faithful twonational raisedbythese and problems thediplomatic credibility in minister apparent. foreign As are role conceptions particularly whilestrongly speeches, government, Brandt's Willi the Kiesinger of prior the invasion Czechoto NATO, also revealed, supporting with a commitment toward increased collaboration slovakia, strong simultaneously was portrayed the East Europeanstates.Germany as a strong East, and as a bridgeor againstt-he bloc supporter between East and West.Fromthe Sovietpoint mediator-integrator to ofview,at least,thesetwoorientations difficult reconcile. are a The most important conclusion, however,confirms point to in stressed Some of the governments the list subscribe earlier. national yet role conceptions, whenone moreor less incompatible it is looksat thesegovernments, clearthattheyare onlyexpressing towarddifferent of relationships. is sets This orientations different thatgovernments different actions, perceive another way of saying reand as to states, commitments, functions appropriate different predicts preor gionalgroupings, issue areas. Formalrole theory different orientations, role the peopledevelop cisely sameconclusion:
in sets There are some to use Eulau's term, different of relationships.

roleincompatibility,course(Pakistansimultaof cases of genuine collaborator and as as Singapore a regional neously a bridge isolate, butmany theother of roleconflicts factreflect in t-he and isolate),
of "nets"fora given loosenessof theblocs or the variety relationship allies state. In the Middle East context, Syria and Iraq are faithful in the anti-Israelcause; in the cold war contexttheyare indepen14, NUMBER 1970

in commitments dents thesense of eschewing military permanent

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Nepal is a toward majorpowers.In the SouthAsiancontext, the of the semi-isolated state; in the context a colonialissue before United Nations, is a liberator-supporter. it national roleconceptions Seemingly incompatible conflicting or musttherefore qualified relating each role conception a to be by typical foreign policy particular of relationships. set Predicting decisions actions and thus difficult where becomes only incompatible within context a the of nationalrole conceptions enunciated are singleset of relationships. Thereis, then, perfect between national role conceptions no fit Predicting typical beand all foreign policydecisions and actions. roleconceptions be particmay havior from knowledge national of are vague, ularlydifficult when these conceptions incompatible, with unstructured, lacking and detail,when a stateis confronted abroad or fracrapidlychanging powershifts and circumstances turedpublicopinion home,and whenpolitical leadersare in a at new policies without threatof positionto implement radically domestic to Eulau has political consequences. Referring legislators, written:
situation....

. . . knowing does not allow] us to predict [therole conception all or even most [decisionsand actions] in every concrete
are But roles or role orientations at least relatively

of a will stablepoints reference terms which legislator conof in ducthimself givemeaning, bothto himself others, his and to and we behavior. Even if,at thisstageof research development, canthe to case linkrolesor role orientations behavior, not in every what theythink fact thatlegislators articulate do theyshould and of do by virtue theirrelations amongthemselves between indicathat and themselves clienteles suggests rolesare effective torsof behavioral possibilities.40 we This position, may argue,holdsforforeign policyanalysis as well. variablein foreign as Nationalrole conceptions the dependent policyanalysis in A majorpostwardevelopment the studyof foreign policy at has been the shiftaway fromdescription formalattempts to
40

p. Wahlke et al., The LegislativeSystem, 243.

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how. thanmerely explanation: states in certain why act waysrather Snyderand his associates the have identified kindsof domestic, organizational, thatcan communications motivational and variables be linked foreign to policydecision-making.4' Rosenauhas outlined a "pre-theory" foreign of policyin whichhe relatesfivesets of variables (personality-idiosyncratic, governmental, role, societal, and systemic) typesof societies, to whether open, closed,developed,underdeveloped thelike.The purpose the exercise and of is to estimate relative the influence the variablesunderdifferent of circumstances.42 Extensiveresearchon the kinds of variables Rosenauand Snyder have proposed would no doubtenableus to gain at least a good understanding the processesof foreign of policymaking. In concentrating defining on thesekindsof independent variables in foreign policystudies, however, have not been adewe quatelypreciseregarding "thingto be explained." the Are we primarily interested policymaking in processes, shouldwe focus or on explaining policyoutputs? the decision-making Is framework withexplaining substance decisions does it concerned the of or drawattention to whichtheseoutprimarily theprocesses through puts are arrived? The recentworkby Paige on the decisionto in intervene Korea concentrates the latter on The problem.43 puris pose of hisbook,he claims, "to createa set of empirical propothatwill linkthevariables the decision-making of sitions frame of and to contribute theprocess building body of reference further a about foreign of empirical This theory policymaking."44 kind of morewithorganizational is study concerned decision-making prowith substance decisions. kinds propositions the of cessesthan The of as thatPaige,and Snyder well,developcouldjustas wellbe tested in case studies of administrative organizations concerned with
41 Snyder al., Decision-Making an Approach the Studyof Internaet as to tional Politics (Princeton: Foreign Policy AnalysisProject,PrincetonUniversity, 1954). 42 and Theoriesof ForeignPolicy,"in JamesN. Rosenau,"Pre-Theories to R. BarryFarrell (ed.), Approaches Comparative and International Politics (Evanston: Northwestern University Press,1966). 43 Glenn D. Paige, The Korean Decision (New York: The Free Press, 1968). 44 Ibid., p. 46 (my emphasis).Some of the propositions derivedfrom the historical analysisdo, however,suggesta connection between process and See substance. especially 310-22. pp.
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aspectsof domestic policy. Emphasison bureaucratic communicationand spheres competence, of particularly the smallforeign in policy organization lesser of states, maydistract attention more from significant factors explaining in decisions. Even if the decisionmodelwas concerned making primarily foreign with policyoutput, thequestion remains whether, becauseofitsuniquecharacteristics, the decisionis the mostusefulunit of analysisand dependent variable. The notion national of roleconception mayhelp here.Because it suggests orientations, continuing commitments, actions, funcand it tions, has a level of generality covering manydecisions. we If assumethatmostdecisions will be reasonably consistent withrole then conceptions, the taskof foreign policyanalysis shouldbe to and the of explain origins, presence, sources changeofnational role thansingledecisions. shouldbe less difficult, conceptions rather It to of Rosenauhas proposed, moreover, linkthekinds variables witlh national than to establish role conceptions relationships between individual acts,suchas decisions, general and personality, societal, and systemic variables. as variIf we continue usingthe decision themajordependent of not able in foreign policyanalysis, explanation outputs, though withemreconstructed will remain of processes, probably history within of phasison theactions uniqueindividuals operating unique circumstances. notion in The organizations a uniquesetofhistorical indeofnational conceptions wellenableus to use broader role may as in Such factors public pendent variables foreign policyanalysis. tradisocio-economic opinion"mood," needs,geographic location, variables (policymakers' tional policies,as well as idiosyncratic of "definitions the situation")could be relatedto nationalrole too without muchdifficulty. conceptions reasonwhynationalrole conceptions rather There is another of decisionsmightaid the development foreign than individual as Prespolicyanalysis well as the studyof international politics. to to it ently is difficult relatecase studiesof decision-making the concerns those of on and broader working thestructure functioning international International and contemporary of past systems. syswiththe typical of is behavior all states temsanalysis concerned in and overa considerable periodoftime, changes critical variables, of and actionsconceivedas the totality foreign policydecisions
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of The analyst interpatterns. interaction in resulting identifiable into whichinquires interest work in systems havelittle can national in atypgovernment one brief of processes a single decision-making situation. a ical scene,usually crisis would be to specify One possibleway aroundthis problem studies. of as units behavior theoutputs decision-making of broader and general orientations role of Becausethenotion national suggests it and functions, has a actions, continuing typesof commitments, or policytheories for appropriate bothforeign level of generality refined and combined studies.Carefully frameworks, systems and variit of with studies patterns action, can serveas a dependent of variablein and as one independent able in foreign policyanalysis rather thanindividual analysis. Role and actionpatterns systems of policyand can or decisions actions be seen as theoutput foreign Indeed,it is possibleto system. as one inputintotheinternational of distribution as system a particular of conceive an international at rolesor role conceptions any giventime.Beyondthis, national of in and of examination role distributions patterns a variety hisshould systems and international regional contemporary torical and that thekindof timeperspective is already the provide fieldwith a politics,45 offer basis forcrossin of evident studies comparative and cultural comparison, providedata withwhichto testabstract by typesof thekindsuggested Kaplan. system of and the This essayhas explored possibilities problems using of of policy. in someoftheconcepts roletheory theanalysis foreign role has how of The purpose been to illustrate theconcept national for of policyanalysis can helpthedevelopment frameworks foreign of modelsof international sysand the construction morerealistic bedifferences thatthereare significant tems.Once we recognize or social structure the and integrated tweensmallgroups a highly we role to the environment, can alterformal theory fit international willhelpto provide concept which those a parts usingonly subject, or thanthespecific of is that broader objectives states uniqueforeign on Hence the emphasis national role conceptions, policydecisions. toward external the environment whichare viewedas orientations or within sets to tasks functions various of and commitmentscertain international relationships.
45 GabrielA. Almond Politics:A and C. Bingham Powell,Jr., Comparative 1966). Approach(Boston: Little,Brownand Company, Developmental
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K.

J.HOLST1

and difThe middle part of this studyreveals both similarities politics and the ferences between the literatureof international statementsof key foreignpolicy personnel.Some of the national by were confirmed the roles discussed in the traditionalliterature Moreover,there is a strongrelationanalysis of policy statements. ship between national role conceptionsand the levels of involveof ment or the activity-passivity various states. An active-passive dimensionof foreignpolicy behaviorhas been suggestedas signifito cant formany years,thoughit has seldom been linked explicitly notionsof nationalrole. Differencesbetween categories of states in the literatureand are even more revealing.The quantitative nationalrole conceptions and qualitative analysis of foreign policy statementsreveals a numberof national role conceptionsthat are seldom discussed in scholarly work; clearly establishes that virtuallyall governments conceive of theirstate as playing several national roles simultanesets of relationships;and emphasizes the ously, within different in nationalroles.The figures Table 2, while saliencyof regional-type international the not disconfirming polar image of the contemporary of strongly suggestthe importance regionalissues and probsystem, in of lems to most states. A large proportion the policy statements the sample emphasize types of national roles related to regional cooperation,mediation,foreignpolicy independence,and internal development.Cold war type national role conceptionscome out as well, but certainlydo not predominate.Finally, the figuresreveal conceptsas alliance partner certaininadequacies in such traditional and non-alignedstate. Careless use of these termsmay hide more foreignpolicies. The conthan they explain about a government's not cept of nationalrole would providethe investigator only with a reasonablyprecise termwhich nicely characterizesa state's foreign certainranges policies,but also withan analyticaltool forexplaining or pattems of foreignpolicy decisions and actions. advantagesto the developThe breadthof the conceptalso offers Seen as the outputof decision-making, mentof foreign policytheory. the concept can be linked to a numberof general variables which have been suggestedas relevantto policy,but which have not been to related successfully single decisions. Geographiclocation,public opinion "mood," national ideologies, and various socio-economic factors of characteristics states have long been used as explanatory
INTERNATIONAL STUDIES QUARTERLY

STUDYOF FopxIGNPOLICY

309

in foreign policy, theseconcepts usually but are muchtoo broadly defined explainadequately to suchnarrow phenomena a single as foreign policy decision. Theycan,however, related a broader, be to moregeneral dependent variable, suchas a national conception. role The notion national of roleconceptions offers for something the systems analyst well. Foreignpolicydecisionsare one of the as intoa "system," becauseof thegenerality thesystems but of inputs individual it to actions(decisionsto approach, is difficult connect of startmajorwars are an exception, course) withany particular of Modifications in changein the majorcharacteristics thesystem. of roleconceptions, the distribution national can however, be seen of of as one type changein themajor properties thesystem. Signifior in of cantgrowth decline thenumber active independent, faithful ally,or bastion therevolution-liberator of national conceptions, role transformationone system of forexample, could signify typeinto The notionof nationalrole conception, another. then,offers one avenuefordescribing types and explaining of, changes internain, to and tional It can systems. lendsitself empirical analysis, therefore and flow interaction transaction studies based on "hard" supplement on studies roleconceptions data.Mosthopefully, focussing national between those whowork thepersonal at can helpbuildbridges and and national levelsof analysis, thosewho adopt the broader perstudies. of spective international systems

VOLUME

14,

NUMBER

3, SEPTEMBER

1970