Mader Inquiry into Life, Thirteenth Edition Chapter Outline

CHAPTER 12: CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM

12.1 The Blood Vessels The cardiovascular system has three types of blood vessels: the arteries and arterioles (carry blood away from the heart to the capillaries), the capillaries (permit exchange of material with the tissues), and the veins and venules (return blood from the capillaries to the heart). The Arteries An arterial wall has three layers including endothelium, a layer of smooth muscle that can contract to regulate blood flow and blood pressure and fibrous and loose connective tissue. Smaller arteries branch into a number of arterioles which affect blood pressure. The Capillaries Capillaries join arterioles to venules. They are extremely narrow and have thin walls. The exchange of substances takes place in the capillaries. The Veins Veins and venules take blood from the capillary beds to the heart. Veins often have valves that prevent blood from flowing backward when closed. 70 % of the blood is in the veins. 12.2 The Human Heart The heart is a cone-shaped, muscular organ about the size of a fist. The major portion of the heart, called the myocardium, consists largely of cardiac muscle tissue. The heart lie within the pericardium. Internally, the heart has four chambers: two thin-walled atria, and two thick-walled ventricles and the septum, a wall the separates the heart into the left and right side. The heart also has 4 valves: the antrioventricular valves(tricuspid and bicuspid) which are supported by chordae tendineae and the semilunar valves (the pulmonary and the aortic). Path of Blood through the Heart There is a specific pathway whereby blood flows through the heart such that oxygen-poor blood never mixes with oxygen-rich blood. The right side of the heart sends blood to the lungs and the left side pumps blood throughout the body. The pumping of the heart sends blood out to the rest of the body under pressure. The Heartbeat When the heart beats, first the two atria contract at the same time; then the two ventricles contract at the same time. Then all the chambers relax. The word systole refers to contraction of heart muscle, and the word diastole refers to relaxation of heart muscle. Pulse is the alternating expansion and recoil of an arterial wall. Intrinsic Control of Heartbeat The rhythmic contraction of the atria and ventricles is due to the intrinsic conduction system of the heart. Nodal tissue, which has both muscular and nervous characteristics, is located in two regions of the heart. The SA node (pacemaker) in the upper wall of the right atrium and the AV in the base of the right atrium. (atrioventicular bund and purkinje fibres) Extrinsic Control of Heartbeat

The body also has extrinsic ways to regulate the heartbeat. A cardiac control center exists in the medulla oblongata of the brain. The autonomic nervous system (parasympathetic to decrease and the sympathetic to increase) and hormones (epinephrine and norepinephrine) can modify the heartbeat. The Electrocardiogram The electrocardiogram is a recording of the electrical changes that occur in the myocardium during a cardiac cycle. Body fluids contain ions that conduct electrical currents. P wave, the QRS complex and the T wave. 12.3 The Vascular Pathways The cardiovascular system includes two circuits: the pulmonary, which circulates blood through the lungs and the systemic circuit, which serves the needs of body tissues. The Pulmonary Circuit The pulmonary arteries take blood that is low in oxygen to the lungs, and the pulmonary veins return blood that is high in oxygen to the heart. The Systemic Circuit The systemic circuit includes all the arteries and veins that feed the head, chest, arms, and lower body regions. It takes blood from the left ventricle of the heart to the right atrium of the heart. The largest artery- the aorta, the largest veins- the superior and inferior vena cavae, the coronaries arteries, the hepatic portal system and the hepatic portal vein. Blood Pressure Blood pressure is the pressure of blood against the wall of a blood vessel. In arteries, systolic pressure occurs when the ventricles contract, and diastolic pressure occurs when the ventricles relax. A blood pressure reading consists of these two numbers: for example, 120/80 (systolic/diastolic). In capillaries, blood moves slowly to let the exchange of substances and in veins, blood pressure is minimal and skeletal muscle, valves and respiratory movements account for the flow of blood. Dilated and inflamed veins Varicose veins develop when the valves of veins become weak and ineffective. Phlebitis happens when the blood in an inflamed vessel clots. 12.4 Blood Blood has transport functions of substances, regulatory functions of pH, and protective functions against pathogens which help homeostasis. It consists of plasma, the liquid portion of the blood, and the formed elements (red and white cells and platelets. Plasma Plasma proteins transport a variety of inorganic and organic substances dissolved or suspended in water. The Red Blood Cells Made in the red bone marrow, mature red blood cells dont have a nucleus and are biconcave disks. Their shape increases their flexibility for moving through capillary beds and their surface area for diffusion of gases. Red blood cells carry oxygen because they contain hemoglobin. Erythropoietin hormone in the kidneys speeds the maturation of red blood cells. A stem cell produces red blood cells in red bone marrow. The White Blood Cells

White blood cells differ from red blood cells in that they are usually larger, have a nucleus, lack hemoglobin, and without staining appear translucent. They fight infection and play a role in the development of immunity. Two types of white blood cells: granular leukocytes (neutrophils) and agranular leukocytes (monocytes and lymphocytes). Leukemia is the uncontrolled production of abnormal white blood cells. The Platelets and Blood Clotting Platelets are fragments of certain large cells and are involved in the process of blood clotting. There are at least 12 clotting factors in the blood that participate in the formation of a blood clot. Fibrinogen and prothrombin are proteins manufactured and deposited inblood by the liver. Blood Clotting There are several steps involved in blood clotting. First, platelets clump at the site of the puncture. This and the damaged tissue activate prothrombin activator that converts prothrombin to thrombin.thrombin acts as an enzyme and forms fibrin which is the framework for the clot. Hemophilia Hemophilia is an inherited clotting disorder caused by a deficiency in a clotting factor. Capillary Exchange Two forces primarily control movement of fluid through the capillary wall: osmotic pressure and blood pressure. Oxygen and nutrient substances exit a capillary near the arterial end and carbon dioxide and waste molecules enter a capillary near the venous end. Tissue fluid is the fluid between the bodys cells and lymph is the fluid within lymphatic vessels.