2.2 Networks Software Network software is highly structured. In this section we examine the software t echniques.

In the following sections we examine the software structuring techniq ue in some detail. The method described here forms the keystone of the entire bo ok and will occur repeatedly later on. 2.2.1 Protocol Hierarchy A protocol is an agreement between the communicating parties on how communicatio n is to proceed. To reduce their design complexity, most networks are organized as a stack of layers or levels, each one built upon the one below it. The number of layers, the name of each layer, the contents of each layer, and the function of each layer differ from network to network. The purpose of each layer is to o ffer certain services to the higher layers, shielding those layers from the deta ils of how the offered services are actually implemented. In a sense, each layer is a kind of virtual machine, offering certain services to the layer above it. That is the rules and conventions used in the conversations collectively known a s a protocol. This concept is actually a familiar one and used throughout computer science, wh ere it is variously known as information hiding, abstract data types, data encap sulation, and object-oriented programming. The fundamental idea is that a partic ular piece of software (or hardware) provides a service to its users but keeps t he details of its internal state and algorithms hidden from them. Layer n on one machine carries on a conversation with layer n on another machine. The rules an d conventions used in this conversation are collectively known as the layer n pr otocol. Basically, a protocol is an agreement between the communicating parties on how communication is to proceed. Violating the protocol will make communicati on more difficult, if not completely impossible. A five-layer network is illustrated in figure 2.1. The entities comprising the c orresponding layers on different machines are called peers. It is the peers that communicate using the protocol. In reality, no data are directly transferred fr om layer n on one machine to layer n on another machine. Instead the data and co ntrol information is passed to the layer immediately below it, until it reaches the lowest layer. This lowest layer is usually referred as physical layer, which interfaces directly with the physical medium. The virtual communication is indi cated by dotted lines and physical communication by solid lines in figure 2.1 and physical communication by solid lines in figure 2.1 Figure 2.1: Layers, protocols and interfaces Between each pair of adjacent layers there is an interface. The interface define s which primitive operations and services the lower layer offers to the upper on e. When network designers decide how many layers to include in a network and wha t each one should do, one of the most important considerations is defining clean interfaces between the layers. Doing so, in turn, requires that each layer perf orm a specific collection of well-understood functions. In addition to minimizin g the amount of information that must be passed between layers, clearcut interfa ces also make it simpler to replace the implementation of one layer with a compl etely different implementation (e.g., all the telephone lines are replaced by sa tellite channels) because all that is required of the new implementation is that it offer exactly the same set of services to its upstairs neighbor as the old i mplementation did. In fact, it is common that different hosts use different impl ementations. The set of layers and protocols is called Network architecture. A list of protoc ols used by a system is called a protocol stack. The subjects of network archite ctures, protocol stacks, and the protocols themselves are the principal topics o f this book. Figure 2.2: Communication of information in a five-layer network. Consider the communication between two hosts using a five-layer network. Let M be the source message produced by the application process running at layer 5. This message is to be transmitted to the layer 5 of the destination machine. This message is given to layer 4 for transmission as shown in Figure 2.2. Layer

4 puts a header for identification in front of the message and passes it to lowe r layer 3. The header includes control information, such as sequence numbers, to allow layer 4 on the destination machine to deliver messages in the right order if the lower layers do not maintain sequence. In some layers, headers can also contain sizes, times, and other control fields. There might be limit on the size of the message and hence messages can also be segmented. In many networks, there is no limit to the size of messages transmitted in the l ayer 4 protocol, but there is nearly always a limit imposed by the layer 3 proto col. Consequently, layer 3 must break up the incoming messages into smaller unit s, packets, prepending layer 3 headers to each packet. In this example, M is spl it into two parts, M1 and M2. Layer 3 decides which of the outgoing lines to use and passes the packets to lay er 2. Layer 2 adds not only a header to each piece, but also a trailer, and give s the resulting unit to layer 1 for physical transmission. Thus the message reac hes the lowest layer where it is transmitted through the physical medium. The ac tual flow of the message from the top layer of source machine to the top layer o f the destination machine is illustrated in figure 2.2. The message has to be de livered in proper sequence to the layers of the destination machine. At the receiving machine the message moves upward, from layer to layer, with the headers being stripped off as it progresses by the appropriate layers. Note tha t none of the headers for layers below n are passed up to layer n. The important thing is to see the relation of actual flow and virtual flow, the different protocols and interfaces. Even though we refer network software for th e design of all layers, the lower layers are implemented in hardware or firmware . 2.2.2 Design Issues for the Layers There are some key design issues that are to be considered in computer networks. Every layer needs a mechanism for identifying senders and receivers. As many co mputers are normally connected in networks, few of which have multiple processes . A means for a process on one machine is needed to specify with whom it wants t o communicate to. Thus some form of addressing scheme is to be devised. Another design issue is data transmission modes. It concerns the rules for the d ata transfer. The systems can use serial or parallel transmission, synchronous o r Asynchronous transmission, simplex or duplex transmission. The protocol also m ust determine how many logical channels the connection corresponds to and what t heir priorities are. Another major design issue is Error Control techniques as physical circuits are not perfect. Some of the error detecting or correcting codes are to be used at b oth the ends of the connection. At the same time we need to consider Flow Contro l techniques is necessary to keep a fast sender from swamping a slow receiver. S ome systems use some kind of feedback from receiver, which is useful to limit th e transmission rate. It is inconvenient or expensive to set up separate connection for each pair of c ommunicating processes. Same connection can be used by multiple & unrelated conv ersation. Thus we need to focus on Multiplexing and de-multiplexing techniques a s one of the design issue. Multiplexing is needed in the physical layer, where a ll the traffic for all connections has to be sent over at most a few physical ci rcuits. When there are multiple paths between the source and destination the complexity lies in finding the best, optimum and shortest path. Hence to find optimum path we need Routing schemes. Apart from these 2.2.3 Merits and de-merits of Layered Architecture Advantages of Layered Architecture Any given layer can be modified or upgraded without affecting the other layers. Modulazition by means of layering simplifies the overall design. Different layers can be assigned to different standards, committees, and design teams. Mechanisms like packet-switching, circuit-switching may be used without effectin g more than one layer. Different machines may be plugged in at different layers.

 The relation between different control functions can be better understood. Common lower levels may be shared by different higher levels. Functions (especially at lower levels) may be removed from software to hardware and micro-codes. Increases the compatibility of different machines. Disadvantages of Layered Architecture Total overhead is higher. Two communicating machines may have to use certain functions which they could do without layers. As technology changes, the functions may not be in the most cost-effective layer . Connection-Oriented and Connectionless Services Layers can offer two types of services to the layers above them. They are Connec tion oriented and Connection less. Connection oriented service is modeled after telephone system. To use this service, the service user first establishes a conn ection, uses the connection and then releases the connection. In most of the cas es the order is preserved so that bits arrive at receiver in the same order as t hey were sent by the transmitter. In some cases when a connection is established the source, the subnet, and the receiver conduct negotiation of certain paramet ers like the maximum size of the message, quality of service (QoS) required and other issues. We have another type of service called Connection less service. This is modeled after the postal system. Here each message carries the full destination address, and each one is routed through the system independent of each others. Here mess ages may not arrive at the receiver in the same order as they were sent, as it d epends on the route each message takes on the way to the destination. Six differ ent types of services are summarized in table 2.1. Table 2.1: Comparisons of different services 2.2.4 Service Primitives A service is formally specified by a set of primitives or operations available t o the user to access the service. These primitives tell the service to perform s ome action or report an action taken by the peer entity. The primitives for the connection-oriented service are given in table 2.2. Table 2.2: Service primitives for a connection oriented service Communication in a simple client server model using the above service primitives is illustrated in figure 2.3. First the server executes the LISTEN to indicate that is ready to accept incoming connections. The client executes CONNECT (1) to establish the connection with the server. The server now unblocks the listener and sends back an acknowledgement (2). Thus the connection is established. Figure 2.3: Simple client server model on a connection oriented network The next step for a server is to executes a RECEIVE (3) to prepare to accept the first request. The arrival of the request packet unblocks the server so that it can process the request. After it has done the work it uses SEND (4) to answer to the client. It all the data transfer is done then it can use DISCONNECT (5) s uspending the client. When the server gets this packet, it also issues a DISCONN ECT (6) and when it reaches the client, the client process is releases and the c onnection is broken. In the process packets may get lost, timings may be wrong, many other complex issues. The Relationship of Services to Protocols Figure 2.4: Relationship between the service and protocols A service is a set of primitives that a layer provides to the layer above it. Th e service defines what operation the layer is prepared to perform on behalf of i ts users. It says nothing about the implementation of these operations. A protocol is a set of rules governing the format and meaning of the packets, or messages that are exchanged by the peer entities within a layer. Figure 2.4 ill ustrates the relationship of services to protocols. Entities use protocols to im

plement their service primitives. Protocols relate to the packets sent between e ntities. some of the design issues can be related to security, compression techniques and so on. 2.3 Reference models There are two important network architectures. They are ISO-OSI reference model and TCP/IP reference model. These two are discussed below. In 1977, the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) began to devel op its OSI networking suite. OSI has two major components: an abstract model of networking (the Basic Reference Model, or seven-layer model), and a set of concr ete protocols. The standard documents that describe OSI are for sale and not cur rently available online. Parts of OSI have influenced Internet protocol development, but none more than t he abstract model itself, documented in ISO 7498 and its various addenda. In thi s model, a networking system is divided into layers. Within each layer, one or m ore entities implement its functionality. Each entity interacts directly only wi th the layer immediately beneath it, and provides facilities for use by the laye r above it. In particular, Internet protocols are deliberately not as rigorously architected as the OSI model, but a common version of the TCP/IP model splits it into four layers. The Internet Application Layer includes the OSI Application Layer, Prese ntation Layer, and most of the Session Layer. Its End-to-End Layer includes the graceful close function of the OSI Session Layer as well as the Transport Layer. Its Internet work Layer is equivalent to the OSI Network Layer, while its Inter face layer includes the OSI Data Link and Physical Layers. These comparisons are based on the original seven-layer protocol model as defined in ISO 7498, rather than refinements in such things as the Internal Organization of the Network Lay er document. Protocols enable an entity in one host to interact with a corresponding entity a t the same layer in a remote host. Service definitions abstractly describe the f unctionality provided to a (N)-layer by an (N-1) layer, where N is one of the se ven layers inside the local host. 2.3.1 The OSI Reference Model This reference model is proposed by International standard organization (ISO) as a a first step towards standardization of the protocols used in various layers in 1983 by Day and Zimmermann. This model is called Open system Interconnection (OSI) reference model. It is referred OSI as it deals with connection open syste ms. That is the systems are open for communication with other systems. It consis ts of seven layers. Layers of OSI Model The principles that were applied to arrive at 7 layers: 1. A layer should be created where a different level of abstraction is needed. 2. Each layer should perform a well defined task. 3. The function of each layer should define internationally standardized protoco ls 4. Layer boundaries should be chosen to minimize the information flow across the interface. 5. The number of layers should not be high or too small. Figure 2.5: ISO - OSI Reference Model The ISO-OSI reference model is as shown in figure 2.5. As such this model is not a network architecture as it does not specify exact services and protocols. It just tells what each layer should do and where it lies. The bottom most layer is referred as physical layer. ISO has produced standards for each layers and are published separately. Each layer of the ISO-OSI reference model are discussed below: 1. Physical Layer This layer is the bottom most layer that is concerned with transmitting raw bits over the communication channel (physical medium). The design issues have to do

with making sure that when one side sends a 1 bit, it is received by other side as a 1 bit, and not as a 0 bit. It performs direct transmission of logical infor mation that is digital bit streams into physical phenomena in the form of electr onic pulses. Modulators/demodulators are used at this layer. The design issue he re largely deals with mechanical, electrical, and procedural interfaces, and the physical transmission medium, which lies below this physical layer. In particular, it defines the relationship between a device and a physical mediu m. This includes the layout of pins, voltages, and cable specifications. Hubs, r epeaters, network adapters and Host Bus Adapters (HBAs used in Storage Area Netw orks) are physical-layer devices. The major functions and services performed by the physical layer are: Establishment and termination of a connection to a communications medium. Participation in the process whereby the communication resources are effectively shared among multiple users. For example, contention resolution and flow contro l. Modulation, is a technique of conversion between the representation of digital d ata in user equipment and the corresponding signals transmitted over a communica tions channel. These are signals operating over the physical cabling (such as co pper and fiber optic) or over a radio link. Parallel SCSI buses operate in this layer. Various physical-layer Ethernet stand ards are also in this layer; Ethernet incorporates both this layer and the datalink layer. The same applies to other local-area networks, such as Token ring, F DDI, and IEEE 802.11, as well as personal area networks such as Bluetooth and IE EE 802.15.4. 2. Data Link Layer The Data Link layer provides the functional and procedural means to transfer dat a between network entities and to detect and possibly correct errors that may oc cur in the Physical layer. That is it makes sure that the message indeed reach t he other end without corruption or without signal distortion and noise. It accom plishes this task by having the sender break the input data up into the frames c alled data frames. The DLL of transmitter, then transmits the frames sequentiall y, and processes acknowledgement frames sent back by the receiver. After process ing acknowledgement frame, may be the transmitter needs to re-transmit a copy of the frame. So therefore the DLL at receiver is required to detect duplications of frames. The best known example of this is Ethernet. This layer manages the interaction o f devices with a shared medium. Other examples of data link protocols are HDLC a nd ADCCP for point-to-point or packet-switched networks and Aloha for local area networks. On IEEE 802 local area networks, and some non-IEEE 802 networks such as FDDI, this layer may be split into a Media Access Control (MAC) layer and the IEEE 802.2 Logical Link Control (LLC) layer. It arranges bits from the physical layer into logical chunks of data, known as frames. This is the layer at which the bridges and switches operate. Connectivity is pro vided only among locally attached network nodes forming layer 2 domains for unic ast or broadcast forwarding. Other protocols may be imposed on the data frames t o create tunnels and logically separated layer 2 forwarding domain. The data link layer might implement a sliding window flow control and acknowledg ment mechanism to provide reliable delivery of frames; that is the case for SDLC and HDLC, and derivatives of HDLC such as LAPB and LAPD. In modern practice, on ly error detection, not flow control using sliding window, is present in modern data link protocols such as Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP), and, on local area ne tworks, the IEEE 802.2 LLC layer is not used for most protocols on Ethernet, and , on other local area networks, its flow control and acknowledgment mechanisms a re rarely used. Sliding window flow control and acknowledgment is used at the tr ansport layers by protocols such as TCP. 3. Network Layer The Network layer provides the functional and procedural means of transferring v ariable length data sequences from a source to a destination via one or more net works while maintaining the quality of service requested by the Transport layer. The Network layer performs network routing functions, and might also perform fr

agmentation and reassembly, and report delivery errors. Routers operate at this layer sending data throughout the extended network and making the Internet possi ble. This is a logical addressing scheme values are chosen by the network engine er. The addressing scheme is hierarchical. The best known example of a layer 3 protocol is the Internet Protocol (IP). Perh aps its easier to visualize this layer as managing the sequence of human carriers taking a letter from the sender to the local post office, trucks that carry sac ks of mail to other post offices or airports, airplanes that carry airmail betwe en major cities, trucks that distribute mail sacks in a city, and carriers that take a letter to its destinations. Think of fragmentation as splitting a large d ocument into smaller envelopes for shipping, or, in the case of the network laye r, splitting an application or transport record into packets. The major tasks of network layer are listed It controls routes for individual message through the actual topology. Finds the best route. Finds alternate routes. It accomplishes buffering and deadlock handling. 4. Transport Layer The Transport layer provides transparent transfer of data between end users, pro viding reliable data transfer while relieving the upper layers of it. The transp ort layer controls the reliability of a given link through flow control, segment ation/de-segmentation, and error control. Some protocols are state and connectio n oriented. This means that the transport layer can keep track of the segments a nd retransmit those that fail. The best known example of a layer 4 protocol is t he Transmission Control Protocol (TCP). The transport layer is the layer that converts messages into TCP segments or Use r Datagram Protocol (UDP), Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP), etc. pac kets. Perhaps an easy way to visualize the Transport Layer is to compare it with a Post Office, which deals with the dispatch and classification of mail and par cels sent. Do remember, however, that a post office manages the outer envelope o f mail. Higher layers may have the equivalent of double envelopes, such as crypt ographic Presentation services that can be read by the addressee only. Roughly speaking, tunneling protocols operate at the transport layer, such as ca rrying non-IP protocols such as IBMs SNA or Novells IPX over an IP network, or end -to-end encryption with IP security (IP sec). While Generic Routing Encapsulatio n (GRE) might seem to be a network layer protocol, if the encapsulation of the p ayload takes place only at endpoint, GRE becomes closer to a transport protocol that uses IP headers but contains complete frames or packets to deliver to an en dpoint. The major tasks of Transport layer are listed below: It locates the other party It creates a transport pipe between both end-users. It breaks the message into packets and reassembles them at the destination. It applies flow control to the packet stream. 5. Session Layer The Session layer controls the dialogues/connections (sessions) between computer s. It establishes, manages and terminates the connections between the local and remote application. It provides for either full-duplex or half-duplex operation, and establishes check pointing, adjournment, termination, and restart procedure s. The OSI model made this layer responsible for "graceful close" of sessions, w hich is a property of TCP, and also for session check pointing and recovery, whi ch is not usually used in the Internet protocols suite. The major tasks of session layer are listed It is responsible for the relation between two end-users. It maintains the integrity and controls the data exchanged between the end-users . The end-users are aware of each other when the relation is established (synchron ization). It uses naming and addressing to identify a particular user. It makes sure that the lower layer guarantees delivering the message (flow contr

ol). 6. Presentation Layer The Presentation layer transforms the data to provide a standard interface for t he Application layer. MIME encoding, data encryption and similar manipulation of the presentation are done at this layer to present the data as a service or pro tocol developer sees fit. Examples of this layer are converting an EBCDIC-coded text file to an ASCII-coded file, or serializing objects and other data structur es into and out of XML. The major tasks of presentation layer are listed below: It translates the language used by the application layer. It makes the users as independent as possible, and then they can concentrate on conversation. 7. Application Layer (end users) The application layer is the seventh level of the seven-layer OSI model. It inte rfaces directly to the users and performs common application services for the ap plication processes. It also issues requests to the presentation layer. Note car efully that this layer provides services to user-defined application processes, and not to the end user. For example, it defines a file transfer protocol, but t he end user must go through an application process to invoke file transfer. The OSI model does not include human interfaces. The common application services sub layer provides functional elements including the Remote Operations Service Element (comparable to Internet Remote Procedure Call), Association Control, and Transaction Processing (according to the ACID re quirements). Above the common application service sub layer are functions meanin gful to user application programs, such as messaging (X.400), directory (X.500), file transfer (FTAM), virtual terminal (VTAM), and batch job manipulation (JTAM ). Information Exchange among the Layers The seven OSI layers use various forms of control information to communicate wit h their peer layers in other computer systems. This control information consists of specific requests and instructions that are exchanged between peer OSI layer s. Control information typically takes one of two forms: headers and trailers. Head ers are prepended to data that has been passed down from upper layers. Trailers are appended to data that has been passed down from upper layers. An OSI layer i s not required to attach a header or a trailer to data from upper layers. Headers, trailers, and data are relative concepts, depending on the layer that a nalyzes the information unit. As illustrated in figure 2.2, at the network layer , for example, an information unit consists of a Layer 3 header called Network h eader (NH) and data. At the data link layer, however, all the information passed down by the network layer (the Layer 3 header and the data) is treated as data. Similar to Network layer now attaches its header (DH) and Trailer (DT) to the da ta that received from network layer. In other words, the data portion of an info rmation unit at a given OSI layer potentially can contain headers, trailers, and data from all the higher layers. This is known as encapsulation. Figure 2.6 sho ws how the header and data from one layer are encapsulated into the header of th e next lowest layer. In figure AH, PH, SH, TH, NH, refer to the header of applic ation layer to Network layer respectively. DT & DH refer to Data link layer Trai ler & Header. Figure 2.6: Encapsulation of Data in ISO-OSI Reference model 2.3.2 The TCP/IP Reference Model The TCP/IP reference model is the network model used in the current Internet arc hitecture. It was created in the 1970s by DARPA for use in developing the Intern ets protocols, and the structure of the Internet is still closely reflected by th e TCP/IP model. It has fewer, less rigidly defined layers than the commonly refe renced OSI model, and thus provides an easier fit for real world protocols. It i s considered as the grandfather of the Internet, the ARPANET. This was a researc h network sponsored by the Department of Defense in the United States. A goal was of continuing the conversation between source and destination even if

transmission went out of operation. The reference model was named after two of its main protocols, TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) and IP (Internet Protoco l). No document officially specifies the model. Different names are given to the layers by different documents, and different numbers of layers are shown by dif ferent documents. There are versions of this model with four layers and with fiv e layers. The original four-layer version of the model has layers as shown in figure 2.7. It consists of the following four layers Layer 4 Process Layer or Application Layer: This is where the "higher level" protocols such as FTP, HTTP, etc. operate. The original TCP/IP specification described a number of different applications that fit into the top layer of the protocol stack. These applications include Telnet, FTP, SMTP and DNS. These are illustrated in figure 2.10. Telnet is a program that supports the TELNET protocol over TCP. TELNET is a gene ral two-way communication protocol that can be used to connect to another host a nd run applications on that host remotely. FTP (File Transfer Protocol) is a protocol that was originally designed to promo te the sharing of files among computer users. It shields the user from the varia tions of file storage on different architectures and allows for a reliable and e fficient transfer of data. SMTP (Simple Mail Transport Protocol) is the protocol used to transport electron ic mail from one computer to another through a series of other computers along t he route. DNS (Domain Name System) resolves the numerical address of a network node into i ts textual name or vice-versa. It would translate www.yahoo.com to 204.71.177.71 to allow the routing protocols to find the host that the packet is destined for . Layer 3 Host-To-Host (Transport) Layer: This is where flow-control and connection protocols exist, such as TCP. This lay er deals with opening and maintaining connections, ensuring that packets are in fact received. The transport layer is the interface between the application laye r and the complex hardware of the network. It is designed to allow peer entities on the source and destination hosts to carry on conversations. Data may be user data or control data. Two modes are available, full-duplex and half duplex. In full-duplex operation, both sides can transmit and receive data simultaneously, whereas in half duplex, a side can only send or receive at one time. Layer 2 Internet or Internetworking Layer: This layer defines IP addresses, with many routing schemes for navigating packet s from one IP address to another. The job of the network layer is to inject pack ets into any network and have them travel independently to the destination. The layer defines IP (Internet Protocol) for its official packet format and protocol . Packet routing is a major job of this protocol. Layer 1 Network Access Layer: This layer describes the physical equipment necessary for communications, such a s twisted pair cables, the signalling used on that equipment, and the low-level protocols using that signalling. The Host-to-Network layer interfaces the TCP/IP protocol stack to the physical network. The TCP/IP reference model does not spe cify in any great detail the operation of this layer, except that the host has t o connect to the network using some protocol so it can send IP packets over it. As it is not officially defined, it varies from implementation to implementation , with vendors supplying their own version. Figure 2.7: TCP/IP Network Protocol The basic idea of the networking system is to allow one application on a host co mputer to talk to another application on a different host computer. The applicat ion forms its request, then passes the packet down to the lower layers, which ad d their own control information, either a header or a footer, onto the packet. F inally the packet reaches the physical layer and is transmitted through the cabl e onto the destination host. The packet then travels up through the different layers, with each layer reading

, deciphering, and removing the header or footer that was attached by its counte rpart on the originating computer. Finally the packet arrives at the application it was destined for. Even though technically each layer communicates with the l ayer above or below it, the process can be viewed as one layer talking to its pa rtner on the host. Interaction with Application, Transport and Internet Layers Interaction between the transport layer and the other layers immediately above a nd below is shown in figure 2.8. Figure 2.8: Interactions with Application, Transport and Internet Layers Any program running in the application layer has the ability to send a message u sing TCP or UDP, which are the two protocols defined for the transport layer. Th e application can communicate with the TCP or the UDP service, whichever it requ ires. Both the TCP and UDP communicate with the Internet Protocol in the interne t layer. In all cases communication is a two way process. The applications can r ead and write to the transport layer. The diagram only shows two protocols in th e transport layer. A message to be sent originates in the application layer. This is then passed do wn onto the appropriate protocol in the transport layer. These protocols add a h eader to the message for the corresponding transport layer in the destination ma chine for purposes of reassembling the message. The segment is then passed onto the internet layer where the Internet Protocol adds a further header. Finally th e segment is passed onto the physical layer, a header and a trailer are added at this stage. Figure 2.9 shows the structure of the final segment being sent. LAN/WAN Header IP Header TCP/UDP Header User data LAN/WAN Trailer Figure 2.9: Transmitted Segment from TCP/IP Network The relations of all protocols that reside in corresponding layers are as shown in figure 2.10. Figure 2.10: Protocols in TCP/IP reference model 2.3.3 A Comparison of OSI and TCP/IP Reference Models Concepts central to the OSI model are: Services: It tells what the layer does. Interfaces: It tells the processes above it how to access it. It specifies what parameters are and what result to expect. Protocols: It provides the offered service. It is used in a layer and are layers own business. The TCP/IP did not originally distinguish between the service, interface & proto cols. The only real services offered by the internet layer are SEND IP packets a nd RECEIVE IP packets. The OSI model was devised before the protocols were invented. Data link layer or iginally dealt only with point-to-point networks. When broadcast networks came a round, a new sub-layer had to be hacked into the model. With TCP/IP the reverse was true, the protocols came first and the model was really just a description o f the existing protocols. This TCP/IP model did fit any other protocol stack. Then OSI model has seven layers and TCP/IP has four layers as shown in figure 2. 11 Figure 2.11: Comparisons of the two reference models Another difference is in the area of connectionless and connection oriented serv ices. The OSI model supports both these services in the network layer but suppor ts only connection oriented communication in the transport layer. Where as the T CP/IP has supports only connection less communication in the network layer, and supports both these services in the transport layer. A Critique of the OSI Model and Protocols Why OSI did not take over the world

 Bad timing Bad technology Bad implementations Bad politics A Critique of the TCP/IP Reference Model Problems: Service, interface, and protocol not distinguished Not a general model Host-to-network layer not really a layer No mention of physical and data link layers Minor protocols deeply entrenched, hard to replace 2.4 Network standardization Network standardization is a definition that has been approved by a recognized s tandards organization. Standards exist for programming languages, operating syst ems, data formats, communications protocols, and electrical interfaces. Two categories of standards: De facto (Latin for from the fact) standards: These are those that have just happened without any formal plan. These are forma ts that have become standard simply because a large number of companies have agr eed to use them. They have not been formally approved as standards E.g., IBM PC for small office computers, UNIX for operating systems in CS departments. PostSc ript is a good example of a de facto standard. De jure (Latin for by law) standards: These are formal legal standards adopted by some authorized standardization body . Two classes of standard organizations Organizations established by treaty among national governments. Voluntary, nontreaty organizations. From a users standpoint, standards are extremely important in the computer indust ry because they allow the combination of products from different manufacturers t o create a customized system. Without standards, only hardware and software from the same company could be used together. In addition, standard user interfaces can make it much easier to learn how to use new applications. Most official computer standards are set by one of the following organizations: ANSI (American National Standards Institute) ITU (International Telecommunication Union) IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers) ISO (International Standards Organization) VESA (Video Electronics Standards Association) Benefits of standardization: Allow different computers to communicate. Increase the market for products adhering to the standard. 2.4.1 Whos who in the telecommunication world? Common carriers: private telephone companies (e.g., AT&T, USA). PTT (Post, Telegraph & Telephone) administration: nationalized telecommunication companies (most of the world). ITU (International Telecommunication Union): an agency of the UN for internation al telecommunication coordination. CCITT (an acronym for its French name): one of the organs of ITU (i.e., ITU-T), specialized for telephone and data communication systems. 2.4.2 Whos who in the standards world ISO is a voluntary, nontreaty organization founded in 1946, with members from 89 member countries. The procedure for ISO to adopt standards: First, one of the national standards organizations feels the need for an interna tional standard in some area. A working group is then formed to come up with a CD (Committee Draft). The CD is then circulated to all the member bodies, which get six months to crit icize it. If a substantial majority approves, a revised document, called a DIS (Draft Inte rnational Standard) is produced and circulated for comments and voting.

Based on the results of this round, the final text of the IS (International Stan dard) is prepared, approved, and published. IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) is the largest professi onal organization in the world, is another major player in the standards world, e.g., IEEEs 802 standard for LANs has been taken over by ISO as the basis for ISO 8802. 2.4.3 Whos who in the Internet standards world? The worldwide Internet has its own standardization mechanism, different from tho se of ITU-T and ISO. When ARPANET was set up, DoD created an informal committee. In 1983 the committee was renamed the IAB (Internet Activities Board). Then the meaning was changed as to Internet Architecture Board. Communication was done b y a series of technical reports called RFCs (Request for comments). RFCs are sto red on-line and can be fetched by anyone interested in them. They are numbered i n chronological order of creation. There was another group called IRTF (Internet Research Task Force), which was ma de subsidiary to IAB along with the IETF (Internet Engineering Task Force). Late r, the Internet society was created. IRTF concentrated on long term research and IETF dealt with short term engineering issues and was divided into working grou ps, each with specific problem to solve.