OPTICAL FIBERS.

SEMINAR REPORT ON OPTICAL FIBER

SHRI RAM MURTI SMARAK COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY, BAREILLY 2011-12

SUBMITTED TO: MR. VIRAT BHAMBHE (DEPT OF ELECTRICAL& ELECTRONICS)

SUBMITTED BY: JYOTI GANGWAR EE-09 0901421049

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AKNOWLEDGMENT

I take immense pleasure in thanking MR. VIRAT BHAMBHE, Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, SRMSCET for providing us the right ambience for carrying out this work. I wish to express my deep sense of gratitude to him who helped me in completing the project work, in time. Last but not the least, I thank all others, my beloved parents for their blessings and especially my classmates who in one way or another helped me in the successful completion of this work.

JYOTI GANGWAR

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Contents
1) Preface 2) Acknowledgement 3) Introduction 4) Principles 5) Light propagation in Fiber optics 6) Some relevant definitions. 7) Classification. 8) Difference among fibers. 9) Attenuation. 10) Construction. 11) Advantages 12) Disadvantages 13) Applications 14) Conclusion 15) References

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INTRODUCTION

The optical frequency range is extremely large when compared with radiofrequency range. As such a light beam can be used for communication purposes .A light beam can carry a more information to far off places. Optical fiber is a long thin transparent dielectric material made up of glass (or) plastic, which curries electromagnetic waves from one end of the fiber to other end of the fiber by means of multiple total internal reflections . Thus optical fibers works as wave guides in optical communication systems. An optical fiber consists of inner cylinder made of glass (or) plastic. It is called the core. The core carries light and it is surrounded by a second cylindrical shell of glass (or) plastic. It is called

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the cladding. The reference index of core (n1) is slightly larger than the Refractive index of cladding (n2) the typical refractive index values are

n1=1.48 and n2=1.46. The core diameter 50m.

The fiber from the sur rounding atmosphere. Many fiber are grouped to form a cable

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FIBRE OPTICS

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Principle of Optical fiber

Once light rays ente rs into core, they propagate by means of multiple total interval reflections of the corecladding interface .Let the refractive index of core is n1 And that of cladding is n2 such that n1>n2. A light ray AO is inc ident at O on the end face of core and this ray makes and angle 0 with the axis of the fiber the ray AO is refracted into the core and passes along OB. Let 1 is the angle of refraction in the core. The ray OB is incident on the core-cladding interface with an angle of incidence 90-. suppose this angle of incidence is equal to critical angle [c=90-1] then the angle if refraction is cladding is 90, so the ray passes along the interference between core and cladding. If the angle of incidence for a ray is less than 0(at end face) then angle of refraction is less than 1 and angle of incidence at the core-cladding interface is larger than critical angle so the ray suffers total internal reflection at the core-cladding interface.

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LIGHT PROPAGATION IN OPTICAL FIBERS

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RELEVENT DEFINATIONS

Acceptance angle and acceptance core:

If a ray falls at the end face of the optical fiber at an angle greater than o then the ray does not undergo total internal reflection at the core gladding interface ,if enters into cladding material and get lost in the cladding material. Thus for light rays to propagate through the optical fiber by total internal reflection they must be incident on the fiber core with in the angle o this angle in known as acceptance angle. Acceptance angle is defined as the maximum angle of incidence at the end face of an optical fiber for which the ray can be propagated in the optical fiber, this angle in also called acceptance core half angle. A core obtained by rotating a ray at the end face of the optical fiber around the fiber axis with acceptance angle is known as acceptance cone .Applying Snells law at B and O

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ACCEPTANCE ANGLE

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Numerical Aperture (NA)

Numerical Aperture is defined as the light gathering capacity of an optical fiber and is proportional to acceptance angle. Numerically it is equal to sine of acceptance angle

FRACTION CHANGE IN REFRACTIVE INDEX

It is defined as the ratio of difference of refractive indices of core and cladding to refractive index of core. Numerical aperture can be increased by increasing and thus enhance the light gathering capacity of the fiber. We can not increase to vary large value because if leady to into model depression, which causes signal distortion.

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TYPES OF FIBER Step Index Fibers and Graded Index fibers

Based on the variation of refractive index of core, optical fibers are divided in to (1) Step index and (2) Graded index fibers .

Again based on the mode of propagation all these fiber are divide into sin gle mode n multi mode fib er. In all optical fibers, the refractive index of cladding material is uniform.

(1)Step index fiber:

The refractive index is uniform throughout the core of the fiber. As we go radically in this fiber; the refractive index. Under goes a step change at the core- cladding interface. Based on the mode of propagation of light rays step index fibers are two typ es: (1) Single mode step index fibers. (2) Multimode step index fibers.
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The number of paths available for light propagation in a fiber is known as mode

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Single mode step index fiber: In this type of fiber, the core diameter is about 8 to 10m and outer diameter of cladding is 60 to 70m. There is only one path for my propagation so it is called single mode fiber. In this fiber, the transmission of light is by total internal reflection. It is reflective type fiber. Nearly 801 of the fiber m anufacture in the world are single modefiber .Laser are used as light source in these fibers. These fibers are mainly used in submarine cable system.

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(b) Multimode step index fiber:

In this type of fiber, the core and cladding diameters are much larger the core diameter of this fiber varies from,50 to 200m and the outer diameter of cladding varies from 100 to 250m.light propogation in this fiber is by multiple total internal reflections It is reflective type fiber.

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Transmission of signals in step index fiber:

Generally the signal is transmitted through the fiber in digital form the propagation of pulses through multimode fiber is shown in fig the pulses which travel along line path will reach first at the other end of fiber. The pluses that travel only Zig-Zag path reaches the other end with some time delay. Hence the pulsed signal received at the other end is broadened, this is known as inter model dispersion. Thus

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imposes limitation on the separation between pulses and reduces the transmission rate and capacity (2) Graded index fiber: In this fiber the refractive index decreases continuously from centre radically to the surface of the core. The refractive index is maximum at the centre and minimum of the surface of core. Fig shows cross sectional view and ray propagation of multimode graded index fiber. The diameter of core varies from 50 to 200m and outer diameter of cladding varies from 100 to 250m. In graded index fiber light rays travel at different speeds in different parts of the fiber. Near the surface of core, the refractive index is lower so rays near the outer surface travel faster than the rays travel of the centre. Because of all the rays arrive at the receiving end of the fiber approximately at the same time.

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Transmission of signal in graded index fiber: Index multimode graded index fiber large number of paths is available for light ray propagation. To discuss about inter model dispersion we consider ray path 1 and ray path 2 Along the axis of fiber the refractive index of core is maximum so the speed of ray along path 1 is less path 2 is sinusoidal and it is longer. Along

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the path the refractive index region, so the ray 2 move slight faster. Hence the pulses of signals that travel along path 1 and path 2 reaches other end of fiber simultaneously. Thus the problem of inter model dispersion can be reduced to large extent by using graded index fibers.

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WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SINGLE MODE AND MULTI MODE FIBER
Multimode fiber has a relatively large light carrying core, usually 62.5 microns or larger in diameter. It is usually used for short distance transmissions with LED based fiber optic equipment. Single-mode fiber has a small light carrying core of 8 to 10 microns in diameter. It is normally used for long distance transmissions with laser diode based fiber optic transmission equipment.

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ATTENUATION IN OPTICAL FIBERS.

A very important parameter of a optical fibre is the attenuation of light signal in the fibre. Attenuation decreases light transmittance. Usually the power of light at the output end of optical fibre is less than the power launched at the input end, than the signal is said to be attenuated. The signal attenuation is defined as the ratio of the input optical power (pi) into the fibre to the power of light come out at the output end (Po). The causes of attenuation are numerous, some of them are wave guides

structure, material compositions, material dispersion, micro bending losses, and mode coupling radiation

losses, etc., the attenuation is function of wave length and material. Optical communication wave lengths are 0.8, 1.3 and 1.55 m. The attenuation is mainly due to (i) (ii) Absorption and Scattering.
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1Absorption losses:
In glass fibres there different absorptions takes plac e. They are ultraviolet absorption, infrared absorptio n and ionr e s o n a n c e a b s o r p t i o n .

Absorption losses in pure fused silica are shown in fig. Absorption of UV radiation around 0.14 m results in ionization of valence electrons. Absorption of IR photon by atoms with in t h e glass molecules causes heating .This gives absorption n peak at 8 m, also minor peaks at 3.2, and 3.8and 4 . 4 m . t h e O H i o n s o f w a t e r t r a p d u r i n g m a nufacturing causes absorption.

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2)Scattering losses:
The molten glass, when drawn into very thin fiber under proper tension causes submicroscopic variation in the density of glass in the fibre takes place. The do pants added to glass to vary ther e f r a c t i v e i n d e x a l s o l e a d s t o i n h o m o g e n i t i e s i n t h e f i b e r t h e microscopic variation of density and in homogeneities act as reflection gl a n d r e f r a c t i n g f a c e t s , t h e s e scatter a small portion of light p a s s i n g t h r o u g h t h e g l a s s . Thus the scattering losses. If the size of density fluctuating regions is of order of D/10 .On t h e s e b a s e s t h e s c a t t e r i n g losses at a wave length of 1.3m is about 0.3dB/Km whereas at a wave length of 0.7 m .it is about 5dB/Km.

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OPTICAL FIBER CONSTRUCTION

Optical fiber is composed of several elements. The construction of a fiber optic cable consists of a core, cladding, coating buffer, strength member and outer jacket. The optic core is the lightcarrying element at the center. The core is usually made up of a combination of silica and Germanium. The cladding surrounding the core is made of pure silica. The claddinghas a slightly lower index of refraction than the core. The lower refractive index causes the light in the core to reflect off the cladding and stay within the core. Index of refraction is the ratio of the velocity of light in a vacuum to the velocity of light in a material. The speed of light in a vacuum is equal to 300,000,000 meters per second. The higher the index of refraction, the slower the speed of light through the material.

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Index of Refraction = Light velocity (vacuum) Light velocity (material)

Fiber is either single mode or multimode. Fiber sizes are expressed by using two numbers: 8/125. The first number refers to the core size in microns. The second number refers to the core size plus the cladding size combined.

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Fiber Connectors
Several layers of buffer coatings protect the core and the cladding. The Layers act as a shock absorber to protect the core and cladding from Damage. A strength member, usually Aramid, is around the buffer layers. To prevent pulling damage during installation the strength member is Added to give critical tensile (pulling) strength to the cable. The outer Jacket protects against environmental factors. The most widely used fiber connector is the SC connector. The SC Connectors square cross section facilitates high packing density in Connector panels. Network administrators need to take into consideration low loss, footprint size, and locking capabilities when selecting a fiber connector.

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Advantages
* High bandwidth for voice, video and data applications * Optical fiber can carry thousands of times more information than Copper wire. For example, a single-strand fiber strand could carry all the telephone conversations in the United States at peak hour * Fiber is more lightweight than copper. Copper cable equals Approximately 80 lbs./1000 feet while fiber weighs about 9 lbs./1000 feet * Low loss:- The higher frequency, the greater the signal loss using Copper cabling. With fiber, the signal loss is the same across frequencies, except at the very highest frequencies * Reliability:- Fiber is more reliable than copper and has a longer life span * Secure:- Fiber does not emit electromagnetic interference and is difficult to tap

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DISADVANTAGES
Price - Even though the raw material for making optical fibres, sand, is abundant and cheap, optical fibres are still more expensive per metre than copper. Although, one fibre can carry many more signals than a single copper cable and the large transmission distances mean that fewer expensive repeaters are required. Fragility - Optical fibres are more fragile than electrical wires. Affected by chemicals - The glass can be affected by various chemicals including hydrogen gas (a problem in underwater cables.) Opaqueness - Despite extensive military use it is known that most fibres become opaque when exposed to radiation. Requires special skills - Optical fibres cannot be joined together as a easily as copper cable and requires additional training of personnel and expensive precision splicing and measurement equipment.

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APPLICATIONS.
Fibres are widely used in illumination applications. They are used as light guides in medical and other applications where bright light needs to be shone on a target without a clear line-ofsight path. In some buildings, optical fibres route sunlight from the roof to other parts of the building. Optical fiber is also used in imaging optics. A coherent bundle of fibers is used, sometimes along with lenses, for a long, thin imaging device called an endoscope, which is used to view objects through a small hole. Medical endoscopes are used for minimally invasive exploratory or surgical procedures.. In spectroscopy, optical fiber bundles transmit light from a spectrometer to a substance that cannot be placed inside the spectrometer itself, in order to analyze its composition. A spectrometer analyzes substances by bouncing light off of and through them. An optical fiber doped with certain rare earth elements such as erbium can be used as the gain medium of a laser or optical amplifier. Rare-earth doped optical fibres can be used to provide signal amplification by splicing a short section of doped fiber into a regular (undoped) optical fiber line.

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CONCLUSION
Although the widespread use of fiber began with the push from the telecommunications industry, today it is commonplace. Many enterprises take advantage of fiber to increase the capacity and functionality of their local area networks (LANs) and now metropolitan area networks (MANs). One issue faced by some enterprises is how to connect legacy equipment and infrastructure without expensive "forklift" upgrades. By using copper to fiber media converters or multimode to single mode media converters, fiber can be connected in almost any legacy environment. Transition Networks comprehensive line of media conversion products are designed to ease the migration to fiber, while minimizing cost and installation issues.

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REFRENCES

1) www.fiber optics.com 2) www.how stuffs work.com 3) www.wikipedia.com 4) http://www.spacedomain.com 5) http://www.efymag.com 6) http://www.ieee.com.

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