QT00129 Vol2 Final

State of Qatar -Public Works Authority
Drainage Affairs

Volume 2 Foul Sewerage Page i
1st Edition June 2005 - Copyright Ashghal
CONTENTS
1 Sewerage Systems Design ....................................................................................... 1
1.1 Standards ..................................................................................................................... 2
1.2 Sources of Information .................................................................................................. 2
1.3 Estimation of Flows ....................................................................................................... 3
1.3.1 Domestic ....................................................................................................................... 5
1.3.2 Industrial ........................................................................................................................ 8
1.3.3 Commercial ................................................................................................................... 8
1.3.4 Institutions such as Schools, Health Centres, Hospitals and Mosques ........................ 9
1.3.5 Infiltration ....................................................................................................................... 9
1.4 Peaking Factors .......................................................................................................... 10
1.5 Hydraulic Design ......................................................................................................... 13
1.5.1 Formulae ..................................................................................................................... 13
1.5.2 Minimum Pipe Sizes and Gradients ............................................................................ 16
1.5.3 Minimum and Maximum Velocities .............................................................................. 16
1.6 Septicity in Sewage, Odour Control and Ventilation ................................................... 17
1.6.1 Explosion and Combustion Risk ................................................................................. 18
1.6.2 Corrosion ..................................................................................................................... 18
1.6.3 Impact on Subsequent Treatment Processes ............................................................. 18
1.6.4 Odours ......................................................................................................................... 18
1.6.5 General Design Guidelines for Odour Control in Sewerage Systems ........................ 19
1.7 Pipeline Materials and Jointing ................................................................................... 24
1.8 Pipe Bedding Calculations for Narrow and Wide Trench Conditions .......................... 24
1.8.1 Bedding Design for Rigid Pipes .................................................................................. 25
1.8.2 Bedding Factors .......................................................................................................... 26
1.8.3 Design Strength........................................................................................................... 26
1.9 Manhole Positioning.................................................................................................... 27
1.10 House Connections..................................................................................................... 28
1.11 Construction Depths ................................................................................................... 28
1.12 Manholes, Chambers, Access Covers, and Ladders .................................................. 30
1.12.1 Inspection Chambers .................................................................................................. 30
1.12.2 Sewer System Manholes ............................................................................................ 30
1.12.3 Elements of Design ..................................................................................................... 30
1.13 Industrial Wastes ........................................................................................................ 31
1.14 Septic and Sewage Holding Tanks ............................................................................. 31
1.14.1 Design of Septic Tanks and Soakaways ..................................................................... 32
1.14.2 Sewage Holding Tanks ............................................................................................... 32
1.15 Oil and Grease Interceptors ........................................................................................ 32
1.16 Flow Attenuation Methods .......................................................................................... 32
1.16.1 Flow Controls .............................................................................................................. 33
1.16.2 Attenuation Storage Tanks and Sewers...................................................................... 33
1.17 Abandonment of Sewers............................................................................................. 39

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Page ii Volume 2 Foul Sewerage
2 Pumping Stations .................................................................................................... 39
2.1 Standards ................................................................................................................... 39
2.2 Hydraulic Design ......................................................................................................... 39
2.2.1 Hydraulic Principles .................................................................................................... 40
2.2.2 Pump Arrangements ................................................................................................... 41
2.3 Rising Main Design ..................................................................................................... 42
2.3.1 Rising Main Diameters ................................................................................................ 42
2.3.2 Twin Rising Mains ....................................................................................................... 42
2.3.3 Economic Analysis ...................................................................................................... 42
2.3.4 Rising Main Alignment ................................................................................................ 43
2.4 Maximum and Minimum Velocities ............................................................................. 43
2.5 Pipe Materials ............................................................................................................. 43
2.6 Thrust Blocks .............................................................................................................. 43
2.7 Air Valves and Washout Facilities .............................................................................. 44
2.7.1 Air Valves .................................................................................................................... 44
2.7.2 Vented Non-return Valves .......................................................................................... 44
2.7.3 Wash Outs ............................................................................................................... 44
2.7.4 Isolating Valves ........................................................................................................... 45
2.8 Flow Meters ................................................................................................................ 45
2.8.1 Application and Selection ........................................................................................... 45
2.8.2 Magnetic Flowmeters .................................................................................................. 45
2.8.3 Ultrasonic Flowmeters ................................................................................................ 46
2.9 Surge Protection Measures ........................................................................................ 46
2.10 Screens ....................................................................................................................... 48
2.11 Pumping Station Selection .......................................................................................... 49
2.12 Pumps and Motors ...................................................................................................... 52
2.13 Sump Design .............................................................................................................. 53
2.14 Suction/Delivery Pipework, and Valves ...................................................................... 55
2.15 Pumping System Characteristics ................................................................................ 56
2.16 Sump Pumps and Over-Pumping Facilities ................................................................ 59
2.17 Power Calculations including Standby Generation ..................................................... 59
2.17.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 59
2.17.2 Load Type ................................................................................................................... 59
2.17.3 Site condition .............................................................................................................. 60
2.17.4 Generator set operation and control .......................................................................... 60
2.17.5 Type of installation ...................................................................................................... 60
2.17.6 Type of Control Panel ................................................................................................. 60
2.17.7 Ventilation system ....................................................................................................... 60
2.17.8 Fuel system ................................................................................................................ 60
2.17.9 Starting method .......................................................................................................... 61
2.17.10 Service facility ............................................................................................................. 61
2.17.11 Generator set sizing .................................................................................................... 61
2.18 Switch Gear and Control Panels ................................................................................. 65
2.18.1 Typetested and partially type tested assemblies (TTA and PTTA) .......................... 65

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Volume 2 Foul Sewerage Page iii
2.18.2 Total connected load ................................................................................................... 65
2.18.3 Short circuit level ......................................................................................................... 65
2.18.4 Type of co-ordination .................................................................................................. 66
2.18.5 Form of internal separation ......................................................................................... 66
2.18.6 Bus Bar rating.............................................................................................................. 67
2.18.7 Type of starter ............................................................................................................. 67
2.18.8 Protection device ......................................................................................................... 68
2.18.9 Interlocking facility ....................................................................................................... 70
2.18.10 Accessibility ................................................................................................................. 70
2.18.11 Cable entry .................................................................................................................. 70
2.19 PLCs SCADA/Telemetry ............................................................................................ 70
2.19.1 PLC ............................................................................................................................. 70
2.19.2 RTU ............................................................................................................................. 71
2.19.3 SCADA and Telemetry Systems ................................................................................. 72
2.20 Lighting ....................................................................................................................... 73
2.20.1 Light Fitting Selection Criteria ..................................................................................... 73
2.21 Maintenance Access ................................................................................................... 77
2.22 Gantry Cranes and Lifting Facilities ............................................................................ 77
2.23 Ventilation, Odour Control and Air Conditioning ......................................................... 78
2.23.1 Ventilation .................................................................................................................... 78
2.23.2 Odour Control .............................................................................................................. 79
2.23.3 Air Conditioning ........................................................................................................... 80
2.24 Structural Design ........................................................................................................ 81
2.24.1 Substructures .............................................................................................................. 81
2.24.2 Superstructures ........................................................................................................... 90
2.25 Site Boundary Wall/Fence .......................................................................................... 97
2.26 Site Facilities ............................................................................................................... 97
3 Documentation ........................................................................................................ 98
3.1 Reference Standards .................................................................................................. 98
3.2 House Connection Survey .......................................................................................... 98
3.3 Building Permit ............................................................................................................ 98
4 Health and Safety .................................................................................................... 99
5 Trenchless Technologies ..................................................................................... 100
5.1 Alternative Techniques ............................................................................................. 100
5.1.1 Pipe jacking (Open/Close Face) ............................................................................... 100
5.1.2 Microtunnelling (Closed Face) .................................................................................. 102
5.1.3 Directional drilling ...................................................................................................... 104
5.2 Planning and Selection of Techniques...................................................................... 104
5.2.1 Initial Planning ........................................................................................................... 105
5.2.2 Selection Criteria ....................................................................................................... 110
5.2.3 Factors Affecting Choice Of Method ......................................................................... 110
5.3 Geotechnical Investigations ...................................................................................... 110

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Page iv Volume 2 Foul Sewerage
5.3.1 Geological Strata Overview ...................................................................................... 110
5.3.2 Groundwater Regime ................................................................................................ 110
5.3.3 Soil/Rock properties .................................................................................................. 111
5.3.4 Indicative Scope of Interpretative Reporting ............................................................. 113
5.4 Design ....................................................................................................................... 113
5.4.1 Feasibility Study ........................................................................................................ 113
5.4.2 Pipe Design .............................................................................................................. 113
5.4.3 Shaft Design ............................................................................................................. 114
5.4.4 Ground Movements .................................................................................................. 115
5.5 Environmental Assessment ...................................................................................... 117
5.5.1 Vibration .................................................................................................................... 117
5.5.2 Noise ......................................................................................................................... 117
5.5.3 Dust ........................................................................................................................... 118
5.6 Approvals Procedures and Formats ...................................................................... 118
5.6.1 Guidance for Design Check ...................................................................................... 118
5.7 Risk Assessment ...................................................................................................... 118
5.8 Trenchless Construction References ........................................................................ 122
5.9 Trenchless Construction Glossary ............................................................................ 123
6 References ............................................................................................................. 125

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Volume 2 Foul Sewerage Page 1

1 Sewerage Systems
Design
This volume of the Manual covers the design of new
and existing sewerage systems, detailing the design
standards, parameters and approaches to be
adopted. However, this information should not be
regarded as prescriptive in all situations, as each
design needs to be prepared, reviewed and
approved by appropriately skilled and experienced
staff, both within the designers and the Drainage
Afairs (DA) organisations.
The sewerage systems in Qatar are separate in that
foul sewage, comprising domestic, commercial and
industrial effluent is collected in a separate system
to that which collects stormwater runoff and ground
waters.
The sewerage system for Qatar collects foul flow
discharges from premises, located within the
developed areas of its towns and cities, and directs
the collected flows to the Sewage Treatment Works
(STW).
Sewage flows discharge, generally by gravity, into
the sewerage system through house connections to
the sewer pipelines and manholes outside the
property boundary. This network of branch and trunk
sewers directs flows by gravity to pumping stations,
which pump flows to the STW.
The flat topography of Qatar discourages long
lengths of gravity sewer due to the resulting great
depths of construction that would be required. The
sewerage systems therefore include many pumping
stations, with the result that sewage flows will often
be pumped several times before arriving at the
STW.
The major sewerage systems and STWs are located
in Doha, with similar systems in the smaller towns
such as Al Khor.
The Doha Catchments
The Doha sewerage system is contained within
three catchments, being the Doha West Catchment
Area, the Doha South Catchment Area and the
Industrial Area. The system in each catchment is
similar, in that it comprises networks of sewers and
manholes, directing flows to numerous pumping
stations. The flow from each catchment is then
pumped to either the Doha South or Doha West
STW.
The Doha South Catchment can be broadly
defined as that part of Doha being southeast of the
Salwa Road and east of the Industrial Area, along
with the central business district within the B Ring
Road. The Catchment extends southwards to
include Abu Hamour, the Airport area and onwards
as far as Wakrah, as well as including Wukair and
areas to the north and east of the Abu Hamour area.
The extent of the system and the considerable
distances over which sewage is transferred across
flat terrain, necessitate some 52 sewage pumping
stations. The layout of the network results in foul
sewage from certain locations being pumped
through as many as six or seven pumping stations
before reaching Doha South STW.
Development in the catchment is of predominantly
low to medium density, with higher densities in the
central business district. In total, some 415km
2
of
land falls within the catchment that it is predicted will
be sewered to Doha South STW. In broad terms,
only one quarter of this area is presently developed.
The Doha West Catchment comprises some
250km
2
of western and northern Doha. The area
also includes North Doha, Rural and Urban Rayyan
and the Umm Slal Planning Areas of Qatar. The
Catchment lands rise from sea level in the east, to
some 35m above sea level in the west. The ground
level at Doha West STW is about 45m above sea
level.
The sewerage network in the Doha West Catchment
is served by a terminal pumping station (PS 32) at
the south-west edge of the built-up area, from which
sewage is delivered in two parallel rising mains to
Doha West STW.
Development in the Catchment is of low to medium
density, with some areas completely undeveloped.
The major future development area is located at the
northern end of Doha Bay, where high-density
residential and commercial development is planned.
In order to minimise construction, operation and
maintenance costs for pumping stations, new
designs should use gravity for the movement of

Drainage Affairs
Page 2 Volume 2 Foul Sewerage
sewage flows. However there are the following
practical considerations:
Depth of trench excavation should generally
not exceed 5.0m, or 7.5m maximum in extreme
cases, dictated by excavator access and
pipeline strength, where possible. It is
acknowledged that greater depths are often
necessary in Doha, but these should be
avoided because of the danger of deep
excavations and the difficulty of achieving good
compaction in the backfill;
Gradients should not be flatter than the
minimum stated herein, to minimise siltation
and septicity.
In theory a separate sewerage system should
exhibit no increases in flows from rainfall. However,
all systems suffer from infiltration to some extent
due to faults and openings in the fabric of the
system and illegal connections of stormwater
collection systems. Many sewerage authorities deal
with such flow increases by incorporating overflows
which divert foul flows to watercourses at times of
rainfall. However such arrangements are impractical
for Qatar due to the lack of watercourses operating
all year round, and the resulting unacceptable
pollution which would result from discharge of foul
flows to wadis with little or no flow.
The extent of infiltration is not fully understood in
Qatar, but knowledge will improve with ongoing
studies and Drainage Area Plans. In the meantime
the sewerage system should avoid the need for
overflows, with any increased flows being contained
within the sewerage system.
The only overflows permitted are for emergency
use only, and only to be located at pumping stations.
These emergency overflows are only to operate on
failure of pumps, through mechanical or electrical
breakdown. Pumps are to be rated to pump all flows
expected to be received at the station.
All elements of the sewerage system, including
pipelines, manholes, chambers, are to be located on
publicly owned lands. Pumping stations and
associated facilities shall be on DA owned land.
Ideally, access for operation and maintenance of the
sewerage system should also be located on publicly
owned lands. If not, wayleave agreements should be
in place to facilitate such access.
1.1 Standards
The following standards are of interest to designers
in surface water and foul sewerage systems. This
list is by no means exhaustive, but is intended as an
easy initial reference. (References are also included
at the end of this volume). Volume 1, Section 1.5
also contains the complete list of references for all
manuals.
BS EN 752 Drain and sewer systems outside
buildings
i
. This supersedes BS 8005
ii
, which is
withdrawn, and part of BS 8301
iii
.
Part 1: 1996 Generalities and Definitions
Part 2: 1997 Performance Requirements
Part 3: 1997 Planning
Part 4: 1998 Hydraulic Design and
Environmental
Considerations
Part 5: 1998 Rehabilitation
Part 6: 1998 Pumping Installations
Part 7: 1998 Maintenance and Operations
BS EN 598: 1995 Ductile iron pipes, fittings,
accessories and their joints for sewerage
applications Requirements and test
methods
iv
.
BS EN 1610: 1998 Construction and testing
of drains and sewers
v
.
Sewers for Adoption 5th Edition (WRC)
vi
.
BS EN124: 1994 Gully tops and manhole tops
for vehicular and pedestrian areas Design
requirements, type testing, marking, quality
control
vii
.
1.2 Sources of Information
The following publications are of interest to
designers in surface water and foul sewerage
systems. This list is by no means exhaustive, but is
intended as an easy initial reference. (References
are also included at the end of this volume). Volume
1 Section 1.5 also contains the complete list of
references for all manuals.

Drainage Affairs

Department of the Environment National Water
Council Standing Technical Committee
Reports, 1981,
Design and analysis of urban storm drainage -
The Wallingford Procedure, National Water
Council UK.
State of Kuwait Ministry of Planning & Hyder
Consulting, 2001, Kuwait Stormwater
Masterplan Hydrological Aspects - Final
Report. Cardiff, (AU00109/D1/015), Hyder
Consulting.
Highways Agency, 2002, DMRB Volume 4
Section 2 Part 5 (HA 104/02) Geotechnics
and Drainage. Chamber pots and gully tops for
road drainage and services: Installation and
maintenance, London, Highways Agency.
Water Research Council, 1997, Sewerage
Detention Tanks A Design Guide, UK, WRC.
Construction Industry Research and
Information Association, 1996, Report R159:
Sea Outfalls construction, inspection and
repair, London, CIRIA.
Building Research Establishment, 1991,
Soakaway Design, BRE Digest 365, BRE
Watford UK.
HR Wallingford DC Watkins, 1991, Report
SR271 -The hydraulic design and performance
of soakaways, Wallingford UK.
Information Association, 1996, Infiltration
Drainage Manual of Good Practice, London
UK, CIRIA.
Chartered Institution of Water and
Environmental Management, 1996, Research
and Development in Methods of Soakaway
design, UK, CIWEM.
Information Association, 2000, C522
Sustainable Urban Drainage Systems Design
Manual for England and Wales, London UK,
CIRIA.
Information Association, 2001, C523
Sustainable Urban Drainage Systems Best
Practice Manual for England, Scotland, Wales,
and Northern Ireland, London UK, CIRIA.
Velocity equations for the hydraulic design of
pipes Wallingford Research.
HR Wallingford and DIH Barr, 2000, Tables for
the Hydraulic Design of Pipes, Sewers and
Channels, 7
th
Edition, Trowbridge, Wiltshire,
UK Redwood Books.
Ministry of Municipal Affairs and Agriculture,
1997, Qatar Highway Design Manual, January
1997, Qatar, MMAA.
Information Association, 1996, Design of
sewers to control sediment problems, Report
141, London CIRIA.
Clay Pipe Development Association Limited,
1998, Design and construction of drainage and
sewerage systems using vitrified clay pipes,
Bucks, UK, CPDA.
Report for the hydraulic design of pipes
Wallingford Research.
Information Association, 1998, Report 177, Dry
Weather Flows in Sewers, London, CIRIA.
Water Research Council, 1994, Velocity
equations, UK, WRC.
Bazaraa, A.S., Ahmed, S., 1991. Rainfall
Characterization in an Arid Area, Engineering
Journal of Qatar University, Vol. 4, pp35-50.
1.3 Estimation of Flows
The flows in a foul sewerage system are made up of
contributions from a number of different sources,
including: domestic properties; commercial areas;
industrial facilities; institutional contributions from
hospitals, schools, etc.; groundwater infiltration; and
surface run-off. The contributions to the system from
each of these sources must be determined before
the required hydraulic capacity of the sewerage can
be established. Each of these contributions will
follow a different diurnal pattern, with flows varying
over a 24-hour period. The design of the system
must take these fluctuations into account and be

Drainage Affairs
capable of catering for the peak flows likely to be
encountered in any 24- hour period. Diurnal flow
patterns will be different on working days, from the
patterns on rest days.
The starting point for the design of foul sewerage
should be the estimation of the average flow rate or
the Dry Weather Flow (DWF). This is calculated
from the following formula:
DWF = PG + I + E Equation 1.3.1
DWF = dry weather flow (litres/day)
P = population served
G = average per capita domestic water consumption
(l/hd/day)
I = Infiltration (l/day)
E = average industrial effluent discharged in 24
hours
(l/day)

The process for establishing flow rates should follow
the sequence set out below:
1. Define catchment and sub-catchment
boundaries for the area under consideration. This
should include all the properties and establishments
that contribute to the system and may include future
developments as well as existing. The catchment
represents the entire upstream area contributing to a
point or node in the sewerage system. Generally,
catchments are taken to contribute to trunk sewers,
while sub-catchments contribute to branches. Thus
a catchment may comprise a number of sub-
catchments.
2. Determine the numbers and types of dwellings
within the catchment and from this, determine the
existing and future contributing domestic population
and hence the flows from that population to the
network. Section 1.3.1 gives detailed guidance on
this process. Establish the diurnal flow pattern for
the domestic contribution.
3. Identify any existing and proposed industrial
establishments in the catchment, together with their
daily contributing flow and diurnal flow pattern.
Section 1.3.2 gives guidance on this.
4. Identify any existing and proposed commercial
establishments within the catchment, together with
their working populations and diurnal variations.
Section 1.3.3 provides detailed guidance on this.
5. Identify any existing and proposed institutional
establishments such as schools, health centres,
hospitals and mosques that are within the catchment
boundary. Determine the usage of these institutions
and derive a diurnal flow pattern for them. Section
1.3.4 provides details of this process.
6. Determine infiltration rates into the sewerage
system using the methods described in section
1.3.5. These may increase with time or it may be
proposed to rehabilitate the system to reduce
infiltration.
7. The flows that are likely to occur in the
sewerage system can now be estimated. This is
done by adding together the total daily contributing
flows from each upstream source to any given point
in the network. This is usually done sub-catchment
by sub-catchment working down the trunk sewer. It
can be done graphically and will establish the
maximum likely flow that has to be catered for at the
given location. The total daily flow from each
contributing source is calculated and summed to
give a total daily flow through a given point. This
flow is then averaged for a 24-hour day to give an
average Dry Weather Flow or DWF. The peak flow
for design purposes in upper catchment areas can
be taken as 6xDWF
viii
. From the peak flows the
required pipe sizes can be determined. However, it
should be noted that the peaking factor would
decrease in downstream catchment areas (see
section 1.4 for information on peaking factors).
Hydraulic design is described in section 1.5.

Drainage Affairs

Figure 1.3.1 -Typical chart showing diurnal
variations in domestic sewage
flows
0.00
0.50
1.00
1.50
2.00
2.50
00:00 04:00 08:00 12:00 16:00 20:00 00:00
Hours
F
l
o
w
,

l
/
s

Where sewerage systems are very long and the
time of flow from top to bottom is significant, peak
flows will be heavily attenuated. This is because, for
example, locally generated domestic flows in the
lower parts of the catchment will have passed
downstream by the time the flows arrives from the
upper areas. This has the effect of smoothing out
the peaks in flows.
1.3.1 Domestic
Domestic flows form the largest proportion of flows
in foul sewers. They derive from normal domestic
appliances such as sinks, basins, toilets, showers,
washing machines, baths, etc., and are dependent
on the number of persons in a dwelling. In order to
determine suitable domestic contributions to the
sewerage system, it is necessary to make certain
assumptions. For example, each property is
assumed to house a certain number of persons, and
this will vary from one type of property to another.
The assumption is made that all properties of a
given type will contain a given number of persons.
Butler and Davies
ix
suggest that between 75% and
85% of water used in a dwelling in the Middle East is
returned to the sewerage system. Thus, if a property
is metered, a good assessment of return to sewer
flows can be obtained.

Table 1.3.1 below gives the discharge rates that
should be used for the design of foul sewerage
systems. Discharges in the table below are
averaged over 24 hours in the determination of DWF
because the application of peaking factors allows for
the diurnal profile.
Table 1.3.1 Typical Daily Discharges in the ME
Development
type
Discharge
l/day
Unit
Domestic 170 Litres/head/day
Domestic low
density high value
properties
250 Litres/head/day
Average Infiltration 100 Litres/jhead/day
Infiltration range 0- 250 Litres/head/day

The figures in this table provide general guidance for
the design of foul sewerage systems.
The figure to be used for design purposes in Qatar
where there is no better information is 270l/h/d,
comprising 160 l/hd/day or sewage and 110 l/hd/day
infiltration.
Where the area to be served is low density palaces
and villas consideration should be given to the use
of 200 l/head/day. If the catchment is inland and the
ground water table level is low then the infiltration
allowance can be reduced or even eliminated.
Design populations of the existing and proposed
properties are based on the plots indicated on the
Action Plans that can be obtained from the Land
Information Centre and the occupancy levels given
in Table 1.3.2. The number of discharge units per
property is then allotted based on BS 8301, as
shown in Table 1.3.2.

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Table 1.3.2 Indicative Occupancy Levels (from
BS 8301)
Plot Description
Occupancy
Levels
Discharge
Units
For plots less than 1225m
2
6 people 14
For plots equal to and
between 1225 and 2500m
2

9 people 21
For plots
greater than
2500m
2

Small
Palaces
15 people 35
Larger
Palaces
25 people 58

The dry weather flow is then obtained from Figure
1.3.2, which has been reproduced from BS 8310,
Figure 2. Where no Action Plan plot or housing
information is available, the future area can be
assumed as developed at an average of the existing
planned plot density.

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1
10
100
1 10 100 1000 10000
Discharge Units
F
l
o
w

(
l
/
s
)

Figure 1.3.2 Conversion of Discharge Units to Flow Rates

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1.3.2 Industrial
Estimation of daily discharges from Industrial areas
will be dependent on the type of industry occupying
the area. The majority of industries in Qatar are dry
industries such as warehousing and workshops.
These will have lower consumption rates than wet
industries such as concrete or paper manufacture. If
possible, metered water consumption rates should
be used in design but where these are not available
or are impractical to use, the values in Table 1.3.3
can be applied.
Table 1.3.3 Design Allowance for Industrial
Wastewater Generation
Category Volume (l/s/ha)
Conventional Water - Saving
Light
x
2 .5
Medium
x
4 1.5
Heavy 8 2
Category Volume
Slaughterhouse
xi
6600 l Per tonne of
produce
Drink
Production
xi

8400 l Per cubic metre
of produce
Laundry
xiv
1500 2100 l/d Per machine
Tannery
xii
30 35 m3 Per tonne of
produce
Tannery
xi
7600 l Per tonne of
produce

In the above table, light industry may be taken as
dry industries which generally handle materials and
goods which do not include washdown facilities.
Heavy industries will include factories with
washdown facilities and using water in the unit
processes. These figures are to be used only in
initial land usage planning, and developers must
obtain confirmation from end users before final
design.
1.3.3 Commercial
Most significant developments include a degree of
commercial activity and this should be included in
the assessment of discharges to the foul system.
This activity can range from a single small office or
shop, up to major shopping, hotel or office
complexes. Each development type needs to be
assessed.
Commercial activities include all those listed above
and each may have its own characteristic discharge
profile, which will inevitably be different from the
standard domestic profile.
Table 1.3.4 gives an indication of the likely
discharges from various types of commercial
activity.
Table 1.3.4 Typical flows from commercial
premises
Development type Discharge
l/day
Per
Commercial
Centres
xiii

50 Customer
per 12 hour
day
Airport
xiv
11 - 19 Passenger
Hotels
xv
150-300 Bed
Restaurants
xvi
30-40 Customer
Social Clubs
xvii
10 20 Customer
Cinema
xviii
10 Seat
Offices
xix
750 100m
2

Shopping Centres
xx
400 100m
2

Department Store
xxi
2000 Per toilet
Recreational
xxii

Centres
80 Customer
per 6 hour
day
Commercial
premises
xxiii

300 100m
2

Where possible, the above discharge rates should
be checked using installed water supply meters for
existing developments. Proposed developments

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should be assessed using the figurers given in the
table above.
Diurnal profiles should be derived for each type of
commercial development and applied to the daily
discharge rate from the table.
1.3.4 Institutions such as
Schools, Health Centres,
Hospitals and Mosques
Table 1.3.5 contains typical values of discharges
from various types of institutional premises.
Table 1.3.5 Typical Institutional Discharges
Development
type
Discharge
l/day
Per
Educational
Centres
xiii

70 Pupil per 8 hour
day
Day schools
xxiii
50 - 100 Pupil per 8 hour
day
Residential
schools
xxiv

150-200 Pupil
Mosque
xiii
100 Worshiper per
12 hour day
Sports Centre
xxiii
10 30 visitor
Retirement
Home
xxiii

250 Bed
Nursing Homes
xxiii
300 - 400 Bed
Assembly Hall 11 - 19 Guest
Prison 300 - 570 Inmate
Hospitals
xxiii
500-750 Bed

Each category of premises will have a different
diurnal discharge profile, with day schools only
contributing during the school day, and hospitals
likely to contribute flows for much of the waking day.
As with other types of development, metered water
supply records should be consulted wherever
possible to provide an indication of actual
consumption figures. A suitable return to sewer
factor should then be applied to the results.
Sometimes, it may be possible to determine diurnal
profiles by reading water meters at say, hourly
intervals throughout the day. The resulting profile is
then applied to the daily consumption.
1.3.5 Infiltration
Infiltration describes flows in the foul system, which
are not legitimate discharges. Infiltration comprises
two components:
inflows from faulty manhole covers, cross-
connections from storm and groundwater
control systems, and tidal sources. Inflows can
also come from the illegitimate practice of lifting
manhole covers to drain surface water during
and after storms;
infiltration of groundwater through displaced
and open pipe joints, cracks, fractures and
breaks in the fabric of the main sewers and
lateral connections, manholes and chambers.
Infiltration causes reduced capacity for legitimate
sewage flows, increased requirements for pumping
and sewage treatment, and possible structural
damage.
Infiltration into foul sewerage systems can be
problematic. It generally derives from groundwater
entering the pipe network through: poor joints in the
pipes; cracks or fractures; defects in manholes; or
through private drainage connections. Infiltration
generally occurs in areas with a high water table. In
coastal areas, infiltration can be saline which can
have a detrimental effect on sewage treatment
processes and can cause corrosion of metalwork in
manholes and pumping stations.
It is normal to allow a figure of 10% of DWF for
infiltration. Infiltration should be excluded from the
calculation of flows using peaking factors. Thus for a
peaking factor, Pf, peak design flow would be given
by the equation:
Q = Pf (PG + E) + I
Equation 1.3.2
Where:
Q = Peak Design Flow (l/d)
Pf = Peaking Factor
P = Population

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G = Daily per capita flow (l)
E = Daily Industrial Flow (l)
I = Daily infiltration flow (l)
A sample calculation sheet for sewers using the
above formula is included in Volume 1 Appendix 1
Where local conditions indicate that the figure of
10% DWF for infiltration is too low, then a higher
figure may be adopted. However, this must be
justified by supporting information, such as the
analysis of flow survey results. At the time of
drafting this manual, DA suggest that for G in the
above formula, an overall figure of 270l/hd/day be
used for all domestic flows. This will be revised
when flow survey results become available .
Conversely, where the water table is known to be
well below the level of the sewerage system, the
allowance for infiltration will be less significant
locally.
Infiltration is often associated with exfiltration, which
is the leakage of foul flows due to faults and
openings in the pipework, manholes and chambers.
Exfiltration of foul flows results in contamination of
the surrounding soils and possible pollution of
groundwater.
Since both infiltration and exfiltration involve flows
passing through physical defects in the sewerage
system fabric, they often occur together in
conjunction with fluctuating groundwater levels. This
continuing flow mechanism can result in erosion of
the surrounds and foundations to pipes and
manholes. In serious cases, failure of the asset or
ground subsidence has resulted.
The Sewer Rehabilitation Manual provides a
detailed explanation of the factors involved in
infiltration.
Two CIRIA reports
xxv,xxvi
describe various methods
for estimating base-flow infiltration. Inflow of
stormwater runoff is estimated from the area of
development contributing to the flow monitor.
Estimation of both components relies on detailed
flow and rainfall monitoring, combined with hydraulic
modelling to understand the relative contributions of
the components in wet and dry weather.
The Infiltration Reduction Procedure contained in
the Sewerage Rehabilitation Manual should be
followed, where infiltration is to be reduced. This is
an iterative approach to successively focus on
sources of excessive infiltration, and to ensure that
reduction measures are cost-effective.
It is very evident that removal, or more realistically,
significant reduction of infiltration, is a time-
consuming and expensive process. It is far more
cost-effective to avoid its occurrence in the first
place. This can be done by strictly controlling the
quality of new and renovated sewerage installations,
and by ensuring that best quality materials and
construction techniques are used, to provide a long-
lasting leak-free system. Such standards should be
applied to both private and public sewerage.
Property connections should also be correctly made,
and abandoned sewers and septic tanks properly
sealed.
1.4 Peaking Factors
As described in section 1.3, the rate of discharge of
sewage from a given property to the sewerage
system will vary during the day. The sewerage
system must be able to cope with the highest flows
likely to occur in the day. Different contributors to the
system will have different discharge profiles. For
example, shopping areas will generally only
contribute flows during the periods when the shops
are open, and then the flows will be in proportion to
how busy the shops are through the day.
Domestic properties generally show marked
morning and evening peaks, which coincide with
peak domestic activity. This suggests that foul
sewers should be designed to cope with higher than
the average, or dry weather flow (DWF), and a
common way of designing systems is to cope with a
flow of up to six times DWF
viii
. While this approach
may be satisfactory for the smaller sewers at the
head of the system, it will tend to over design the
larger sewers and ignores the attenuation effects as
the flows move downstream.
At the head of a sewerage system, discharges tend
to be pulsed, with individual pulses of flow being the
discharge from individual appliances. As the pulses
flow along the pipe system, the peaks tend to
become attenuated and as the flows progress down
the system, these pulses combine to form a more
consistent flow. The peaking factor will depend on
the upstream population and the distance the

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sewage has travelled. A number of different ways of
determining the peak factor have been proposed
which take account of the attenuation downstream
with increasing population. There are several
formulae for calculation of peaking factor
ix
, for which
the Babbit formula is most representative in Qatar
The Babbit Formual (1952) is;
5
5
P
PF = ,
Where PF represents the peaking factor, and P is
the population in thousands.
However, the formula is not representative at low
populations.

Therefore, the upper limit for peaking factors shall
be taken as six for populations up to and including
500.. For populations over 500 the Babbit formula
shall be used. The minimum value of peaking factor
shall be 3.
It is considered that values in excess of six, and
below three, are unrealistic for conditions in Doha,
but these figures may be revised after a detailed
flow survey is carried out (see section 1.3 above).
The variation of peaking factors with population is
shown graphically in Figure 1.4.1, which follows

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Peaking Factors
0.00
1.00
2.00
3.00
4.00
5.00
6.00
7.00
100 200 500 1000 2000 5000 10000 20000 Population
F
a
c
t
o
r
Babbit BSEN 752
Minimum value 3
Maximum value 6

Figure 1.4.1 Plot of Peaking Factors v Population

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1.5 Hydraulic Design
The hydraulic design of sewerage systems involves
achieving a balance between pipe size, pipe
gradient and pipe depth, such that self-cleansing
velocities are achieved without surcharge, but with
the most economical combination of size and depth.
Wherever possible, pipe depths should be used that
avoid the need for concrete bed and surround.
General Principles
The general principles of foul sewer design are as
follows:
Pipe size should not generally decrease
downstream;
Sewers should be designed to convey peak
flows without surcharge;
Sewers should achieve self-cleansing velocity
at least once per day. Note that half-pipe
velocity is numerically the same as full-pipe
velocity.
To allow for ventilation of the system, maximum
design depth of flow should not exceed 0.75 x
pipe diameter or d/D 0.75.
Where there is a chance of heavy construction
plant tracking over new sewers laid during
construction of a site, the minimum depth of
cover should be measured from the formation
level of the site above the sewers;
Self-cleansing velocities increase with pipe size
(see sections 1.5.1 and 1.5.2 below);
At manholes, all pipes should be laid such that
their soffits are at the same level. Pipes in
manholes should not be laid with the inverts
level, as this can promote the deposit of solids
in minor branches leading to odour problems
and blockages;
Junctions should not enter a sewer at right
angles but should enter at an angle of 45 to
the direction of flow of the main sewer;
Sewers should commence at minimum depth
upstream and follow ground profiles if possible
to minimise excavation. However, it is
recognised that in Qatar, due to flat
topography, depths will gradually increase
downstream in order to maintain minimum
gradients (see section 1.5.1 below). Trunk
sewer sections serving larger catchments are
likely to become very deep (but see also
section 1.11);
Backdrop manholes should be used where
there is a difference >600mm in level between
a branch/rider sewer and the main sewer.
Backdrops (see also section 1.12.2 below)
should not be used to reduce gradients on
main sewer lines.
Design Tools
Hydraulic computer models are invaluable tools for
understanding the performance of sewerage
systems. Hydraulic models are of particular value
for:
Understanding the performance of the
complete system, in particular attenuation of
flows;
Understanding the flow regime of complex and
interdependent systems, such as those with
bifurcations and loops;
Understanding the flow characteristics of
multiple pumping systems, as found in Doha;
Readily understanding the effects of changes in
development on existing systems;
Simulating modifications to the construction
and/or operation of the system.
Hydraulic computer models should use InfoWorks
CS software, and be verified against flow and depth
measurements carried out on the actual system.
1.5.1 Formulae
1.5.1.1 The Colebrook-White
Equation
The Colebrook-White equation allows calculation of
velocity of flow in a gravity drain flowing full for any
given gradient, diameter, and roughness coefficient,
as follows;

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( )
( )
(
(
+ =
gDS D
D
k
gDS v
s
2
51 . 2
7 . 3
log 2 2

Equation 1.5.1

Where g = acceleration due to gravity, m
2
/s
D = diameter, m
S = slope or headloss per unit length

s
k = roughness coefficient, mm
= kinematic viscosity of water
(m
2
/s).
Thus, for a 400 mm diameter pipe with
s
k = 1.5 ,
and slope 1 in 157, flow temperature 15
o
C, the
velocity will be 1.33 m/s
Using the relationship:
Q=AV
Equation 1.5.2
Where:
Q = flow in the pipe (m
3
/s)
A = Cross-sectional area of flow
V = velocity of flow
This allows the pipe full discharge to be calculated
where:
A=D
2
/4
Equation1.5.3
Thus, for the above pipe at full flow, the capacity will
be 167 l/s
A sample calculation sheet for sewers using the
above formulae is included in Volume 1 Appendix 1
Tables are available from hydraulic research giving
values for a wide range of pipe sizes at a range of
gradients for various values of ks.
Tables 1.5.1 and 1.5.2 below give recommended
values of ks and . Both are taken for the Slimed
sewers category from Wallingford design tables
xxvii
.
Table 1.5.1 - Pipe Roughness ks Values
Material ks Value (mm)
Normal Poor
Concrete (Precast + O Rings) 3.0 6.0
Concrete (Steel Forms) 3.0 6.0
DI (PE Lined) 0.6 1.5
GRP 0.6 1.5
VCP 1.5 3.0

Further values can be obtained by direct reference
to Appendix 1 of the Wallingford design tables.
Caution should be exercised in the use of the
Wallingford tables. It should be noted that the quality
of pipes can vary considerably from one
manufacturer to the next, and that condition of pipes
can vary with time. Designers should avoid using the
optimistic values quoted by some plastic pipe
manufacturers, as these invariably refer to new
pipes under laboratory conditions. The figure to be
used for design purposes shall be 1.5 in all cases

Table 1.5.2 - Kinematic Viscosity Values
Temperature,
0
C Viscosity, m
2
/s x 10
-6

15 1.141
25 0.897
35 0.727

For detailed sewage modelling applications, the
viscosity should be varied for a range of
temperatures, but for routine applications, a
conservative approach will be to use the lower
temperature of 15
0
C.
A graph for proportional velocity and discharge in
part-full circular sections is reproduced in Figure
1.5.1. This illustrates the relationship between depth
of flow, and velocity. It can be used for estimating
the velocity of flow in partially full pipes, and should
be used to check velocities for self cleansing
velocities at low flow (see table 1.5.4)

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Figure 1.5.1 - Proportional Velocity and Discharge in Part-Full Circular Sections

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1.5.1.2 Mannings Equation
Mannings equation is an empirical formula for
uniform flow in open channels. Mannings equation
is:
v=(1/n)R
2/3
S0

Equation 1.5.4
Where:
n is Mannings roughness coefficient
S0 is bed slope
R is the hydraulic radius of the flow
The equation may be useful in pumping station
approach hannels and elements of sewage works.
However, all pipe calculations must use Colebrook
White
Typical values of Mannings n are given below.
Table 1.5.3 - Typical values of Mannings n
Channel Material n range
Cement 0.010-0.015
Concrete 0.010-0.020
Brickwork 0.011-0.018

Mannings equation is only valid for rough turbulent
flow conditions.
1.5.2 Minimum Pipe Sizes and
Gradients
CIRIA Report R141
xxviii
defines self-cleansing
sewers as follows:
An efficient self-cleansing sewer is one having a
sediment-transporting capacity that is sufficient to
maintain a balance between the amounts of
deposition and erosion, with a time-averaged depth
of sediment deposit that minimises the combined
costs of construction, operation and maintenance.
Foul sewers should be at least 200mm diameter and
laid to a gradient of 1 in 60 or 1.67%. This gradient
can be relaxed to 1 in 150 (0.67%) where several
dwellings are connected to the head of the sewer,
and the standard of workmanship during
construction is high. Peak flow velocities of
0.75m/sec can be assumed to be self-cleansing in
pipes of 150mm diameter.
As sewer sizes increase, so too do self-cleansing
velocities, with the result that very large foul sewers
require velocities to exceed 1.5m/sec to be self-
cleansing. Such velocities in large diameter pipes
pose a safety hazard and facilities must be provided
to prevent operatives being washed downstream in
these sewers.
1.5.3 Minimum and Maximum
Velocities
CIRIA
xxvi
recommends that sewers should be
designed to:
1. transport a minimum concentration of fine
particles in suspension.
2. transport coarser granular material as bed load.
3. erode cohesive particles from a deposited bed.
In order to minimise the maintenance requirements
of any given length of sewer, it is normal to design
the sewer to be self-cleansing. This means that the
sewer is designed to achieve a velocity at least once
per day that will carry all solid deposited material
along the pipe and not leave any materials
deposited in the invert of the sewer.
Table 1.5.4 is based on the simplified CIRIA method
of assessing self-cleansing velocities in foul sewers.
Surface water sewers require generally higher self-
cleansing velocities because of the higher particle
densities.
Table 1.5.4 Approximate Self-Cleansing
Velocities for Foul Sewers
Pipe size
(mm)
Approximate self- cleansing
velocity (m/sec)
200300 0.75
400 0.77
500 0.82
600 0.86
700* 0.87

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Pipe size
(mm)
Approximate self- cleansing
velocity (m/sec)
800 0.88
900* 0.88
1000 0.92
1200 1.03
*700 and 900 are non preferred sizes
Where large diameter sewers (over 1.0m diameter)
are laid to steep gradients, very high flow velocities
occur. For example,; a 1000mm pipe laid to 1:100
gradient with a depth of flow of 750mm will have a
discharge velocity approaching 3.4m/sec, which is
unacceptable in foul sewers. The designer should
implement energy dissipation measures in such
cases. It should be emphasised that scour in pipes
at these velocities is not a significant problem with
modern materials, but if velocities become very high,
odour emissions can be increased and noise can
become a problem.
As a general rule, it is preferable to aim to achieve
self-cleansing velocity at least once per day. The
designer should aim to achieve a velocity at the
design flow (i.e. peak flow) of between self-
cleansing and 2.0m/s, with 2.5m/s as an upper limit.
In small sewers, less than 600mm diameter, it is not
necessary to include measures to limit flow velocity.
The use of backdrop manholes for this purpose is
discouraged. However, backdrop manholes may be
justified where there is a significant difference in
level between a branch sewer and trunk sewer. In
this case, the economics may justify the construction
of a backdrop to minimise excavation for the branch
sewer trench. The discharge from a backdrop into a
manhole requires careful design to prevent flows
from washing over the benching.
Backdrops for large diameter sewers are complex
structures that may involve the creation of vortices
to dissipate energy, for which specialist design is
required. These are often purpose-made in stainless
steel. A typical example is included in the standard
drawings, Volume 8.
1.6 Septicity in Sewage,
Odour Control and
Ventilation
In rising mains and shallow gravity sewers,
respiration of bacteria in wastewater and slimes
present on submerged sewer walls rapidly depletes
any dissolved oxygen or nitrates causing
anaerobicity (septicity)
xxix
. One of the main impacts
of septicity is the formation of sulphide by the
bacterial reduction of inorganic sulphate present in
the wastewater. Some of the sulphide will combine
with metals in the sewage. The remainder will be
present in ionised and unionised form, as below.
S
2-
HS
-
H2S
Only the un-ionised form is released to the
atmosphere. The proportion of sulphide present in
the un-ionised form is dependent upon the pH value
of the sewage and is about 50% at a pH value of 7.
For example, a liquid concentration of 2mg/l of
sulphide at pH 7.0 would be in equilibrium with a
gaseous H2S concentration of 300ppm (ml/m
3
). At a
pH value of 8.0 this would decrease to about
60ppm.
Septicity can have an impact on health and safety,
corrosion, subsequent treatment processes and
odours. Hydrogen sulphide is a toxic gas. WHO
guidelines for dose-effect relationships for H2S are
given in Table 1.6.1
xxx
.
Table 1.6.1 - Health Impacts of Hydrogen
Sulphide
H2S Level
(ppm)
Health Impact
1000-2000 Immediate collapse with paralysis
of respiration
530-1000 Strong central nervous system
stimulation, followed by respiratory
arrest
320-530 Risk of death
150-250 Loss of olfactory sense
50-100 Serious eye damage
10-20 Threshold for eye irritation

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UK Occupational exposure limit (OEL)
concentrations
xxxi

of hydrogen sulphide and other
gases associated with septic conditions are given in
Table 1.6.2.
Table 1.6.2 - Exposure Limits for H2S and Other
Gases
Gas Long term
OEL (8-hour)
(parts per
million)
Short term
OEL (15
minute) (parts
per million)
Hydrogen sulphide 5 10
Methyl Mercaptan
(methanethiol)
0.5 -
Ethylmercaptan
(ethanethiol)
0.5 2
Ammonia 25 35
Methylamine 10 -
Ethylamine 10 -
Dimethylamine 10 -
1.6.1 Explosion and
Combustion Risk
The WRC report Enclosed Wastewater Treatment
Plants
xxxii
considers the potential risk of the
development of flammable concentrations of gases
arising in a STW. The possible gases considered
are given below in Table 1.6.3.
The lower explosive limit for hydrogen sulphide is
40000ppm. This concentration is unlikely to be
achieved under normal operation, and risk is
therefore minimal.
Table 1.6.3 - Flammable Gases in Sewers
Gas Lower explosive
limit % v/v in air
Upper
explosive limit
% v/v in air
Carbon
Monoxide
12.5 -
Hydrogen
sulphide
4.0 (40000 ppm) 46
Petroleum 100 ppm
Methane 5.3 15
Spontaneous combustion of sulphur around the
edge of lifted manhole covers has been reported in
Doha. In this instance, the reaction of hydrogen
sulphide with iron oxide at the manhole cover has
led to its catalytic oxidation to sulphur, which is
spontaneously combustible. Operational procedures
may be required to reduce this risk. Although these
are beyond the scope of normal design functions, it
is important that the designer is aware of such
issues and to include mention of them in the design
HARAs.
1.6.2 Corrosion
Hydrogen sulphide is associated with the corrosion
of concrete and mortar as the result of its bacterial
conversion to sulphuric acid. High levels of
hydrogen sulphide may develop below covers, with
consequent impact on the structure of the tank or
manhole as has been found at a number of sites.
Metal work and electrical equipment is also
vulnerable to H2S corrosion.
Selection of construction materials for tanks,
manholes, covers, and fittings should take into
account the potential for corrosion.
1.6.3 Impact on Subsequent
Treatment Processes
The discharge of septic sewage can increase the
rate of development of sulphide in the primary
sedimentation stage sewage and sludges.
High levels of septicity have been associated with
poor settleability of activated sludges.
High levels of septicity or sulphates have been
associated with poor gas yields from mesophilic
anaerobic digestion processes.
1.6.4 Odours
The discharge of septic sewage can be a significant
source of odours at the discharge point, whether to
an intermediate pumping station or to the inlet of a
STW. Threshold levels for various odours are listed
in Table 1.6.4.
The odour threshold level of hydrogen sulphide
measured in a laboratory is about 0.5 parts per
billion (ppb). The level above which odour problems

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can occur is typically ten times this value.
Background H2S levels are often in the range 2-
5ppb.
Table 1.6.4 Odour Threshold Levels
Gas Odour threshold (parts per
billion)
Hydrogen sulphide 0.5
Methyl Mercaptan
(methanethiol)
0.0014-18
Ethylmercaptan
(ethanethiol)
0.02
Ammonia 130-15300
Methylamine 0.9-53
Ethylamine 2400
Dimethylamine 23-80

1.6.5 General Design
Guidelines for Odour
Control in Sewerage
Systems
The design of sewerage systems to reduce the
development of septicity is the subject of a number
of guides
xxxiii
. Guidelines include:
Rising mains
Minimise lengths of pumping mains, and use lift
pumps rather than long rising mains to
minimise retention under anaerobic conditions(
there is no satisfactory minimum length of
rising main which can be quoted for design
purposes. Even a retention time of 30 minutes
is sufficient to develop anaerobic conditions. );
Minimise turbulence at the discharge point;
Discharge into the gravity sewerage system at
low level to avoid turbulence and consequent
release of odours;
Location of discharge point should NOT be
immediately prior to hydraulic drops or sharp
bends;
Manhole covers at discharge points may need
to be sealed.
Pumping stations
Minimise turbulence at inlet to sump. Use
submerged, rather than overflow weirs;
Use level detectors to minimise the volume of
sump used under normal flow conditions;
Use frequent pumping regimes to minimise
retention time in sump, and also spread odour
load more thinly over the day;
Maximise benching to give self-cleansing
conditions and ensure no accumulation of grit.
Guidelines are given in BS 8301
xxxiv
;
Ensure any screenings or grit can be removed,
or are washed back into main flow of sewage;
Active/passive odour control unit may be
required depending on the sensitivity of the
site, size of installation, and other factors such

Drainage Affairs
as degree of septicity of sewage under normal
flow conditions.
Gravity sewers
Maintain self-cleansing velocities;
Avoid turbulent flow (including sharp bends and
drops);
Minimise length of siphons (which will act as
rising mains);
Ensure there is ventilation of the sewer (by
provision of vents);
Design to ensure no accumulation of grit or
debris.
Storage Tanks and Shafts
Minimise turbulence of discharges to tanks and
shafts (discharge at low level);
In sensitive areas (i.e. next to houses) odour
control may be needed to treat displaced
odours when levels rise.
Refer also to section 2.23 of this volume, and
section 1.5 of volume 5
The formation of sulphide in rising mains and gravity
sewers has been the subject of extensive studies
xxxv, xxxiii
.
The concentration can be estimated from the
following equation
xxxvi
:
Cs=K tCOD[(1+0.004D)/D]1.07
(T-20)

Equation 1.6.1
Where:
Cs = concentration of sulphide (mg S/l)
Kc = constant, usually taken to be 0.00152
t = anaerobic retention time (mins)
D = diameter of rising main (cm)
T = temperature of sewage (C)
COD = COD of sewage (mg/l)
In gravity sewers, there is a balance between
sulphide formation when flow is stagnant, and
sulphide release and oxidation during turbulent flow.
In practice, little sulphide should be formed in a well-
ventilated, self-cleansing, partially-filled gravity
sewer used for domestic sewage. Where problems
do occur, they are typically associated with sewers
of shallow gradients where accumulation of grit, silt
and slimes causes localised septicity at points
where turbulence is insufficient to remove such
debris.
An indicator of the likelihood of septicity in a gravity
sewer is the Z formula with the effect of different
values of Z as indicated in Table 1.6.5.

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Z as calculated below is a dimensionless parameter
that indicates the potential for sulphide generation.
Z = 3(EBOD) x P
S
0.5
Q
0.33
b
Equation 1.6.2
Where:
EBOD = 5 day BOD (mg/l) multiplied by a
temperature factor 1.07
(T-20)

T = sewage temperature (co)
S = slope of sewer (m/100m)
Q = wastewater flow (l/s)
P = wetted pipe wall perimeter (m)
b = surface width of the stream (m)

Table 1.6.5 - Values of Z, Indicating Sulphide
Generation Potential
Value of
Z
Likely condition
<5000 Sulphide rarely present
7500 Low concentrations of sulphide may be
produced
10000 Sulphide may develop sufficiently to
cause odour and corrosion problems
15000 Frequent problems with odours and
significant corrosion problems

More detailed equations have been developed by
Pomeroy, Jensen and others for gravity sewers,
linking re-aeration rates with sulphide formation
release and oxidation. These are incorporated in a
computer model (SPACA) developed by Hyder
Consulting. Modelling can enable the areas where
septicity develops to be identified allowing effective
targeted remedial measures to be taken.
The model divides the sewerage network into a
series of nodes (for example junctions or manholes)
and pipes (gravity or pumped). Details of the sewers
are required (length, slope and diameter) and the
wastewater (including flow rate, COD and pH value).
The model calculates the amount of sulphide
produced or lost along each section and carries out
a mass balance across the system. The model also
calculates the amount of chemicals required to
prevent septicity.
Sewerage Septicity Investigations
Where a sewerage system is already in use, site
sampling can be carried out at the pumping station
and at the discharge point. Measurements that
should be made are:
COD;
BOD;
Temperature;
Flow rate of wastewater;
pH value;
Respiration rate of sewage;
Sulphide (liquid and gas phase);
Redox potential;
Dissolved oxygen concentration;
Chloride concentration (or conductivity).
In addition, modelling would require information on:
Length, material and diameter of rising mains;
Length, material, diameter and slope of gravity
sewer;
Pumping regime/flow profile;
Details of receiving sewer;
Location and odour control arrangements for
manholes and chambers;
Ventilation of house connections;
Design horizon.
Septicity Control Using Chemicals
DA policy is to introduce septicity control facilities at
all new pumping stations as required.
It should be stressed that septicity control using
chemicals is only acceptable in Qatar if no other
methods are suitable.
Addition of chemicals is used to prevent odour
problems in the sewerage system, at the STW inlet
works and in sludge systems. The annual cost of
chemicals can be significant, and optimisation of
dose rate should be carried out, e.g. dosing may not
be necessary during cooler weather. In addition to
the cost, the chemical should be selected with
consideration given to the subsequent treatment of
the sewage, e.g. disinfection by UV irradiation may
be affected by residual iron in the effluent. Iron salts
are also reported to increase combustibility of dried
sludge.
Many of the chemicals used, such as iron salts, high
purity oxygen, alkali and oxidising agents such as
permanganates and hydrogen peroxide are
potentially hazardous. Appropriate precautions are
required in their handling and storage, such as
bunded tanks, eyewashes or safety showers.

Drainage Affairs
Measures are also required to ensure that chemicals
do not deteriorate during storage, e.g. due to
exposure to sunlight, moisture, or heat.
The chemicals most commonly used for septicity
control in the sewerage system or receiving
wastewater treatment works are:
Calcium Nitrate is used widely to prevent septicity
in sewerage systems. Micro-organisms present in
the sewage and in the slimes on the sewer wall will
use nitrate as an alternative oxygen source under
anoxic conditions. Sodium nitrate can also be used.
High doses of nitrate can be added at the start of
the sewerage system, and there will be no loss
along the sewerage system. Excess nitrate may
lead to rising sludge due to denitrification in the
primary sludge.
Some oxidation of sulphide in sewage and sludges
may also be achieved by nitrate addition. A
required ratio of between 10:1 to 30:1 of nitrate to
sulphide has been reported. Addition of nitrate with
anthroquinone has recently been proposed to
oxidise sulphide in sludges.
Nitrate salts are supplied and stored as a liquid and
dosed as a liquid to the pump sump at the start of a
rising main. Average daily dose rates are calculated
from the aerobic respiration of the sewage, but
assume that the rate of nitrate uptake is 40% of that
under fully aerobic conditions. The amount of
nitrate required for rising mains of different
diameters is given in Table 1.6.6. These values are
derived assuming that the demand for nitrate
nitrogen is 40% of that derived previously; that 2.85
grams of oxygen are available for every gram of
nitrate nitrogen, and that calcium nitrate is supplied
at a concentration of 110.6g/l N.
The uptake of nitrate results in a slight reduction in
BOD. If sufficient nitrate is provided, the sewage
will remain fresh.
Table 1.6.6 - Nitrate Dosing Requirements for
Different Pipe Diameters
Diameter
(mm)
Nitrate required per 1000 m length
(kg/d as N) l/d assuming
110.6gN/l
350 11.0 99.9
500 18.2 164.2
1000 52.2 471.9

Iron nitrate acts in the same way as calcium nitrate
when dosed at the start of a rising main. The iron
component also combines with sulphides as they
form, and hence dosage rates in practice may be
approximately half that calculated for calcium
nitrate.
Iron nitrate is, as with other iron salts, an acidic
chemical requiring appropriate storage and
handling.
Iron salts (sulphate, chloride and nitrate) have
been used very effectively to control odours. Iron
salts combine with sulphide in the sewage to form a
number of insoluble iron sulphides (FeS, Fe2S3,
Fe3S4 and FeS2). Ferric salts are more effective
than ferrous salts. However a mixture of ferric and
ferrous salts in the presence of dissolved oxygen
may be the most effective
xxxv
:
Fe
2_
+ 2Fe
3+
+ 4HS
-
Fe3S4 + 4H
+

The required dose rate decreases with increasing
pH value and increases at acidic pH values, with
little effect expected at pH values much below 6. At
pH 7.0, the dose rate is 2.4mgFe / mgS.
Iron salts are added as a liquid at the discharge
point of a rising main or to a septic flow, such as
sludge liquor prior to return to the sewage flow.
Dosage rates for rising mains containing sewage at
pH 7.0, temperature 30
o
C, with a COD of 600mg/l
are given in Table 1.6.7.
Table 1.6.7 Dosing Rates for Iron Salts
Diameter
(mm)
Iron required per 1000m length,
assuming 2.4mg/l as Fe
(kg/d as Fe)
350 19.4
500 29.2
1000 68.2

Iron salts are acidic and corrosive and require care
with storage and handling. Iron salts attack metals,

Drainage Affairs

and appropriate materials are required for bunded
tanks, dosing pumps and pipework, together with
appropriate safety equipment such as safety
showers and eyewashes.
Although effective at precipitating sulphide, iron
salts have no impact on the concentration of other
odorous chemicals such as volatile fatty acids or on
the degree of septicity of the sewage. They
therefore may be less effective than septicity
prevention systems for reducing odour.
Addition of iron salts to sewage may:
Increase the mass, volume and thickness of
primary sludge;
Reduce concentration of phosphate below the
required concentration for secondary
treatment;
High doses may adversely affect the
settleability of the primary sludge;
Give some solids deposition within the sewer;
Affect subsequent ultraviolet disinfection
processes;
Increase the combustibility in subsequent
thermal drying processes.
Oxygen supplied and stored as a liquid and then
dosed into a side stream of sewage as a high purity
gas has been used in rising mains and sewers
elsewhere in the Middle East to prevent septicity.
However, the amount that can be dosed is limited
by the saturation concentration of dissolved
oxygen, being about 34mg/l at 30
o
C. The injection
of excess oxygen or air into rising main sewers can
give rise to gas pockets, which may adversely
affect pump regimes. Excess oxygen also
exacerbates microbiologically induced corrosion.
Under aerobic conditions, sulphide will be oxidised
(predominantly by microbial action) to thiosulphate
and sulphuric acid, with some chemical oxidation to
sulphur. The rate of oxidation in the sewage stream
depends on the numbers of oxidising bacteria
present in the sewage and can be in the range of 1
(fresh sewage) to 15mgS/l.h. Some reduction of
BOD and COD is seen. Oxidation can occur within
the sewage stream, where it will reduce the risk of
subsequent odour problems. Where the oxidation
to sulphuric acid occurs in the slimes on exposed
sewer walls or sumps, corrosion of the sewer fabric
can occur.
The uptake of oxygen results in a corresponding
reduction in BOD. If sufficient oxygen is provided,
the sewage will remain fresh.
Dose rate is calculated to match the respiration rate
of micro-organisms in sewage (typically 12mg/l.h)
and wall slimes (assumed to be 1.9g/m
2
.h at 30
o
C).
This can be calculated for a length of rising main of
radius r metres and length, L metres:
gO2/h = ((2prLx 1.9)+ (pr
2
Lx12))1.07(
T-30
)
Equation 1.6.3

Overall respiration rate (mg/l) of sewage and slimes
in rising mains of different diameters is given in
Table 1.6.8.

Table 1.6.8 - Respiration Rates of Sewage and
Slimes
Pipe
diameter
(mm)
Respiration rates (mg/l.h
at 30
o
C)
Total DO
demand rate
mgO2/l.h
Slimes Wastewater
350 22.1 12 34.1
500 15.5 12 37.5
1000 13.7 12 15.7

The amount of oxygen required per 1000m for
mains of different diameters using the above
respiration rates is given in Table 1.6.9.
Table 1.6.9 - Oxygen requirements
Diameter
(mm)
Oxygen required per 1000m length
(kg/d)
350 78.7
500 129.4
1000 371.9

Drainage Affairs
The concentration of oxygen at the injection point is
determined by dividing the daily oxygen
requirement by the daily flow rate of sewage. The
maximum amount of oxygen that can be injected is
limited by its saturation concentration (about 34mg/l
at 30
o
C and atmospheric pressure).
Alkali addition, such as lime or caustic soda, can
be used to increase the pH value of sewage or
sludge. At raised pH values, the release of H2S,
other acidic sulphurous compounds and volatile
fatty acids will be suppressed. Addition is generally
to pH 8.0 or 8.5, as higher values can lead to a
significant release of ammonia. Use of alkali will
become less effective if dosed sewage is diluted
with neutral sewage downstream.
Chlorine/hypochlorite acts as an oxidant and also
as a bactericide, reducing oxygen demand, and
slime growth, but is not widely used because of the
high chlorine demand of the sewage, and the
reluctance to add chlorine to the sewage flow.
Hypochlorite is used as an oxidant in wet-scrubbing
of odorous air:
HS
-
+ 4Cl2 + 4H20 SO4
2-
+ 9H
+
+ 8Cl
-

HS
-
+ Cl2 S + H
+
+ 2Cl
-

Hydrogen peroxide oxidises previously formed
sulphide to sulphur and water, and provides
dissolved oxygen.
Peroxide dosed at the inlet to the rising main
provides dissolved oxygen to satisfy the oxygen
demand of the sewage and slimes. Dosage rates
can be calculated as for oxygen, with available
oxygen calculated as 0.48gO2 per gH2O2.
Peroxide can be dosed at the top of the rising main
to oxidise sulphide present in the sewage. Dose rate
is assumed to be 1 gram of H2O2 per gram of S
oxidised at a pH value of less than 8.5.
Chlorine dioxide has been used as an oxidising
agent, mainly with sludges and sludge liquors.
Potassium permanganate has been used
successfully as an oxidising agent to reduce
sulphide levels in sludge liquors and sludges.
Enzyme based chemicals have been promoted for
septicity control. These appear to act by reducing fat
levels or by inhibiting the activity of sulphate
reducing bacteria. Their effectiveness is very site
specific, and long-term effectiveness is not known.
1.7 Pipeline Materials and
Jointing
The preferred material for use in gravity foul sewers
(in Qatar) is vitrified clay pipe (VC), up to 1000mm
diameter.
VC pipes are manufactured to 1200 dia in the
Middle East. However, Glass Reinforced Plastic
(GRP) is preferred for diameters in excess of
1000mm.
uPVC is not acceptable on DA projects.
HDPE is not preferred, but may be used as a
sliplining where trenchless methods (see section 5)
are necessary for installation, using concrete jacking
pipes. Such instances may occur because the high
strength concrete pipes necessary for withstanding
jacking forces do not have adequate chemical
resistance to withstand the aggressive nature of the
sewage. The concrete pipe thus provides the
required strength, and the lining is chemically
resistant.
All materials and jointing should be specified in
accordance with QNBS. See also Volume 1 section
4.3.
1.8 Pipe Bedding
Calculations for
Narrow and Wide
Trench Conditions
Pipes can be categorised as rigid, flexible and
intermediate:
(a) Rigid pipes support loads in the ground by
virtue of resistance of the pipe wall as a ring in
bending;
(b) Flexible pipes rely on the horizontal thrust from
the surrounding soil to enable them to resist vertical
loads without excessive deformation;
(c) Intermediate or semi-rigid pipes are those
pipes that exhibit behaviour between those in (a)
and (b).
Vitrified clay pipes are examples of rigid pipes while
steel, ductile iron, UPVC, MDPE and HDPE pipes
may be classified as flexible or intermediate pipes,

Drainage Affairs

depending on their wall thickness and stiffness of
pipe material.
The load on rigid pipes is concentrated at the top
and bottom of the pipe, thus creating bending
moments. Flexible pipes may change shape by
deflection and transfer part of the vertical load into
horizontal or radial thrusts, which are resisted by
passive pressure of the surrounding soil. The load
on flexible pipes is mainly compressive force, which
is resisted by arch action rather than ring bending.
The loads on buried gravity pipelines are as follows:
(a) The first type comprises loading due to the fill
in which the pipeline is buried, static and moving
traffic loads superimposed on the surface of the fill,
and water load in the pipeline;
(b) The second type of load includes those loads
due to relative movements of pipes and soil caused
by seasonal groundwater variations, ground
subsidence, temperature change and differential
settlement along the pipeline.
Loads of the first type should be considered in the
design of both the longitudinal section and cross
section of the pipeline. Provided the longitudinal
support is continuous, has uniform quality, and the
pipes are properly laid and jointed, it is sufficient to
design for the cross section of the pipeline.
In general, loads of the second type are not readily
calculable and they only affect the longitudinal
integrity of the pipeline. Differential settlement is of
primary concern especially for pipelines to be laid in
newly reclaimed areas. The effect of differential
settlement can be catered for by using either flexible
joints or piled foundations. If the pipeline is partly or
wholly submerged, there is also a need to check the
effect of flotation of the empty pipeline.
The design criteria for the structural design of rigid
pipes is the maximum load at which failure occurs
while those for flexible pipes are the maximum
acceptable deformation and/or the buckling load.
The approach for rigid pipes is not applicable to
flexible pipes. For all DA projects, the designer must
refer in the first instance to the manufacturers
literature, to ensure that the design is in compliance
with recommendations.
Please refer to Volume 1 Appendix1
1.8.1 Bedding Design for Rigid
Pipes
The design procedures for rigid pipes are outlined
as:
(a) Determine the total design load due to:
the fill load, which is influenced by the
conditions under which the pipe is installed,
i.e. narrow or wide trench conditions;
the superimposed load which can be uniformly
distributed or concentrated traffic loads; and
the water load in the pipe.
(b) Choose the type of bedding (whether granular,
plain or reinforced concrete) on which the pipe will
rest. Apply the appropriate bedding factor and
determine the minimum ultimate strength of the pipe
to take the total design load;
(c) Select a pipe of appropriate grade or strength.
Details of design calculations, tables, etc, are
contained in Appendix 1, Volume 1 - General.
1.8.1.1 Narrow Trench Conditions
When a pipe is laid in a relatively narrow trench in
undisturbed ground and the backfill is properly
compacted, the backfill will settle relative to the
undisturbed ground and the weight of fill is jointly
supported by the pipe and the shearing friction
forces acting upwards along the trench walls. The
load on the pipe would be less than the weight of the
backfill on it and will be determined as in narrow
trench conditions.
1.8.1.2 Wide Trench Conditions
When the pipe is laid on a firm surface and then
covered with fill, the fill directly above the pipe yields
less than the fill on the sides. Shearing friction
forces acting downwards are set up, resulting in the
vertical load transmitted to the pipe being in excess
of that due to the weight of the fill directly above the
pipe. The load on the pipe will then be determined
as in wide trench condition.

Drainage Affairs
1.8.2 Bedding Factors
The strength of a precast concrete or vitrified clay
pipe is given by the standard crushing test. When
the pipe is installed under fill and supported on
bedding, the distribution of loads is different from
that of the standard crushing test. The load required
to produce failure of a pipe in the ground is higher
than the load required to produce failure in the
standard crushing test. The ratio of the maximum
effective uniformly distributed load to the test load is
known as the 'bedding factor' which varies with the
types of bedding materials under the pipe and
depends to a considerable extent on the efficiency
of their construction, and on the degree of
compaction of the side fill. Typical bedding factors
are given in Table 1.8.1 below
Table 1.8.1 Bedding Factors
Condition BF
Class D (Pipe laid on trench bottom) 1.1
Class F (Pipe laid on Granular Bedding) 1.5
Class B (180
0
Granular Bedding) 1.9
Class S (360
0
Granular Bedding) 2.2
Class A (Pipe on Concrete Cradle) 2.6

1.8.3 Design Strength
For design, it is required that the total external load
on the pipe will not exceed the ultimate strength of
the pipe multiplied by an appropriate bedding factor
and divided by a factor of safety.
The design formula is as follows:
s
m t
e
F
F W
W
where We = total external load on pipe,
Wt = ultimate strength of pipe,
Fm = bedding factor,
Fs = design safety factor of 1.25 for ultimate
strength of pipe

Drainage Affairs

1.9 Manhole Positioning
The sewerage system should be designed to
facilitate flows by gravity in a branched arrangement
of small local sewers connected to larger district
sewers, connected to the major trunk sewers.
All public sewers should be located in Government
owned lands, to permit access for construction and
maintenance and to facilitate connection from
private premises.
Manholes and sewers should be sited with due
regard to public utility services. Sewers in roads and
highways should be located in accordance with the
Standard Services Reservations Drawings as
published by the Road Affairs. These are included
as drawings SR1 and SR2 in Volume 8 of this
Manual.
The location of manholes in the sewerage system is
dictated by a number of factors:
For non man-entry sewers maximum spacing
between manholes is governed by jetting
lengths. Jetting hoses are 100m and
allowance has to be made for the vertical drop
to invert level. In sewers over 600mm dia.
jetting can be carried out from each end.
Greater spacing may only be provided in
special cases, where due consideration is
given to maintenance, and subject to DA
approval. Required spacing is summarised in
table 1.9.1 below.
Table 1.9.1 Maximum Manhole Spacings
Diameter
(mm)
Distance (m)
To 600 80
Above 600 120
Manholes should, where possible, not be
constructed close to kerb lines;
Manholes should be constructed at the head
of each system, and at every change of
diameter, direction and/or gradient;
A manhole should be constructed at every
significant sewer junction (a significant sewer
junction is one where the connecting sewer
serves more than five properties), including all
rider sewers;
Manholes should not be constructed in
locations on bends in the highway, which may
cause vehicles to skid;
Manholes should be accessible at all times;
Manholes and chambers will form the main points
for access to the sewerage system for operation and
maintenance. They should therefore be located with
adequate access for maintenance vehicles.
Where new manholes are to be constructed in
existing highways, close liaison is required with the
Roads Department. Although the Standard Services
Reservation Drawings should be followed where
possible, care must be taken to ensure that the
locations of all existing utilities in the vicinity are
known, and that the proposed manhole location will
not interfere with such utilities. Manholes should not
be located such that they would prevent access to
utility equipment or in an emergency situation.
Building over or near to a sewer, and associated
manholes and chambers will not be permitted.
Building over sewers, or directly adjacent to them,
causes major problems with access for maintenance
and renewal of sewerage assets. In extreme cases,
demolition of premises could be required.
The land along the line of the sewer for construction
and access for maintenance and replacement is
called the easement. No other developments should
be permitted within the confines of the easement.
Where access to a sewer is restricted on both sides,
the easement width required is a minimum of 6m,
being normally 3m either side of the centre line of
the pipeline. This distance is considered to be the
minimum practical working width to allow access of
construction plant, and storage of excavated
material and pipe sections during maintenance
operations. Where the depth from finished ground
level to invert exceeds 3m, or the sewer diameter
exceeds 600mm, the easement widths required are
the greater of two times the depth to the invert of the
sewer, plus the pipe diameter, or ten times the
diameter of the sewer. Thus the easement for a 1m
pipe at 5m depth will be 11m. For this reason, it is
essential that excavation depths be kept to a
minimum.

Drainage Affairs

Foundations and basements of buildings adjacent to
easements shall be designed to ensure that no
building load is transferred to the sewer. Trenches
or pipelines shall not be constructed within a
notional 45-degree line of influence spreading below
the footing, or 1.5m from the face of the building,
whichever is greater.
These requirements refer to permanent easements
required in connection with pipe-laying and
subsequent maintenance. They exclude temporary
storage areas, and the like, used during
construction.
1.10 House Connections
A house connection is defined as the connection
from a premise (domestic, commercial, industrial,
institutional, etc.) to transfer foul flows to the public
sewerage system.
For every house connection, a terminal manhole
(Manhole number 1), in accordance with the
Standard Drawings, should be provided and should
be positioned within the boundary of the premises at
a distance not exceeding 2.0m from the boundary
line. The required depth of MH1 is 1.2m The
terminal manhole is intended to form a demarcation
of maintenance responsibility, and to protect the
public sewerage system from damage or blockage
due to indiscriminate discharge of sewage by the
occupants of the connected premises. The terminal
manhole also acts as a seal to prevent the emission
of gases from the public sewer, potentially causing
nuisance to the occupants of the premises.
Before a connection is made, the capacity of the
existing sewerage system should be checked to
confirm that it has sufficient capacity to
accommodate the flow from the premises.
All house connections should comply with the
following general principles:
They should be designed and constructed to
enable foul flows to pass to the public sewer
without flooding or surcharge;
They should be of 150mm minimum internal
diameter for a typical 6-person villa
development. For a large palace, office
complex, multi-storey apartment block, hotel,
etc, the minimum diameter shall be 200mm;
They should laid at minimum gradients,
sufficient to avoid deposition under all flow
regimes. It is desirable that a gradient of 1:60
for 150mm diameter pipework be used for
design purposes, although this may not always
be possible in flat areas. In such cases, the
gradient may be reduced to 1:180;
They should be constructed to watertight
standards in accordance with the standard
drawings and specifications.
The private sewerage system between the premises
and the terminal manhole shall be designed and
constructed in accordance with the general
requirements of the Manual. The private sewerage
system shall be designed and constructed as a
separate system, capable of accepting foul flows
only. Illegal connections allowing the entry of storm
water runoff shall not be made to the foul sewerage
system.
House connection to existing pipelines should be
made either to the nearest manhole or to a Y-
junction incorporated into the pipeline. It should be
noted that Ybranches will not generally be
accepted by the DA and should only be used as a
last resort, where access for manhole construction is
impractical. Y-branches and saddles are not to be
added to existing pipelines to avoid the permanent
damage resulting from such modifications to the
sewer.
Where several premises are being connected or the
sewer is deep, then consideration should be given to
the provision of a rider sewer. The rider sewer would
be constructed parallel to the public sewer, at
shallower depth and discharge into a manhole.
Typical details of house connections, rider sewers,
etc are shown on the Standard Drawings, Volume 8.
1.11 Construction Depths
The topography of Qatar is virtually flat, thus
affording little or no opportunity to use natural land
slopes to promote gravity movement of sewage. All
gradients in pipelines must therefore be provided by
the slope of the pipeline within the trench. The
geology is also predominantly rock, requiring

Drainage Affairs

excavation by rock breaker, which is slow, noisy and
expensive.
Faced with these natural constraints, designers
have no choice other than to employ pumping
stations to lift the sewage into the downstream
gravity system, once the trench depth begins to
approach around 5m. Open cut excavations in
excess of 5 m should generally be avoided where
possible, on safety grounds. However, It is
recognised that this is generally costly to achieve,
and so the policy in Qatar is to allow open cut up to
7.5m depth, but not more.
Whilst this is a general rule, the economics and
practicalities should also be considered when
determining excavation depths. The use of
shallower trenches will result in the need for more
pumping stations. The cost of providing shallow
trenches and more pumping stations versus the cost
of deeper trenches and less pumping stations
should be subject to a lifetime cost (NPV)
comparison at feasibility stage before embarking
upon final design.
Trenchless options should be considered for deep
sewers
The economics of deep excavations are governed
by the following factors:
Depth of trench for safety, although rock
geology encourages stability of trench sides;
Depth of trench for reach of machines for
breaking out and removing excavated
materials;
Availability of suitable trench supports;
Width of trenches allowing for battering back
for stability;
Strength of pipelines to withstand imposed
loads from backfill.
The costs and timescales for excavation then need
to be balanced against the construction and O&M
costs for pumping stations. Comparison should be
carried out for all options on a NPV basis within a
15-year timeframe. Options may include several
combinations of sewer depth and numbers of
pumping stations, with perhaps deep tunnelled
interceptor sewers, which may or may not require a
terminal pumping station. Both gravity sewers and
pumping stations will have operational costs, and
should be subjected to the NPV process alike in
order to provide a true cost comparison.
Other aspects such as noise from pumping stations,
and the consequences of flooding due to station
failure also need to be considered.
The minimum cover depth from Finished Ground
Level (FGL) to top of pipe or surround should be as
per Table 1.11.1. However, designers should note
that these values will often need to be exceeded in
upstream sewers to allow adequate falls for house
connections from larger developments, and to avoid
other utilities in congested areas.

Drainage Affairs
Table 1.11.1 - Minimum Sewer Cover Depths
Location Minimum Cover
Urban areas (paved) 1200mm to FGL
Rural Areas (unpaved) 900mm to FGL
Other Pipeline Services 500mm clearance
preferred
300mm for twin rising
mains in common trench
200mm absolute
minimum clearance
1.12 Manholes, Chambers,
Access Covers, and
Ladders
These installations are required to access sewers
for testing, inspection, maintenance, repair and
removal of debris. Every sewer length on the public
system should be accessible without the need to
enter premises or cross property boundaries.
Manholes and chambers generally fall into two
categories, being:
Inspection Chambers; and
Sewer System Manholes.
1.12.1 Inspection Chambers
These structures are of shallow depth (generally
1.2m) and are intended for use on sewerage
systems within property boundaries, and for the
terminal manhole (MH 1) of the house connection.
Please refer to standard details Volume 8
These chambers are generally used for inspection of
sewer pipelines and clearance of blockages.
1.12.2 Sewer System Manholes
These structures are of a depth to suit the levels of
the sewer pipelines, and are the means of access
into the public sewerage system.
The arrangement and dimensions of manholes
depend on the diameter of the connecting sewers
and their depth to invert below finished ground level.

Backdrop Manholes
Backdrop manholes will be required where there is a
sudden drop in sewer level. In most cases this will
arise when a shallow branch or rider sewer enters a
deeper trunk sewer. Although the general
philosophy of sewer design dictates that pipes
should enter manholes with level soffits where
possible, this will not be economical where shallow
sewers meet deeper sewers (the branch sewers
should be constructed at minimum depth to avoid
excessive cost of excavation).
Standard drawings of backdrop manholes are
included in Volume 8. For smaller backdrops of less
than 1m fall, an inclined backdrop may be used, but
vertical drops are required for greater falls, to avoid
excessive excavation.
Designers should refer also to the discussion in
sections 1.5 general principles, and 1.11 regarding
sewer depths.
1.12.3 Elements of Design
Manholes and chambers shall generally be
constructed in accordance with the standard
drawings contained in Volume 8.
Minimum cover size should provide sufficient access
to admit persons with normal hand tools and
cleaning equipment, and to admit persons wearing
breathing apparatus in emergencies. Maximum
cover size should be limited by the weight which
persons can safely lift.
Access shafts should be sufficiently large for
persons to go down to the sewer in comfort (with
breathing apparatus in emergencies) and yet be
small enough for the nearness of the walls to give a
sense of security.
Where the invert of the manhole or chamber is more
than 6 m from the cover level, intermediate
platforms shall be provided at regular intervals.
Headroom between platforms should not be less
than 2.1m and not greater than 6m. The platform
should be fitted with handrailing and safety chains
around the access opening to protect persons from

Drainage Affairs

falling. The location of openings in successive
platform shall be offset to prevent dangers of free
falling. (In certain circumstances, separate access
may be required to allow equipment and materials to
be lowered directly to the pipe invert).
Inverts and benching should be neatly formed. The
ends of pipes should finish flush with internal faces
of the manholes. The channel inverts should be
curved to that of the connecting pipes and carried up
the full diameter of the pipes in flat vertical surfaces,
matching the cross-sections, levels, and gradients of
their respective sewers.
The benching should be formed from plane
surfaces, sloping gently towards the sewers.
Benching slopes should not be too steep to cause
persons to slip into the sewer, nor too flat to
accumulate sediment. A suitable gradient for
benching is 1 in 12.
1.13 Industrial Wastes
Foul flows from industrial and commercial premises
have the potential to contribute major flows and
polluting loads to the main sewerage system. Such
flows need to be managed as part of the overall
sewerage and treatment management process. This
is best done by initial licensing of the industrial and
commercial premises, followed by ongoing
monitoring of their effluents to ensure that they are
complying with their licenses.
The license application should include the following
information:
Name, address, type of business and number
of employees;
Main business process, water usage process
and pollution process;
Water usage (daily and peak flows) effluent
flows (daily and peak flows), discharge pattern
(regular, intermittent, weekend to weekday
patterns);
Pollutants in effluent (BOD, COD, SS,
chemicals, temperature, etc) and concentration
of each pollutant.
Each application should be checked by a site visit to
confirm the supplied information and make
arrangements for further checks, such as flow
measurement and effluent sampling. In many cases,
some form of pre-treatment will be needed at the
premises to ensure that discharges comply with the
license standards. Large industrial premises may
require their own complete flow balancing and
treatment facilities to meet license requirements for
discharge flows and effluent quality.
The waste discharge license should include the
following stipulations:
Average and peak flow rates;
Maximum concentrations for a specified range
of pollutants;
Flow measurement and sampling facilities;
Reporting requirements.
The licensing process should ensure that all
significant industrial and commercial discharges are
defined and understood, in terms of their location,
volume and polluting effects.
Please refer to Volume 1 Appendix 5 for example of
industrial waste discharge permit application
1.14 Septic and Sewage
Holding Tanks
Septic and sewage holding tanks are used to store
and treat foul flows from premises, prior to
connection to the main sewerage system (ie if the
premises are complete before the sewerage
system), or where no sewage system is available.
They comprise an underground tank for anaerobic
treatment followed by a soakaway tank or pipe
system to encourage effluent flows to disseminate to
the surrounding ground.
Since they only provide partial treatment, these
tanks are a major source of groundwater pollution
and therefore should not be constructed where main
sewerage is available. For existing developments,
house connections from manhole number 1 to the
main sewerage system should be made at the
earliest opportunity, and usage of the septic and
sewage holding tank stopped.

Drainage Affairs
Septic tanks should preferably be designed for a
minimum hydraulic retention time of one month to
allow anaerobic treatment of the organic content.
1.14.1 Design of Septic Tanks
and Soakaways
The following information will be required for
designing the septic tank to serve the development:
Maximum and minimum population to be
served;
Water consumption and discharge rates;
Any special conditions affecting the
composition of the sewage, such as grease, oil
and detergents, which would adversely affect
the treatment process;
The need for additional oil and grease traps;
Ground soil condition and depth of water table,
as these will affect the percolation of effluent
through the soakaway.
For larger developments, multiple tanks and
soakaways may be necessary.
Further information on the design of septic tanks
and soakaways is contained in Volume 6 -
Developers Guide.
1.14.2 Sewage Holding Tanks
Where the groundwater level is high, soakaways will
not be permitted, as they will be considered as
ineffective in percolating the effluent into the
surrounding ground. At such sites, it will be
necessary to provide sewage holding tanks. The
tank shall be watertight to prevent the ingress of
water, and shall be suitably constructed and
protected against corrosion. The tank shall be
designed against the effects of uplift from
groundwater pressures.
The tank shall have a minimum of two days storage
of sewage discharged from the development, based
on the population and per capita flow.
However, it is preferable to have up to 30 days if
possible, depending upon the size of the catchment,
to enable less frequent emptying and associated
tanker traffic.
Further information regarding sewage holding tanks
is contained in Volume 6 - Developers Guide.
1.15 Oil and Grease
Interceptors
Oil and grease interceptors are usually located
underground and are used to reduce, or remove
light liquids such as oil, petrol, grease, and other
floating solid pollutants. Regular and planned
maintenance, by removal of floating matter, is
required if they are to function efficiently.
Oil and grease interceptors are required to treat all
foul and surface water flows from such
establishments as:
Hotels, Restaurants and catering premises;
Petrol stations and fuel storage facilities;
Garages and workshops;
Paint and chemical manufacture and storage.
Further information on the design of oil and grease
interceptors is contained in Volume 6 - Developers
Guide.
In addition to underground interceptors, all above-
ground storage of polluting liquids should have
retention bunds installed around all storage tanks.
The retention volume of the bund should exceed
that of the tanks by 10%. The bund should be of
durable construction, for example reinforced
concrete, suitably protected against natural
elements and the retained liquid. The bund should
be fitted with valved drainage for removal of
rainwater. No drainage connection is to be made to
main sewerage or drainage systems.
1.16 Flow Attenuation
Methods
The role of flow attenuation is to reduce peak flows
by the temporary storage of wastewater within the
system. Flow attenuation is often used to reduce
flooding and overload of pumping stations, and to
reduce discharge and pollution from overflows.

Drainage Affairs

Flow attenuation is most usually achieved by
providing additional storage, the most common
being the on-line or off-line tank. Storage tanks are
normally sited underground.
On-line storage systems attenuate flows by utilising
existing capacity within the system or by
constructing oversize sewers. The off-line storage
systems involve storage tanks adjacent to the sewer
with connections to and from the sewer.
Excessive use of storage can lead to problems in
the downstream sewerage system and at the STW,
due to deterioration of the sewage during storage.
Prolonged in-sewer storage can potentially lead to
higher STW effluent loads (particularly total
suspended solids and ammonia) and/or poor
biomass performance. Pumped storage systems
may increase the risk of septic conditions, with
resulting odour, corrosion and health hazard
problems. Combined with high ambient
temperatures, such conditions exist in Qatar, and
therefore considerable care will be needed to avoid
prolonged storage of sewage.
1.16.1 Flow Controls
Flow controls are used to limit the flow passing
forward to the downstream system, by backing up
flows into the upstream storage tank. The most
common controls are described below.
Orifice Plates and Pipes
These are the simplest controls, being usually
circular or square apertures sized to produce a
restriction in flow. Orifice plates may be fixed in
location or mounted in guides for easy removal.
Because of the solids content of the flow, it is widely
accepted that they are not suitable where the
minimum dimension is less than 200mm. Smaller
sizes are prone to blockage. Their use is therefore
limited to higher flow ranges.
The formula used for sizing a circular or square
submerged orifice is:
Qs = Cd A (2gH)
Equation 1.16.1
Where:
Cd is the coefficient of discharge, commonly around
0.7
A is the orifice area
H is the hydrostatic headloss across the orifice
plate, or difference between upstream and
downstream water levels.
For short lengths of pipe, the friction losses can be
neglected and the above formula used.
Penstocks
Penstock settings can be sized as for orifices, but
should be used with caution, as the setting may be
altered after installation. Use of orifices is therefore
preferred. Penstocks also have the disadvantage of
requiring periodic maintenance, which involves
confined space entry.
Other Devices
Head discharge relationships for the various market
products (such as Hydrobrakes) should be obtained
from the manufacturers. It is preferable for the rating
curve to have a steep gradient in order for the pass-
forward flow to remain near constant from onset of
spillage through to maximum weir flow.
Operational Issues
A common problem with all controls is the tendency
to block from time to time. Access for rodding or
other means of clearance must be provided at the
design stage. It should be remembered that the
chamber may become flooded and therefore the
clearance facility must be operable from outside the
chamber. Measures such as flap gates, vent tubes
and fixed pressure hose connections have been
used with some success. Some of the proprietary
flow controls are also fitted with bypass pipes, to
allow draining down of the chamber in the event of a
blockage.
1.16.2 Attenuation Storage
Tanks and Sewers
Attenuation facilities usually comprise underground
storage tanks, equipped with flow control devices on
their outlet to limit peak flows from the tank.
Layouts

Drainage Affairs
Tank arrangements fall into two main categories,
namely on-line and off-line, of which there are many
further sub-classes. Figure 1.16.1 shows several
alternative layouts
On-line tanks are storages constructed along the
route of the pipe in question, and share the same
hydraulic gradient. On-line tanks (with perhaps the
exception of emergency storage) always drain flows
to the downstream sewer by gravity. On-line tanks
would normally be preferred to off-line from an
operational point of view, but require certain
hydraulic conditions to be satisfied in order to
present a viable option.
Off-line tanks are constructed along a route
separated from the main sewer, and may return
flows to the main sewer by gravity or pumping, again
depending upon the hydraulic conditions.

Drainage Affairs

1. On-line Storage
2. On-line Storage + Flow Control
Storage Tank
Storage Tank
3. Off-line Storage + Gravity Return
Storage Tank
4. Off-line Storage
+ Screened Overflow
+ Gravity Return
5. Off-line Storage
+ Screened overflow
+ Gravity Return
6. Off-line Storage
+ Gravity Return
+ variable flow control
7. Off-line Storage
+ Pumped Return
+ screened overflow
Storage Tank
Flow Control
Storage Tank
Flow Control
Non-return
Valve
Overflow
& Screen
Overflow
& Screen
Flow Control
Storage Tank
Outfall
Outfall
Outfall
Outfall
Overflow
& Screen
Overflow
& Screen
Storage Tank
Flume
Flow Control
Flume
Pump
Figure 1.13.1 Alternative Tank Layouts

Figure 1.16.1 Alternative Storage Tank Layouts

Drainage Affairs
Materials and Construction
Materials for tank construction may be concrete,
GRP, plastic or coated steel. In-situ reinforced
concrete is the most obvious choice for construction
of specific designs, but certain applications will lend
themselves to the use of proprietary products, e.g.
large diameter pipes, precast concrete box culverts
and modular, thin-walled plastic or GRP tanks with
mass concrete surrounds. Designs using plastics
should ensure adequate resistance to jetting
pressures. All underground structures should have
adequate resistance against uplift due to
groundwater pressures.
On-line Storage
On-line storage is shown in cases 1 and 2 in Figure
1.16.1. This is the simplest type of arrangement, and
should be used wherever possible. Hydraulic
conditions will determine the viability. The tank will
need to operate within the hydraulic regime of the
existing system. On-line tanks of any size will not be
practical in very flat sewers, due to the large surface
area requirement. Thus although they are the
preferred arrangement, their use is limited in Qatar
due to the flat topography. It is unlikely that they
would be situated in upstream areas, but they could
be of use adjacent to pumping stations where a
significant headloss is available between the sewer
invert and the Pump Station Top Water Level (TWL).
On-line tanks become more practical with increased
gradient, but at greater depths, due consideration
will need to be given to the greater pressures
developed at the downstream ends, e.g. at pipe
joints. In such cases, consideration may be given to
the use of backdrops and cascades of tanks.
An on-line tank will operate by surcharging as the
flow approaches the predetermined pass-forward
flow. This flow may be the capacity of the
downstream sewer, whereby a flow control is
required to limit the pass-forward flow. In both of the
above cases, care should be taken to ensure a self-
cleansing velocity to prevent sediment build up. In
large diameter tanks with low base flows, this may
be difficult. In such cases, a dry weather flow
channel should be provided. It is recommended in
Sewerage Detention Tanks A Design Guide,
WRC, 1997
xxxvii
that the longitudinal slope of the
tank is kept to a minimum of 1:100 in on-line tanks
and that sidewall slopes into the centre channel are
a minimum of 1:4. Care should be taken with
benching in on-line and off-line tanks - this should
be steel trowel finished with granolithic topping to
prevent accumulation of solids.
Off-line Storage
Off-line storage with gravity return is shown in
Cases 3 to 6 in Figure 1.16.1. This would typically
be preferred where construction could proceed
without the need for over-pumping, or if insufficient
length is available for on-line storage. The storage
may be provided in a single tank, an over-sized
pipe/box-culvert or groups of pipes. Care should be
given to flow distribution at the upstream end, and
the order of preference in filling. As the tank may not
be 100% filled on a regular basis, selection of a
preferential flow channel will reduce the need for
desilting operations.
Where screens are installed, as in Cases 4 to 6, it is
preferable to retain the screenings in the main flow
where possible, to prevent accumulation in the tank.
However, flow control measures should be devised
to prevent screenings entering the tank from the
downstream end. A further refinement of this is
shown in Case 6, where a variable flow control is
provided, linked to a gauge of the downstream
sewer reserve capacity.
Operational Issues
Operation and maintenance of such underground
structures present particular health and safety
issues for access and maintenance. These aspects
include:
Blockage of flow control devices - access
needs to be provided to safely enter the
structure and for clearance tools and removal
of debris. Where a blockage has resulted in
sewage being retained for some time, clearing
the blockage suddenly may have an
unacceptable impact on downstream facilities,
such as pumping stations and STW. Designs
therefore need to consider facilities for gradual
emptying or removal of effluents;
Removal of sediment - access needs to be
provided to safely enter the structure, and for
clearance tools and removal of debris;
Design to optimise removal of sediment to:
minimise time and effort needed inside

Drainage Affairs

underground structures; modifications to the
structure of the tank to allow sediment to be
removed from ground level; use of low friction
coatings to discourage accumulation of
sediment; modification of inlet design to
increase scour; steepening of benching
gradients and installation of dry weather flow
channels to encourage self-cleansing; use of
mechanical plant and flushing mechanisms to
periodically remove sediments A useful design
check is provided in Table 1.16.1.

Drainage Affairs

Table 1.16.1 - Storage Tank Design Checklist
Consider maintenance & cleaning operations
Consider the erection/removal of falsework in confined spaces during construction (use
false soffits or pre-cast slabs for roof sections)

Design benching to be self-cleansing
Ensure sufficient access of adequate size are incorporated (NB can plant be removed
Consider the type of screen required
Design out any possible maintenance hazards
Ensure adequate ventilation is achieved
Is odour control required?
Consider retention times of the tank
How long does it take to empty the tank? Consider follow on storm events
Provide a facility for overpumping of the tank
Are overflows required?
Provide penstocks on the tank inlets/outlets to enable flows to be diverted or isolated
Provide a penstock protected bypass pipe
Is a flow control required on the tank outlet/bypass pipe?
Reinstatement of area, consider future access requirements
Does the site need to be purchased?
HARAS complete?
EIA complete ?

Consider type of covers (think about manual handling, and security of access)
Incorporate a sufficient number of davit sockets
What telemetry is required?
On-line or Off-line tank?
Are welfare facilities required?
Is a gravity discharge achievable? Otherwise pumps will be required.
Is a power supply needed?
Is a water supply needed for washing down?
Planning permission is required for all control kiosks and permanent accesses to the
Is a standby generator required?
DA and RD Discharge consents for emergency overflow
What is required in the way of control kiosks/buildings
Ensure that access for a tanker is possible
Place screens on inlet to tanks on off-line tanks

Drainage Affairs

1.17 Abandonment of
Sewers
Disused sewers and drains have the great potential
to allow unwanted flows, such as groundwater to
enter the system through deteriorating faults in the
system fabric. They therefore need to be removed
from the system to prevent structural deterioration,
unauthorised use, and ingress of groundwater and
infestation by rodents.
Disused sewers shall be removed or, where this is
impracticable, they shall be filled in accordance with
the materials and details contained on the Standard
Drawings in Volume 8.
2 Pumping Stations
2.1 Standards
The standards and sources of information to be
used are listed in sections 1.1 and 1.2.
2.2 Hydraulic Design
The overall design philosophy of the pumping
system needs to be a balanced design with due
consideration of functional, environmental and
economic aspects. For pumping systems in the
vicinity of sensitive receivers, reliability of the system
is of key concern. Bypass or overflow of raw
sewage, even in emergency situations, should be
avoided where possible.
Particular attention should be paid to the following
issues:
Design flow;
Standby power supply or temporary storage;
Standby pumps;
Overflows and emergency bypass;
Twin rising mains;
Availability of QGWEC power supply;
Land area available and proximity to housing or
public areas;
Access to the proposed site.
Since the pumping station will probably be serving
an area of new development, it is likely that the
initial flows to the station will be much smaller than
those expected for the full design. Flows will
increase in the following years to reach the design
capacity of the station. If the inflows are greatly
below the pump output, the result will be excessive
periods of inactivity of the station, with the potential
for premature failure of equipment. Such infrequent
operation of pumps will also result in retention of
sewage in the rising main, raising problems with
septicity, corrosion and effects on the receiving
STW.

Drainage Affairs
Consideration should therefore be given to the
sizing and numbers of pumps to match the likely
build-up of incoming flows. Where possible, similar
pumps should be installed, on duty and assist basis,
with similar standby pump(s). The use of similar
pumps will avoid any changes in pumping regime
due to the rotation of duty pumps for operational
reasons.
Consideration should also be given to installing twin
rising mains. One main would be used in the early
years of the scheme to achieve satisfactory
maximum flow velocities and hence minimise
siltation. When flows increase, then the second main
would be brought into use.
Although not strictly required for the early years of a
scheme, it would not be economic to construct one
rising main and then construct the second within a
short period, say five years. The additional costs
and disruption of digging a second trench, together
with operational and safety requirements of working
adjacent to a live rising main, would be avoided.
2.2.1 Hydraulic Principles
A pumping system may consist of inlet piping,
pumps, valves, outlet piping, fittings, open channels
and/or rising mains. When a particular system is
being analysed for the purpose of selecting a pump
or pumps, the head losses through these various
components must be calculated. The station loss
(i.e. the loss on the suction and delivery pipework
from the sump to the common header) should also
be considered. The frictional and minor head losses
of these components are approximately proportional
to the square of the velocity of flow through the
system and are called the variable head.
Friction losses should be determined using the
ColebrookWhite Formula.
Losses in fittings at the station, and outside of it
should be determined using the formula:
H = kv
2
/2g
Equation 2.2.1

Where H denotes the fitting headloss (m), k is the
loss coefficient, v the velocity (m/s) and g is the
gravitational constant, 9.81m/s
2
.
Indicative values of k are given in Table 2.2.1below.

Drainage Affairs

Table 2.2.1 Indicative Minor Loss Coefficients,
k, for Various Fittings
Fitting Coefficient k
Standard 90
0
bend 0.75
Long Radius 90
0
bend 0.4
Standard 45
0
bend 0.3
Tee - line to branch 1.2
Tee flow in line 0.35
Taper up 0.5
Sharp Entry 0.5
Bellmouth Entry 0.1
Sudden Exit 1.0
Non-return valve* 1.0
Gate Valve, fully open* 0.12
*Note that for valves it is advisable to obtain
manufacturers data on headlosses. System head
calculations would normally be carried out using valve
open figures.
It is also necessary to determine the static head
required to raise the liquid from suction level to a
higher discharge level. The pressure at the
discharge liquid surface may be higher than that at
the suction liquid surface, a condition that requires
more pumping head. These two heads are fixed
system heads, as they do not vary with rate of flow.
Fixed system heads can be negative, if the
discharge level or the pressure above that level is
lower than suction level or pressure. Fixed system
heads are called static heads.
The Total Dynamic Head (TDH) for a system is the
sum of the major and minor friction losses plus the
static head. The duty point for a pump selection will
be the required flow at the TDH.
A system head curve is a plot of total system head,
variable plus fixed, for various flow rates. It may
express the system head in metres and the flow rate
in cubic metres per second. Procedures to plot a
system-head curve are:
1. Define the pumping system and its length;
2. Calculate the fixed system head;
3. Calculate the variable system head losses for
several flow rates;
4. Combine the fixed head and variable heads for
several flow rates to obtain a curve of total
system head versus flow rate.
The flow delivered by a centrifugal pump varies with
system head. Pump manufacturers provide
information on the performance of their pumps in the
form of characteristic curves of head versus
capacity, commonly known as pump curves. By
superimposing the characteristic curve of a
centrifugal pump on a system-head curve, the duty
point of a pump can be determined.
The curves will intersect at the flow rate of the
pump, as this is the point at which the pump head is
equal to the required system head for the same flow.
The recommended values for coefficient of
ColebrookWhite Roughness Factor (Section 1.5.1
above) ks for use in rising mains are contained in
Table 2.2.2 below. Note also the values indicated in
Table 1.5.1, which refer to gravity sewers.
Table 2.2.2 Recommended Values of
Colebrook-White Roughness Factors
(ks) for use in Rising Mains
Mean Velocity in m/s ks (mm)
Up to 1.1m/s 0.3mm
Between 1.1m/s and 1.8m/s 0.15mm

The discharge capacity for multiple pumps will not
be simply the sum of the discharge capacity of
individual pumps because the system-head curve
for multiple pumps will be different from that of a
single pump.
2.2.2 Pump Arrangements
The number of pumps to be installed depends on
the station capacity and the range of flows. The
maximum discharge rate from a pumping station,
when all duty pumps and rising mains are in use
should be slightly greater than or equal to the
maximum incoming flow to the station. Pumps
should be selected with head-capacity
characteristics that correspond as closely as
possible to the overall station requirements.

Drainage Affairs
Standby capacity is required so that should any of
the pumps in the station be inoperable due to
routine maintenance or mechanical failure, the
operation of the station can still be maintained. For
instance, in a station where a single duty pump
provides the duty output, a second pump of equal
capacity is mounted. Where three duty pumps of
equal capacity are required to meet the maximum
design flow conditions, a fourth pump of similar
capacity is provided as standby.
It is not desirable to have pumps of different sizes
for operation and maintenance reasons, unless the
flow ranges vary widely throughout the day. To
cater for slow build-up of flow in the early years of
operation, phased installation of pumps, or the use
of a smaller diameter impeller should be considered.
2.3 Rising Main Design
2.3.1 Rising Main Diameters
The minimum diameter of pumping mains is
controlled by the need to avoid blockage, and
therefore should not be less than 100mm. Where
sewage is screened or macerated before pumping
the minimum diameter should not be less than
80mm.
The maximum and minimum diameters are sized to
maintain flow velocities for all stages of pumping
within the ranges specified in Section 2.4.
2.3.2 Twin Rising Mains
The use of twin rising mains should be considered
on a case by case basis. The main factors for
consideration include the design elements, risk
assessment and cost benefit analysis.
Considerations for the design elements comprise
the rate of build up of flow, the range of flow
conditions, the range of velocity in the mains, the
availability of land for the twin mains and associated
valve chambers as well as the complications in
pump operation.
A thorough risk assessment should be carried out
which should include the likelihood of mains
bursting, the consequence of failure, area affected,
sensitive receivers affected (such as beaches), and
the feasibility of temporary diversion or tankering
away.
A cost benefit analysis should include all tangible
factors (such as cost of pipework, land cost, energy
cost, etc) and intangible factors (such as nuisance,
closure of beaches, etc).
Twin rising mains should be considered in the
following circumstances:
To accommodate a wide range of flow
conditions, such that the velocity in the mains
can be kept within acceptable limits. For
instance, a pumping system serving a new
development may have very low initial flows
with a slow build up of flow;
To provide continued operation for a major
pumping system when one of the mains is
damaged and where the failure of the system
would have serious consequence;
To minimise adverse environmental impacts to
sensitive areas;
To facilitate future inspection and maintenance
of major pumping systems, while the normal
sewage flow can be maintained.
When twin mains are found to be preferred, it is
advisable to use both mains as duty rather than one
as duty and the other as standby, from an
economical and operational point of view. Should
one of the duty mains be taken out of operation, the
remaining one would still be able to deliver a higher
quantity of flow at a higher velocity. The occurrence
of overflow or bypass can be minimised or even
eliminated. Septicity in the standby mains would
also pose an operational and maintenance problem.
2.3.3 Economic Analysis
As the size of the rising main increases, the velocity
and the system head will decrease, with savings in
the cost of pumping. The increase in the capital
cost of rising mains will be offset by the power cost
of pumping. However, it is also important that the
velocity in the mains should be within a suitable
range to minimise the deposition of solids.
Excessive hydraulic head losses are to be avoided.

Drainage Affairs

The selection of a suitable size for the rising mains
should be based on economic analysis of capital
cost and recurrent cost of the pumping system
including the power cost. A trial and error approach
should be adopted in order to arrive at an optimal
solution while maintaining the velocity within
acceptable limits.
Therefore, combinations of different sizes of rising
mains and the system head should be evaluated,
taking into account both the capital cost and the
energy cost of pumping.
2.3.4 Rising Main Alignment
The alignment of the rising main should discourage
surge in its flow conditions. Where possible the
rising main should be laid with continuous uphill
gradient of not less than 1:500, and with gentle
curves in both horizontal and vertical planes. Long
flat lengths of rising main should be avoided
therefore pipes should be laid with rise and falls of
1:500, rather than flat. Air release valves should be
provided at high points and as the profile of the main
dictates. Washouts should be installed at low points.
The arrangement and locations of valves should be
planned together with the alignment of the rising
mains.
2.4 Maximum and
Minimum Velocities
The maximum velocity in rising mains should not
exceed 2.0 m/s, The desirable range of velocity
should be 1m/s to 2m/s with due consideration given
to the various combinations of number of duty
pumps in operation. (This is because lower
velocities cause siltation, and higher velocities
increase surge problems and power usage).
2.5 Pipe Materials
Pipe materials for use in pumping stations should
always be Ductile Iron (DI).
Rising mains outside pumping stations may be
ductile iron or Glass Reinforced Plastic (GRP) with
concrete protection, however DI is preferred.
2.6 Thrust Blocks
Thrust blocks are concrete blocks designed to
prevent pipes from being moved by forces exerted
within the pipe by the flow of water hitting bends,
tapers, and closed, or partially closed valves. In the
design of pressurised pipelines, thrust blocks are
essential on flexibly jointed pipelines where any pipe
movement would open up the joints in the line and
cause water leakage. Restraint straps may also be
required for above-ground pipework.
Thrust blocks are also necessary near valves where
a flexible joint is located to facilitate removal of the
valve for maintenance purposes. The size of block
is dependent upon the angular deflection, flow, size
of pipe and the pressure of water inside the pipe.
The designer should also refer to the pipe
manufacturers literature.
The following design assumptions are to be
adopted:
Thrusts developed due to changes in direction
of pipeline, dead end or change in diameter
should be considered. Force due to change in
velocity head can normally be assumed as
negligible unless there is a drastic change in
pipe diameter;
Thrust blocks should be designed for the
condition of no support being available from the
backfill, i.e. to be cast against undisturbed
ground;

For most cases, thrust blocks will be designed
to transfer forces directly onto undisturbed
ground using direct bearing, the acceptable
bearing pressure being confirmed by
geotechnical investigation. If the adjacent
ground has insufficient bearing capacity, the
block may need to be designed using ground
friction or piling to transfer thrusts to a more
competent soil layer. Consideration should also
be given to the presence of adjacent services
and the possibility of future disturbance during
maintenance operations. Complex thrust blocks
may be required to avoid transfer of forces and
consequential damage to adjacent services;

Drainage Affairs
For pipes with flexible joints such as DI pipes
with socket and spigot joints, all the thrust is
assumed to be taken up by the blocks.
Static thrusts may be calculated using the formulae
as follows:
For blank ends:
Fs = 100 A P
Equation 2.6.1
Where:
Fs = the static thrust (KN)
A = the cross sectional area (m2)
P = the Pressure (bar)
For Bends:
Fs = 100 A P(2 sin /2)
Equation 2.6.2
Where is the angle of deviation at the bend.
Dynamic thrusts for water or sewage may be
calculated using following:
Fd = 2A V 2 sin /2
Equation 2.6.3
Where
Fd = the dynamic thrust (KN)
V = the velocity (m/s)
As stated above, this force is negligible in normal
cases, but if significant, then the total thrust should
be taken as the sum of static and dynamic thrusts.
The above procedures will be satisfactory for most
routine applications. For further guidance, please
see CIRIA Report R128
xxxviii
. It is recommended that
this reference is used for more complex
applications, such as where thrust forces are in
excess of 1000KN or loose material is encountered.
2.7 Air Valves and
Washout Facilities
These facilities are required to minimise the adverse
effects of surge and to facilitate the operation and
maintenance of the rising main.
2.7.1 Air Valves
Air-relief valves are installed at locations of minimum
pressure. Air is sucked into the air-relief valve when
pipeline internal pressure is below atmospheric.
Upon subsequent pressure rise, the admitted air is
then expelled. Air valves should be installed at all
high points., Additional air valves should also be
placed at 800m spacings on long sections of straight
grade.
Each air valve will operate independently and
therefore several valves may be required along the
pipeline if there are numerous rises and falls in the
vertical profile of the rising main.
2.7.2 Vented Non-return Valves
An air valve combined with a vented non-return
valve allows air enter the pipeline freely on
separation of the water column, but controls the
expulsion of air as the column rejoins. This has the
effect of creating an air buffer between the column
interfaces, thus reducing the impact velocity of the
rejoining column and the surge potential of the
system.
2.7.3 Wash Outs
The purpose of the washout system is to drain the
rising main for maintenance works. The washout
should be installed at low points of the pipeline
profile, and needs to be located carefully, taking into
account that sewage will be discharged. For long
rising mains with few low points, wash-outs should
be strategically located at suitable intervals,
generally 800m, to reduce the time required for
emptying the main in an emergency. Location
should be adjacent to a suitably sized gravity sewer
for draindown where possible If a direct connection
to a suitably sized sewer is not available, the
washout chamber should be provided with a sump

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so that the drained contents of the rising main may
be tankered away.
2.7.4 Isolating Valves
For long rising mains, isolating valves should be
included to allow sections of the rising main to be
isolated and emptied within a reasonable time. In-
line sluice or gate valves are often used as isolating
valves. The isolating valve installation may
incorporate washout facilities.
2.8 Flow Meters
2.8.1 Application and Selection
The variety of choices facing the designer
confronted with a flow measurement application is
vast. For example, types of flow meter using the
positive displacement principle include rotary piston,
oval gear, sliding vane, and reciprocating piston.
Each type has advantages and limitations and no
single type combines all the features and all the
advantages.
Differential pressure meters have the advantage that
they are the most familiar of any meter type. They
are suitable for gas and liquid, viscous and corrosive
fluids. However their usable flow range is limited and
they require a separate transmitter in addition to the
sensor.
Some of the most important parameters for
flowmeters are accuracy, flow range, and whether
the medium is sewage or water. Meter selection
should be made in two steps. First by identifying the
meters that are technically capable of performing the
required measurement and are available in
acceptable materials of construction; and second, by
selecting the best choice from those available to
cover special measurement features such as
reverse flow, pulsating flow, response time and so
on.
2.8.2 Magnetic Flowmeters
Magnetic-type flowmeters use Faradays law of
electromagnetic induction for measurement. When a
conductor moves through a magnetic field of given
field strength, a voltage level is produced in the
conductor that is dependent on the relative velocity
between the conductor and the field. Faraday
foresaw the practical application of the principle to
flow measurement, because many liquids are
adequate electrical conductors. So these meters
measure the velocity of an electrically conductive
liquid as it cuts the magnetic field produced across
the metering tube. The principal advantages include
no moving components, no pressure loss, and no
wear and tear in components.
Magnetic flowmeters offer the designer the best
solution for pumped sewage flow. With nothing
protruding into the flow of sewage, the chances of a
blockage, if installed correctly, are non-existent.
Magnetic flowmeters should always be installed with
full-pipe conditions.
Care should be taken during design to provide
sufficient straight lengths of pipeline up-stream and
down-stream of the flowmeter, in accordance with
the manufacturers installation instructions. As a
general guideline, 12 pipe diameters of straight pipe
on the inlet, and 6 pipe diameters on the outlet will
ensure that the flowmeter is able to achieve the
specified accuracy. If the amount of space available
is restricted then the minimum length usually
accepted by manufactures is inlet run of 5 pipe
diameters and outlet run of 3 pipe diameters.
The following International and British Standards are
a good source of information on flow meter selection
and installation, and can be quoted in specifications:
BS EN ISO 6817
xxxix
, 1997: Measurement of
Conductive Liquid Flow in Closed Conduits;
BS 7405
xl
, 1991: Guide to Selection and
Application of Flowmeters for the Measurement
of Fluid Flow in Closed Conduits.
Flow meters should be pressure tested and
calibrated by the manufacturer, and certified to a
traceable international standard. As a minimum, the
overall accuracy should be better than 0.5% of the
flow range. The repeatability of the result should be
within 0.2%.
In addition to the calibration certificate, the flow
meter manufacturers should provide the following:
i. Isolated 4-20mA dc and pulse outputs;

Drainage Affairs
ii. Programmable in-built alarm relays for
empty pipe, low and reverse flows;
iii. In-built digital display for flow rate, totals
and alarms;
iv. Transmitter enclosure shall be protected
to IP67;
v. Calibration and programming kit.
The earthing rings should be included according to
the individual manufacturers instructions. The
sensor lining should be neoprene or an equivalent
material of similar or improved properties, suitable
for the application of pumped sewage flow. In below-
ground flow meter chamber installations, the
installed equipment should be submersible to the
maximum chamber depth.
2.8.3 Ultrasonic Flowmeters
Ultrasonic meters are available in two forms:
Doppler and transit-time. With Doppler meters, an
ultrasonic pulse is beamed into the pipe and
reflected by inclusions, such as air or dirt. The
Doppler meter is frequently used as a clamp on
device which can be fitted to existing pipelines. It
detects the velocity only in a small region of the pipe
cross section and as such its accuracy is not good.
The single or multi-beam transit-time flow meters
project an ultrasonic beam right across the pipe at
an acute angle, first with the flow, and then opposite
to the flow direction. The difference in transit time is
proportional to flow rate. This type of ultrasonic
meter is considerably more expensive but offers
better accuracy. Unlike the Doppler meter, it
requires a relatively clean fluid.
The main use of this type of flow meter in pumped
sewage flows is in retrospective installation where
the pumping main cannot be broken into for
operational reasons. A clamp-on ultrasonic flow
meter can be used to give reasonably accurate flow
measurement.
For new installations, the lower cost of in-pipe
ultrasonic flow meters could make them a viable
alternative to magnetic flow meters for large
diameter pipe installations.
2.9 Surge Protection
Measures
Surge (or water hammer) is an oscillating pressure
wave generated in a pipeline during changes in the
flow conditions.
There are four common causes of surge in a
pipeline:
pump starting;
pump stopping/power failure;
valve action;
improper operation of surge control devices.
The most likely one of these is the sudden stopping
of pumps caused by a power failure.
A surge analysis should usually be carried out
unless the system is simple. This is best carried out
using approved software such as Flowmaster.

Drainage Affairs

An approximate calculation for a simple pipeline is:
P = a x V
g

Equation 2.9.1
Where:
P = Pressure change (m)
a = pressure wave velocity (m/s)
V = flow velocity change in 1 cycle (m/s)
g = acceleration of gravity (9.81m/s2)
The above equation can be used for calculation of
both negative and positive pressures
The simple cycle time can be calculated with the
formula:
Cycle time = 2 x pipeline length
Wave velocity

Equation 2.9.2
Table 2.9.1 Indicative Surge Wave Velocity
Values for Selected Pipe Materials
Pipe Material Velocity (m/s)
Ductile Iron 10001400
Reinforced Concrete 10001200
Plastic 300500

If the surge pressure approaches zero or the
pipeline maximum pressure, a full surge analysis
should be carried out. When surge analysis is
complete, suitable surge suppression devices
should be selected by consultation with the
manufacturer.
Surge Suppression Methods
Surge suppression could be achieved using one of
the following devices. The most appropriate device
will depend on the individual circumstances of the
installation:
Flywheel;
Pressure vessel with bladder;
Dip-tube surge vessel;
Surge tower.
Air valves should not be depended upon as a sole
method of surge control, but their operation under
surge conditions should be carefully considered.
Flywheels
Flywheels absorb energy on start-up, slowing the
rate of velocity change in the pipeline. In reverse,
when the pump is stopping, the flywheel releases
energy again, slowing the rate of velocity change.
Together these two actions reduce the peak surge
pressure.
As the flywheel must be located on the drive shaft it
is not suitable for submersible pumps or close-
coupled pumps. However, they are simple devices
for wet well/dry well pumps and are preferred where
possible.
If submersible pumps have been chosen, a larger
pump running at a slower speed may have the effect
of a flywheel.
Because the flow continues through the pump after
the stop signal, the effect on the stop and start
levels should be carefully considered.
Pressure Vessels
Pressure vessels for surge suppression are tanks
partially filled with a gas (air or nitrogen). Usually the
liquid is contained in a bladder with gas on the
outside to prevent the liquid absorbing the gas or
coming into contact with the inside of the pressure
vessel, and this is the preferred type. The bladder
material should be carefully selected for use in the
conditions experienced in Qatar.
Refilling is usually from a high-pressure cylinder and
care should be taken to avoid over pressurisation of
the bladder. Bladders should not lose pressure in
normal operation, but they can fail, leading to
absorption of the gas into the liquid, and a drop in
pressure.
Vessels without a bladder are charged with air
pressure from an air compressor, either manually or
automatically. There is therefore additional
machinery and an additional maintenance
requirement. This type of surge vessel is not
recommended.

Drainage Affairs
On pump start-up, liquid enters the vessel,
compressing the gas until it equals the liquid
pressure. When the pump stops, the gas pressure
forces liquid back out into the pipe system, both
actions slow the rate of pressure change, which
reduces the peak surge pressure.
To dampen oscillations, a non-return valve may be
fitted to the surge vessel outlet pipe, to allow
unrestricted flow into the pipeline, and a bypass
around the NRV fitted with an orifice plate to restrict
the flow back into the vessel.
Dip Tube Surge Vessels
A dip tube surge vessel is pressure vessel, the top
portion forming a compression chamber limited by a
dipping tube with a shut off float valve.
This type of vessel is particularly appropriate for use
on rising mains with flat profiles.
Surge Towers
A surge tower is a vertical tank or pipe fitted into the
pipeline, open to atmosphere and the energy
storage is by the static head of the liquid in the
tower.
Surge towers are only practical for systems with
relatively low heads and surge pressures, but can
pose an odour risk.
Due to the design of a surge tower, there is no
routine maintenance required to ensure the surge
tower keeps operating correctly.
It is unlikely that surge towers would be appropriate
for use in Qatar.
Air Valves
Air valves are required on the pumping mains to
release air, but they should not be used as a surge
protection measure.
However, air valves, particularly if fitted with a
vented non-return valve or in-flow check valve, may
assist in surge control, and their operation must be
carefully considered.
Air valves require regular maintenance because if
the air valve does not function correctly, large or
negative surge pressures could result, with
consequent damage to equipment or personnel.
If air is allowed into the rising main on pump stop/trip
through an air valve, the pump control system
should be designed to prevent a restart until the
transient pressures have stabilised.
Control of the pumps is usually by start/stop level
signals, but where surge on start-up may have a
significant effect, the use of soft starters should be
considered.
2.10 Screens
Screen Selection
Screens should generally be provided for pump
protection, unless they are small (<20l/s)
submersible stations with small inlet sewers.
Screens should incorporate the following features:
Screen chambers should be separate from the
wet wells;
Coarse screens should be fitted in the screen
chambers at the inlet to pumping stations to
protect the pumping equipment. They should
remove coarse screenings, but allow
screenings less than 75mm to pass forward to
the STW;
L-shaped or coarse basket screens should be
provided;
The screens should be set in guides with lifting
facilities at ground level so they can be
manually removed and cleaned;
Minimum of one duty and one standby screen
should be provided;
Mechanically raked screens should be
considered for large pumping stations, typically
>1000l/s;
Fine screening is not required at the pumping
station, but is required at the treatment works
to remove debris that may affect the sewage
treatment process.
Screen Installation
The manual duty and standby screen should be
installed in the incoming channel, so that the
standby screen can be lowered into position to

Drainage Affairs

protect the pumps while the duty screen is removed
and cleaned.
Mechanically raked screens should be installed in a
channel or similar flow-line, which can be completely
isolated from the rest of the system and drained for
maintenance. A manually raked bypass screen
shall be provided.
Mechanical screens shall be housed in ventilated
and odour controlled enclosures.
Screens should be provided with actuated
penstocks (or valves) before and after each screen
for operational and maintenance isolation.
All mechanically raked screens should have an
automatic cleaning mechanism, which will clean the
screen of accumulated debris and screenings,
depositing them in a collection trough or channel
above the highest possible water level.
Screenings Handling
Manually removed screenings should be placed in a
covered container until removed from site to avoid
odour problems.
Mechanically removed screenings should be
washed, compacted and deposited into a covered
container to avoid odour problems.
2.11 Pumping Station
Selection
Sewage pumping station type selection should be
carefully considered for each scheme. In general,
submersible pumping stations are generally selected
for flows up to 100l/s, and wet well/dry well stations
for larger flows. However, each station should be
treated on its own merits and the following
considerations assessed:
Initial and final design flow;
Total head on the pumps;
Rising main profile and the requirements for
surge protection (dry well pumps usually have
a greater moment of inertia than submersibles);
Requirement for Variable Speed Drive (VSD):
(submersible motors are not always adequately
rated for use with VSD);
Space available for pumping station
(submersible stations usually require less
space);
Proximity of housing or public areas (opening
submersible pump wells may create odour
nuisance).
An alternative to wet well submersible pumps and
dry well pumps is the dry well submersible. These
should normally be considered only where an
existing dry well installation is being uprated and
there is insufficient space to install a conventional
dry well pump and motor.
Particular attention should be paid to motor cooling
and cabling if dry well submersibles are to be
considered.
The designer should present three alternative pump
suppliers for tender purposes.
Submersible pumping stations
Submersible pumping stations should incorporate
the following features:
Minimum of one duty and one standby pump;
Non-return valve and gate valves for isolation
of each pump;
Valves to be in a separate, easily accessible
chamber adjacent to the pump sump;
Air reaction operation level controls as follows:
- High level alarm (also float);
- Pump start;
- Pump stop;
- Low level pump protection (also
float).
Ultrasonic level controls should not be used for
sewage;
Air reaction level equipment should include
stainless steel dip pipe and duty/standby
compressors.
Where the available pumps have unsuitable duties
for the full range of flows, the use of variable speed
drives should be considered. However, due to the

Drainage Affairs
additional heat generated in the motor, the approval
of the pump manufacturer should be obtained before
variable speed drives are used.
Submersible Pump Sump Design
The CIRIA guide The hydraulic design of pump
sumps and intakes by M. J. Prosser
xli
should be
referred to when designing pump sumps. Some
pump manufacturers also provide guidance on the
design of sumps for their pumps. Sump design
should be in accordance with the following criteria:
Sumps should be designed so that the
dimensions satisfy the requirements for the
minimum sump volume to ensure the maximum
rated pump starts per hour for the motor and
switchgear are not exceeded;
Sumps should be designed to provide a
uniform steady flow of water into any pump
without creating swirl or entraining air.
Unsteady flow can lead to fluctuating loads,
vibration, noise and premature failure. Swirl
can affect the flow capacity, power and
efficiency. It can also result in local vortices that
introduce air into the pump, also leading to
fluctuating loads, vibration, noise and
premature failure;
Sumps should be designed to prevent the
accumulation of sediment, scum and surface
flotsam;
Sump corners should be benched to 45.
Minimising the sump floor area and residual
volume will increase the velocity into the pumps
and improve scouring;
The use of flushing devices to improve scour in
pump sumps should be considered;
The velocity in the pump riser pipe at the
design duty should be as high as practicable to
reduce the risk of solids deposition. However,
the velocity should not normally exceed 2.5m/s
to avoid significant headloss and risk of pipe
erosion;
The water surface in the sump should be as
free from waves and turbulence as possible to
provide a strong and reliable echo for ultrasonic
level controls;
At the designed stop level there should still be
sufficient water surface area without
obstructions to provide a good echo return.
Submersible Pump Installation
When submersible pumps are installed, the
following should be considered:
There should be sufficient space between them
to prevent interaction between the pump
suctions. This will depend upon the type of
pump being used and the manufacturer should
be consulted on configurations at draft design
stage; A rule of thumb is to use an initial
spacing between pump centres of twice the
pump diameter. Further guidance is given in
table 2.11.1 below.
Table 2.11.1 Approximate Minimum
PumpSpacings
xlii

Flow (l/s) Spacing (mm)
100 700
200 1000
300 1200
400 1350
500 1500
600 1700
700 1800
800 1900
900 2050
1000 2175

There should also be sufficient space for
someone to stand beside each pump, should
work be required in the sump;
Pump mounting stools and duckfoot bends
should be securely bolted to the structural
concrete of the sump and not the benching;
Discharge non-return and isolating valves
should be located outside the sump in a valve
chamber;

Drainage Affairs

Pump guide rails should rise close to the
underside of the sump covers above the
pumps;
The covers should have a clear opening large
enough to allow the removal of the pump while
on the guide rails;
Support points for the pump power cables and
lifting chain should be provided under the pump
covers, which should be easily accessible from
the surface.
Wet/Dry Well Pumping Stations
Wet well/dry well pumping stations should
incorporate the following features:
Normally, two sumps with 2 duty and 1 standby
pump for each sump, for the ultimate flow;
Non-return and two gate valves for each pump
isolation;
Where possible, the discharge manifold should
be below ground level to minimise additional
pipework and friction losses;
Where wet well/dry well pumping stations are
being uprated, dry well submersible pumps
could be considered;
Operation level controls (air reaction) as
follows:
- High level alarm (plus float);
- Pump start;
- Pump stop;
- Low level pump protection (plus
float).
Air reaction level equipment should include
stainless steel dip pipe and duty/standby
compressors.
Where the available pumps have unsuitable duties
for the full range of flows the use of variable speed
drives should be considered. However due to the
additional heat generated in the motor, the approval
variable speed drives are used.
Wet Well Design
sumps and intakes by M. J. Prosser should be
referred to when designing wet wells, which should
incorporate the following features:
Wet wells should be designed to provide a
uniform steady flow of water into any pump
without creating swirl or entraining air.
Unsteady flow can lead to fluctuating loads,
vibration, noise and premature failure. Swirl
can affect the flow capacity, power and
efficiency, it can also result in local vortices that
introduce air into the pump also leading to
fluctuating loads, vibration, noise and
premature failure;
Wet wells should be designed to prevent the
accumulation of sediment, scum and surface
flotsam;
Wet well corners should be benched to 45.
Minimising the sump floor area and residual
volume will increase the velocity into the pumps
and improve scouring;
The use of flushing devices to improve scour in
wet wells should be considered;
The water surface in the wet well should be as
free from waves and turbulence as possible to
provide a strong and reliable echo for ultrasonic
level controls;
At the designed stop level there should still be
sufficient water surface area without
obstructions to provide a good echo return;
Wet wells should be designed so that the
dimensions satisfy the requirements for the
minimum sump volume to avoid excessive
pump starts;
The pump suction pipes should be installed
through the wet/dry well dividing wall with a
downward bend and bellmouth to position the
pump suction as close to the sump floor as
possible to assist in sediment removal;
There should be sufficient space between the
bellmouths to prevent interaction between the
pump suctions.

Drainage Affairs
Dry Well Design
Dry well design should incorporate the following
features:
The pumps should be installed along the
wet/dry well dividing wall with sufficient space
between them to allow access for maintenance
and repair;
The pump distance from the dividing wall will
be set by the length of the protruding stub pipe,
suction valve and pump inlet pipe;
Drive shafts should be supported from concrete
beams spanning the dry well;
Consideration should also be given to access
around the pumps and valves. Platforms and
walkways should be installed to provide access
to all equipment at a suitable level for safe
operation, maintenance and repair;
The general floor level should be higher than
the sump level to reduce the size of pump
plinths and the need for access platforms;
Careful thought should also be given to the
shipping route for removing equipment;
Access to the dry well and machinery should
be by staircase so that tools and equipment
can be carried in and out safely;
Lifting arrangements for the pumps and valves
shall be provided (see also section 2.21 and
2.22);
The dry well floor should slope gently towards
the dividing wall and then to one side where a
sump pump should be installed to keep the
floor as dry as possible;
The sump pump should be installed in a small
well, large enough to accommodate the pump
and should discharge back through the wall
into the wet well. Consideration should be
given to the sump pump discharge to avoid
backflow from the wet well to the dry well;
A high level alarm should be installed in the dry
well to give a warning of flooding before
damage to machinery occurs.
Pump Installation
For the most compact arrangement, a close-coupled
pump can be mounted horizontally with the
discharge upward, however this results in the motor
being low in the dry well and at risk from flooding.
The most common arrangement is for a vertical
pump shaft with the motor above. This will require a
bend between the suction valve and the pump
suction. The bend should be fitted with a handhole
and valve to enable the pump to be drained prior to
maintenance. Further bends may be required to
direct the pump or manifold discharge upwards.
Where space allows, installation of the discharge
manifold at the pump level, with the discharge
directly through the side wall should be considered.
Pipes should be sized to achieve sensible velocities,
and the risk of cavitation through insufficient NPSH
should be considered when designing suction
pipework. Pumps must be selected to ensure
satisfactory operation when only one pump is
operation in a new rising main.
2.12 Pumps and Motors
Centrifugal Pumps
These are the most common type pumps for foul
sewage and are available in a variety of forms. The
pump operates by passing the liquid through a
spinning impeller where energy is added to increase
the pressure and velocity of the liquid. Submersible
pumps are centrifugal pumps.
Sewage pumps should have an open type impeller
with a minimum passage of 100mm. Impellers with
smaller passages are likely to suffer from frequent
blockage due to the nature of sewage debris.
Dry well centrifugal pumps should normally have a
maximum running speed of 980rpm. Submersible
pumps may run at 1450rpm (4 pole motor), but
pumps operating at 2900rpm (2 pole motor) will
suffer excessive wear and premature failure, and
should not be used.
Pump Motors
Motors on submersible pumps should be certified for
use in Zone 1 explosive atmospheres unless
operating continuously submerged. Pumps
operating in dry conditions should have a casing
designed to provide adequate cooling in the
operating conditions.

Drainage Affairs

Pump motors should normally be fed from 415 volts,
50 hertz, 3-phase power supply. For larger motors
690V or 3.3KV motors can be used.
Because additional heat is generated in the motor
when used with a variable speed drive, the approval
VSDs are used.
For dry well and screw pumps where the motors are
installed vertically or at a steep angle, they should
be specifically designed for that purpose, with
adequately rated end thrust bearings.
Where flywheels are installed, the motor rating shall
be suitably uprated.
2.13 Sump Design
sumps and intakes by M.J. Prosser
xli
should be
referred to when designing sumps or wet wells.
Sumps should be designed to provide a uniform
steady flow of water into any pump without creating
swirl or entraining air. Unsteady flow can lead to
fluctuating loads, vibration, noise and premature
failure. Swirl can affect the flow capacity, power and
efficiency. It can also result in local vortices that
introduce air into the pump also leading to
fluctuating loads, vibration, noise and premature
failure.
Sumps should also be designed to prevent the
accumulation of sediment and surface scum.
Most sumps and wet wells at standard pumping
stations will probably be uniform in section and can
be designed to avoid turbulent flows.
Modelling
For non-standard pumping stations, which may have
high flows, multiple pumps or complex shapes, or
where turbulent flows, vortices, swirl or air
entrainment are more likely to occur, modelling
should be considered.
For pumping stations, a physical model built to scale
can be very effective in identifying flow problems
and in some cases modelling by computational fluid
dynamics (CFD) methodology may have benefits.
Modelling is the process of replicating the hydraulic
performance of drainage, pumping and treatment
systems by constructing models of the intended
installations. These models need to be verified
before use to provide confidence that they
adequately represent the actual performance of the
system.
The verified model is then used to test system
performance under its proposed use. The model
must be capable of modification to test various
physical configurations and operating regimes for
the installation, to produce the optimum solution for
actual construction.
Traditionally, physical models were favoured,
especially for coastal/estuary/river systems and
complex pumping installations. In recent years
mathematical models have superseded physical
models. Mathematical models are exploiting
increased computer hardware and software
capability, and are more efficient than physical
models in time and effort.
Physical Models
Physical modelling consists of constructing a
reduced scale, geometrically similar model of a
proposed system, and operating the model to
simulate full-scale flow conditions. Model tests can
provide the designer with the assurance that the
proposed scheme operates satisfactorily, or allows
him to improve the flow conditions and achieve a
better design.
Changes in the model can be made by trial and
error, and are usually based on the experience and
intuitive understanding of the engineer conducting
the tests. The amount of modification which can be
undertaken on a physical model is limited, and
therefore the initial model should be as accurate as
possible.
Factors to be considered in deciding on the need for
physical models include:
The similarity of the proposed scheme to
existing satisfactory designs. As well as the
designers own experience, much information is
available from manufacturers published reports
and design guides. However, it should be
recognised that most large scale and/or
complex designs will be unique, and hence
modelling will be needed;

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The size and cost of the proposed scheme.
Bearing in mind that physical modelling can
take many months with corresponding high
costs, then designers of small schemes should
seek to adopt standard and well-proven
designs for small schemes. Large schemes,
such as terminal pumping stations with multiple
pumps and complex inlet arrangements would
merit modelling;
The time available for modelling. In some
cases the scheme can be well under way to
completion before the possible need for
modelling is realised. Even at such late stages,
modelling can save much time and cost in
modifying construction works.
For pumping stations, all of the intake should be
modelled, including the approach works, the inlets
and the sump itself. Upstream pipelines may need to
be included.
All hydraulically significant details such as screens,
penstocks, support channels and benching, should
be included in the model. No components above
maximum water level need be modelled.
Model construction should be in durable and
waterproof materials, with clear perspex being the
best for viewing purposes. Model size should be as
large as costs allow. Scales can vary from perhaps
1:4 for very small sumps, up to 1:50 for large intakes
to reservoirs or tanks. For sump models, 1:25 would
be the smallest desirable scale.
Physical testing could typically take between one
and six months for construction, testing and
reporting.
Sump Volume
Pump sumps should have a minimum sump volume
calculated to ensure that in the worst flow conditions
any pump installed does not exceed the maximum
allowable starts per hour. The CIRIA guide The
hydraulic design of pump sumps and intakes by
M.J. Prosser
xli
should be referred to when designing
sumps or wet wells.
The minimum sump volume is the volume between
the start and stop levels of the duty pump and for a
single pump the worst case occurs when the inflow
is exactly half of the pumping rate.
To calculate the minimum sump volume for a
specific pump the formula contained in the above
CIRIA guide is:
T = 4V/Qp
Equation 2.13.1
Where:
T is the cycle time for the pump, e.g. if the
recommended maximum starts per hour for
a pump is 10, then the cycle time will be 6
minutes (60/10 = 6)
V is the volume of sump between the start and
stop levels in m
3

Qp is the pumping rate in m
3
/minute
Therefore if Qp is 1.2m
3
/min (20l/s) and the
maximum number of starts is 10/hour, the volume
required will be:
V (m
3
) = 6(min) x 1.2(m
3
/min) / 4
V = 1.8m
3

For 10 starts per hour this could also be expressed
as:
V = 1.5 x Qp
The sump volume when multiple pumps are installed
is calculated as for a single pump, where the
minimum sump volume is the capacity between the
start and stop level for each pump. However,
additional capacity is required to allow a vertical
distance of 150mm between the start or stop levels
of consecutive pumps.
With sewage there is a possibility of septicity,
therefore there are restraints on the maximum
volume of the sump related to the retention time of
the liquid in that sump.
Maximum and minimum start / stop
levels
The minimum stop level should be the level at which
the pump can be stopped and restarted without
losing suction or as specified by the pump
manufacturer.
To avoid turbulence and odour release at foul
sewage pumping stations, the lowest pump stop

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level is usually set at the invert of the incoming
sewer, the last section of which is laid to a steep fall
to avoid the sewer being used as the sump.
The minimum start level should be the required
distance above the stop level to provide the
minimum sump volume.
Allowable pump starts per hour
The maximum allowable starts per hour should be
as specified by the pump or motor manufacturer. In
the absence of any specified figure the following are
suitable guidance figures:
Less than 100kW - 15 starts/hour
100kW < 200kw - 10 starts/hour
>200kW - 8 starts/hour
Stop / start levels for single and
multiple pump operation
The start and stop levels for single pump operation
should be set within the maximum and minimum
start / stop levels defined in the previous section,
provided that the minimum sump volume is
attainable.
The start level for each additional pump should be
set a suitable height above the previous pump to
prevent accidental pump starts caused by surface
waves or level sensor errors.
The stop level for each additional pump should be
set at the required distance below the start level to
provide the minimum sump volume for that particular
pump. The stop level will normally be just above the
previous duty pump stop level.
The effect of flywheels should be considered in
determining stop/start levels because the flywheel
increases the pump start-up and stop times.
Pump duty level
The pump duty level for a single pump should be the
midpoint between the pump start and stop levels.
For multiple pump installations it should be the
midpoint between the top water level (last duty
pump start level) and the bottom water level (first
duty pump stop level).
Pumps should also operate within their performance
curve at both top and bottom water levels under
single or multiple pump operation.
2.14 Suction/Delivery
Pipework, and Valves
Pipework
Only superior materials are acceptable for use in
pumping station pipework. The pipework installation
should incorporate the following features:
Sufficient bends and flange adapters to allow
easy dismantling and removal of pumps, non-
return valves or other major items of
equipment;
Each dry well pump should be installed with
suction and discharge isolation valves to permit
isolation of the pump from the wet sump and
discharge pipework for maintenance;
Each submersible pump should be installed
with a discharge isolation valve to permit
isolation of the pump from the discharge
pipework for maintenance;
Each pump should also be fitted with a non-
return valve to prevent reverse flow back
through the pump when stopped;
Valves should be positioned to permit the
removal of each pump and non return valve
without draining either the wet well or discharge
manifold, and allow the other pumps to
continue operating normally;
Suction isolating valves for dry well pumps
should be bolted directly to a flanged pipe
securely fixed through the sump wall;
Discharge isolation valves should be bolted
directly to a flange on the discharge pipe or
manifold;
Discharge non-return valves should be bolted
directly to the discharge isolation valve. They
should be installed in horizontal pipework with
a short length of pipe and a flange adapter on
the pump side to allow dismantling;

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Where the pump delivery pipework joins the
pumping station discharge manifold, the entry
should be horizontal;
At the opposite end of the pumping station
discharge manifold, a valved connection back
to the sump should be provided for draining the
discharge pipework, or flushing the sump;
Consideration should be given to providing an
isolating valve on the pumping main before it
leaves the pumping station/chamber and
before any over pumping connection, to allow
the pumping station to be fully isolated and the
fixed pipework drained for repair;
All flexible couplings should be restrained on
both sides by securely fixed equipment, thrust
blocks or tie straps across the coupling to
prevent displacement of the coupling under
pressure.
Valves
Valves should incorporate the following features:
Isolation valves for sewage should be of the
double-flanged wedge-gate type with a bolt-on
bonnet. When fully open, the gate should be
withdrawn completely from the flow. The valve
should have an outside screw rising stem and
the handwheel direction of operation should be
clockwise to close. Station valves should have
metal seats;
Valves greater than 350mm diameter should be
fitted with actuators. Where installed in
chambers they could be fitted with non-rising
stems to limit the headroom required;
Reflux valves for sewage should be of the
double flanged, quick action single door type,
designed to minimise slam on closure by
means of heavy doors, weighted as necessary.
The door hinge pin/shaft should extend through
the side of the body and be fitted with an
external lever to permit back flushing;
Reflux valves should be provided with covers
for cleaning and maintenance without the need
to remove the valve from the pipeline. The
covers should be large enough so that the flap
can be removed and the valve can be cleaned;
The non-return valves should have proximity
switches to prevent dry running and allow a
change of duty (standby on high level will then
start);
All reflux valves should be installed in the
horizontal plane;
Butterfly valves should not be used with
sewage.
2.15 Pumping System
Characteristics
NPSH, Vibration, Cavitation and Noise
Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH) is used to check
the pumping installation for the risk of cavitation.
Cavitation is the formation and collapse of vapour
bubbles in a liquid. Vapour bubbles are formed
when the static pressure at a point within a liquid
falls below the pressure at which the liquid will
vaporise. When the bubbles are subjected to a
higher pressure they collapse causing local shock
waves, if this happens near a surface, erosion can
occur.
Cavitation will typically occur in the impeller of a
centrifugal pump, where it can cause noise and
vibration as well as affecting the pump efficiency. If
allowed to persist it can lead to damage to the pump
or even breaking away of foundations.
NPSH is the minimum total pressure head required
in a pump at a particular flow/head duty. It is
normally shown as a curve on the pump
performance sheet.
NPSH = Pa Vp + Hs Fs
Equation 2.15.1
Where:
Pa = atmospheric pressure at liquid free surface
Vp = vapour pressure of liquid
Hs = height of supply liquid free surface, above eye
of pump impeller
Fs = suction entry and friction losses

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In order to avoid cavitation, the NPSH available
should be at least 1m greater than the NPSH
required by the selected pump at all operating
conditions.
When calculating NPSH, absolute values for
atmospheric and liquid vapour pressures are used.
Pump Duty Point
Each pump has a performance curve where the flow
is plotted against head.
Each pipework system has a friction curve where
the friction head is plotted against flow.
The system curve is obtained by adding the static
head to the friction losses and plotting the total head
against the flow.
The pump duty point is where the pump
performance curve and the system curve cross. It
shows the flow that a particular pump will deliver
through the pipework system at a particular total
head at the pump duty level.
In multiple pump installations, it is essential that the
operating conditions of a single pump running are
carefully checked to ensure that the pump will
operate at maximum and minimum static heads
satisfactorily, and without risk of cavitation.
The duty point should be used when considering the
suitability of alternative pumps for a particular duty
by comparing the efficiency and power requirements
for each pump at the duty point.

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Figure 2.15.1 Characteristic Curve for Multiple Pumps

Characteristic curve for
new pipe

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2.16 Sump Pumps and
Over-Pumping
Facilities
Sump pumps should be provided for all dry wells
and wet wells at pumping stations. For dry wells
they should be used to remove any water that may
collect at low level. For wet wells, they should be
used to empty the wet well prior to man entry.
Over-pumping facilities should be provided where
there is a single sump and access may be required
for repair of pumps/screens/etc. A suction chamber
should be provided before the pumping station, with
a penstock to isolate all flows into the pump sump. A
connection into the pumping main should be
provided for the over-pumping discharge.
Consideration should be given to providing an
isolating valve on the pumping main before the over-
pumping connection to allow the pumping station to
be fully isolated and the fixed pipework drained for
repair.
Sump Pump Installations
Sump pumps should incorporate the following
feature:
Sump pumps should discharge to the wet well
above the water level to prevent gas release;
Discharge pipes should be fitted with a non-
return valve and isolating valve, in an easily
accessible position;
The sump pump should be fitted with a
discharge connection and guide rail to allow
the pump to be easily removed from the sump
for cleaning or unblocking;
Where a temporary sump pump is to be used,
a power supply point and discharge connection
should be provided. Both should be located at
a high level in the dry well, and be easily
accessible from the access walkways.
Sump pumps should be installed in a sump of
sufficient dimensions for the proposed pump and
allow a suitable level controller to operate within the
sump, the minimum depth should be 300mm.
The sump pumps should be sized for the possible
leakage of glands and seals. A guide should be
0.5l/s for each leakage point, with a minimum of 5l/s.
An assessment should also be made of any possible
inflow from outside the dry well (i.e. rain and
flooding).
2.17 Power Calculations
including Standby
Generation
2.17.1 Introduction
A standby power generator set is essential in
applications where the loss of the power supply can
not be accepted due to critical loads. The generator
set configuration and sizing will vary from one
application to another dependent on the load type,
operation characteristics, site condition, and
application requirements.
The sizing and selection of the generator set should
take into consideration the aspects raised in the
following sub-sections.
2.17.2 Load Type
In some applications, the total connected load in the
pumping station will need to be powered from the
generator set in case of power failure, while in other
locations only the essential load will need to be kept
running (partial loads). The designer should
consider the requirements according to the site
characteristics and the proposed application, to size
the required generator set. The following points are
to be investigated at the initial stage to select the
type of generator that is required:
Voltage level according to load voltage level
(415v, 3.3kv, 6.6kv, 11kv);
Total generator connected load;
Individual load characteristics such as kilowatt
rating, maximum allowable voltage dip by the
motor manufacturer, starting method, sequence
of operation;
Load type - inductive or capacative;
Load profile.

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2.17.3 Site condition
The site condition should also be examined and the
following data collected and submitted to the
generator set manufacturer to be considered in the
sizing process:
ambient temperature;
elevation above sea level;
humidity;
wind direction and dust contamination in air;
nearby residential areas for sound level
consideration.
2.17.4 Generator set operation
and control
The generator set operation and control varies from
application to application depending on the following
points:
Number of units to be controlled;
Manual or automatic synchronisation;
Manual or automatic start-up;
Manual or automatic changeover switch
between main local authority incomer and main
generator set incomer (control panel outgoing
feeder).
2.17.5 Type of installation
Standby generator sets can be installed by different
means according to the site requirement and unit
size. The type of installation can be categorised in
the following ways:
Building installation: The unit will be installed
inside a building suitable to accommodate all
the units and their ancillaries. This type of
installation is recommended in large or major
pumping stations, or treatment plants;
Weatherproof enclosure: The unit is mounted
inside a weatherproof enclosure on a trailer
suitable for transportation between different
sites;
Soundproof enclosure: The unit is installed
inside a soundproof enclosure, mounted on a
trailer suitable for transportation and operation
in residential areas;
Skid mounted unit: For temporary site work
(e.g. construction site).
2.17.6 Type of Control Panel
The control panel can be unit mounted (on the
generator set unit) or remotely mounted (inside the
control room).
The control panel is used to operate and monitor the
unit in case of power failure. Panels have many
options depending on the type of operation required,
and the mode of operation (one unit, two units,
automatic start, manual start, etc).
2.17.7 Ventilation system
Unit ventilation and the cooling system are critical
parts of the overall system performance and
capability. The ventilation system is required to keep
the surrounding atmosphere temperature as per the
specified ambient temperature, to avoid any
temperature rise due to heat generation from the
engine. The ventilation system should be by the
means of forcing air out of the room using a fan
installed at a level above the highest point in the
generator (e.g. roof mounted or wall mounted). The
air will be delivered through air louvers mounted at
the lowest permissible level to avoid sand ingress
from the surrounded area and at the same time to
guarantee airflow across the generator set body.
In addition to the room ventilation, the generator
should have an engine driven fan. This will draw air
through sand trap louvers in the wall, and over the
alternator and engine, discharging the air through a
set mounted radiator and wall mounted outlet
louvers.
2.17.8 Fuel system
The fuel system usually consists of a main storage
tank, daily fuel tank, fuel transfer system, and fuel
line between tanks and the generator set:

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Main storage tank. This will be required in
applications where the fuel consumption at site
is very high due to a large number of units
installed, or due to the difficulty in providing
daily supply of fuel to the site. In that case, the
storage facility of the main storage tank should
be sufficient for three days consumption. The
bulk tanks should normally be mounted partially
below ground level within bunds to enable the
day tank to empty under gravity back to the
bulk tank in the event of a fire;
Daily fuel tank. The daily fuel tank should be
suitable for eight hours full load operation, and
normally mounted on a stand beside the
generator set to enable gravity feed to the
engine;
The fuel transfer system. A fuel transfer system
is required between the main tank and daily
tank to keep the daily tank full and ready for
operation. The tank level should never fall
below a minimum level. The system consists of
transfer pumps, level sensor, control panel,
valves (solenoid valves, actuated valves, hand
operated valves) and flow meter to monitor the
units consumption, as well as the delivery
supply to the main tanks.
A thermal cut-off link must be mounted above
the engine, arranged to close both a valve on
the fuel line between the day tank and the
engine, and also a dump valve to drain the day
tank back to the bulk tank in the event of a fire.
2.17.9 Starting method
The generator starter method is usually one of the
following methods:
Air starting method. This type of starting is
suitable for large generator sets requiring a
high starting torque, especially medium and low
speed engines (750RPM, 600RPM). This
usually consists of:
a) Air operated starter unit (sized by the
generator set manufacturer);
b) Air tank vessel (suitable for six starts
before refill);
c) Electrically operated air compressor unit
(capable of refilling the tank within 15
minutes);
d) Diesel operated air compressor with the
same capacity working as backup for
the electrical air compressor;
e) Air piping between air vessel and starter
unit.
Electrical starting method. This type of starter is
suitable for small loads, transportable and
enclosed units, which work at high speeds
(1500RPM). The starting method consists of an
electrically operated starter, battery, and
charging alternator. A battery charger is
required to keep the battery fully charged and
ready for operation in cases where the unit is
rarely operated. The battery type should be
maintenance free for high reliability starting;
Starting aid. Some applications require
immediate starting and load handling without
any delay due to critical load type. To get the
generator set ready for such an application the
unit should be equipped with a jacket water
heater to keep the engine warm and ready for
load immediately after starting without any
delay for warming the engine before applying
the load.
2.17.10 Service facility
The generator set building should be equipped with
an overhead crane capable of lifting the heaviest
part likely to be encountered during maintenance of
the generator set. The main inlet and outlet louvers
and building shall be designed such that the
complete generator set can be installed and
removed through the louver openings. For container
or enclosure units, a lifting facility should be
provided for offloading and transporting the unit. The
enclosure should be capable of having the side and
roof dismantled and removed for ease of
maintenance and parts replacement.
2.17.11 Generator set sizing
The following procedure can be used to size the
generator set according to the available data from
pump motors and other loads (e.g. lighting/other

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non-motor load) as well as the sequence of
operation, and starting of the motor:
1) Starting KVA (SKVA) calculation
- Calculate lock rotor current (LRA) = for DOL x
Full load current
- Calculate the SKVA = (LRA V * 1.732)/1000
2) Effective SKVA
Use Table 2.17.1 as a guideline for calculating the
effective SKVA.
Suppose that we have three motors, which will start
and run in sequence (motor-1, motor-2 and motor-
3).
Using the highest effective SKVA calculated and the
required voltage DIP (10%, 20%, and 30%) as
specified by the motor manufacturer, the generator
set can be selected from the data sheet provided by
the generator set manufacturer.

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Table 2.17.1 Guide to Generator Set Sizing Effective SKVA
Step Motor 1 Motor 2 Motor 3 Comments
1 Motor load (KW) A B C KW motor/ motor
efficiency
2 Starting KVA (SKVA) X Y Z LRA*V*
1.732 /1000

3 Total motor load connected
before the required motor start
in sequence
0 A

A+B

4 Total motor load connected
after motors have been
started in sequence
A A+B A+B+C

5 (Step3/Step4)*100 0 (A/(A+B))*100 ((A+B)/(A+B+C))*100

6 Using step-5 result, obtain
compensation for motor
already started from fig.2.17.1
D E F From Fig. 2.17.1
7 Multiply
(step-2xstep-6)
X*D

Y*E Z*F
8 Obtain the reduce voltage
factor from fig.2.17.2
Q R S From Table 2.17.2
9 Effective SKVA
( Step-7 x Step-8)

0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
40 50 60 70 80 90 100
multiplier

Figure 2.17.1 - Reduced voltage starting factor

Table 2.17.2 - Reduce voltage starting factor
Type Multiply SKVA BY
Star/Delta 0.33
Auto transformer
80% , 65%, 50%
0.68, 0.46 , 0.29
DOL 1.0
Solid state Estimate 300% of full load KVA

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Worked example:
The following motors required a standby generator
i. 90 kw 3-phase motor, soft starter , voltage dip 30%
ii. 70 kw 3-phase motor, star/delta ,voltage dip 30%
iii. 45 kw 3-phase motor , direct online (DOL), voltage dip 30%
1- Calculated Locked rotor current
90 kw motor = 6 x 90,000 = 939 amp
3 x 415x0.8
75 kw motor = 6 x 75,000 = 730 amp
3 x 415x0.8
45 kw motor = 6 x 45,000 = 469amp
3 x 415x0.8
2- Calculated SKVA
90 kw motor = 939 x 415 X 1.732 = 674.9
1000
75 kw motor = 730 x 415 X 1.732 = 524.7
1000
90 kw motor = 469 x 415 X 1.732 = 337.1
1000
Table 2.17.3 Generator Set Sizing Worked Example
Ste
p
Motor1 Motor 2 Motor 3 Comments

1

Motor load KW

90

70

45

KW motor/ motor efficiency
2 Starting KVA (SKVA) 674.9 524.7 337.1
LRA*V*1.732/1000

3 Total motor load connected before the
required motors start in sequence
0 90 160
4 Total motor load connected after motors
have been started in sequence
90 160 205

5
(Step-3/step-4)*100 0 56.3 78
6 Using step-5 result obtain
compensation for already start motor
1 1.15 1.25 from Fig. 2.17.1
7 Multiply
(step-2xstep-6)
674.9 603.4 421.4
8 Obtain the reduce voltage factor 3 0.33 1 from Table 2.17.2
9 Effective SKVA ( Step-7 xstep-8) 337.5 199.1 421.4 NB Motor 1 is a solid state starter

The selected generator will be sized for the highest effective SKVA @30% Voltage dip = 421.4KVA.

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2.18 Switch Gear and
Control Panels
Low voltage switchgear and control panels form the
link between the electrical load, such as; motors,
lighting, actuator valves, air conditioning equipment
and the power generation source (main authority
supply, generator set).
The design of the switchboard should take into
consideration the points discussed in the following
sub-sections.
2.18.1 Typetested and partially
type tested assemblies
(TTA and PTTA)
According to BS EN60439-1
xliii
the low voltage
switchgear (assembly) and its component parts shall
be made in a way that it can be safely assembled
and connected. Assure that this configuration of
assembly and its components are safely operated
without any risk to the operator or equipment. Some
of the risks that can affect the operation to be
considered include:
1. Direct and indirect contact with live parts;
2. Temperature rise;
3. Electrical Arc;
4. Overload;
5. Insulation failure;
6. Mechanical failure.
To achieve a type-tested assembly (TTA) the
following performance requirements should be
verified:
Temperature rise limits;
Dielectric properties;
Short circuit withstand strength (main circuit);
Effectiveness of protective circuit;
Short circuit withstand strength of the protective
circuit;
Clearance and creepage distance;
Mechanical operation test;
IP degree of protection.
The partially type-tested assemblies (PTTA) are
assemblies that contain both type-tested and non
type-tested arrangements (derived by calculation
from the type-tested arrangements compliant with
tests required for TTA).
2.18.2 Total connected load
The control panel sizing and design to cover the
demand of the total load connected, including the
standby load.
2.18.3 Short circuit level
The short circuit level calculation carried out
according to the total connected load and power
source from the local authority electricity network.
The short circuit level is one of the most important
criteria in switchboard design. Its importance arises
from the need to protect the equipment with the
correct protection device, suitable for the specific
level of short circuit, so that no damage or harm can
affect the equipment or human safety. Care must be
taken in the design stage to control the fault level. If
the total connected load is too high, the total
connected load to the switchgear can be split into
two or more assemblies to reduce the fault level.
The short circuit level can be calculated according to
the following steps.
Step-1 Determine the transformer full load amperes:
I(fl) = KVAx100
0
E (l-l) x
1.732
Equation
2.18.1
Where:
I(fl) = transformer full load
KVA = transformer capacity volt ampere
E (l-l) = line to line voltage
Step-2 Find the transformer multiplier

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Equation 2.18.2

Where:
Z (T) = transformer impedance
Step-3 Determine the transformer let through short
circuit current
I s.c = I (fl) x Multiplier
Equation 2.18.3
Where:
I s.c = transformer let through short circuit current
Table 2.18.1 shows some examples of expected
and standard fault level.
Table 2.18.1 Example of Expected and
Standard Fault Level
Short circuit level Type of application
16KA/1sec Distribution board
(250 Amp)
35KA/1sec Motor Control Centre
(400 Amp)
50KA/1sec OR 50
KA/3sec
Motor Control Centre
(2000 Amp)
80KA/1sec OR
80KA/3sec
(3000 Amp)
120KA/1sec OR
120KA/3sec
(5000 Amp)
2.18.4 Type of co-ordination
Electrical component co-ordination according to IEC
97-4-1
xliv
, provides two types of protection.
Manufacturers test components such as contactors
and circuit breakers in unison to confirm what will
happen under short circuit conditions.
According to IEC 947-4-1, the co-ordination between
the electrical components can be categorised into
the following two types:
Type 1: co-ordination (personal safety only);
Type 2: co-ordination (personal/components
safety).
The designer, where possible, should select type-2
co-ordination to assure full protection of personal
safety as
well as the electrical components. In the event of a
short circuit, this type of co-ordination will ensure
that the components are reusable after fault
clearance. Type-1 co-ordination only guarantees
personal and electrical installation safety, and the
equipment may not be able to resume operation
without repair or replacement of the affected part.
2.18.5 Form of internal
separation
The form of separation should be according to BS
EN60439-1
xliii
or suitable equivalent. The designer
should consider Form-4 (see Figure 2.18.1) in all
designs for high personal safety and equipment
protection.
In the case of multiple incomers and/or feeders,
Form-4 should be considered for ease of
maintenance without the need for interruption to
other equipment as would be the case with Form-2
In case of multi-incomer and outgoing
starters/feeders, Form-4 should be considered for
ease of carrying out maintenance without
interruption to other equipment, in case of isolation
of certain feeders.
The Type to be used can vary between Type-3 and
Type-7 as shown in Figure 2.18.1, diagram (1& 2).
According to the project requirements or budget
limitations, Form-2, Type-2 (diagram-3, Figure
2.18.1) should be considered in some applications,
such as unit mounted control panels (e.g. scrubber
units, sludge drying beds) where the shutdown of
the unit is mandatory to carry out maintenance on
the unit.
I s.c = I (fl) x Multiplier
Multiplier = 100
%Z (T)

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Figure 2.18.1 Form and Type of Internal
Separation

Form-4 type-3: Diagram-1
Cable gland
Internal
Separation
Enclosure
Terminal for
external
conductor
Bus bar
Function
unit

Form-4-Type-7: Diagram-2
Internal
Separation
Enclosure
Terminal for
external
conductor
Bus bar
Function
unit

Form 2 Type-2: Diagram-3
Internal
Separation
Enclosure
Terminal for
external
conductor
Bus bar
Function
unit
Cable gland

2.18.6 Bus Bar rating
The bus bar rating should be suitable to carry the
total connected load. As mentioned previously,
consider any future loads by increasing the size of
the bus bars and also consider the suitability of
extension at both ends.

2.18.7 Type of starter
The designer should consider the following points
when choosing the starter type to be used.
Motor size
The motor size (kW) will determine if a standard
starter can be used (direct on line DOL or start delta
starter Y/D), or if a more advanced type of starter
such as a soft starter is required. The main issue to
consider is the starting current. The greater the (kW)
rating, the greater the starting current required. A
high starting current has an overall effect on the
system stability and other equipment installed. The
following ratings can be considered as general
guidelines only. The designer should apply
knowledge and experience to justify the starter
method to be used.
Table 2.18.2 Guideline Starter Methods for
Motor Ratings (kW)
Motor rating KW Starting method
5kw Direct online (DOL)
5 kW 25 Star delta (Y/D)
>25kw Soft starter ( solid
state drive) (S/S)

Motor duty and application
The motor duty will vary according to its application.
The following table gives examples of such duties.
Table 2.18.3 Example Motor Duties and
Applications
Duty type Application example
Continuous run at
constant load and
speed
Potable water
Short run at
constant load and
Sewage pumping station

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speed
Continuous run at
variable load and
speed
Irrigation network
Intermittent
periodic duty
Injection system

Motor Application
The type of motor starter can also be selected
according to the motor application as mentioned in
Table 2.18.3, as a high number of starts per hour
will cause even a small motor to overheat. An
example of a suitable starter for each application is
presented in Table 2.18.4.
Table 2.18.4 - Example Starter Methods for Duty
Types
Duty type Starter
Continuous run at
constant load and
speed
DOL, Y/D, S/S
Short run at
constant load and
speed
DOL, Y/D
S/S if sufficient cooling
time between operations
Continuous run at
variable load and
speed
VSD
Intermittent
periodic duty
D.C starter, DOL
Notes: DOL: direct online, Y/D: star/delta , s/S:
soft starter, VSD: variable speed drive
Voltage level
Starter type can be varied according to the voltage
level. In the medium voltage range (e.g. 3.3kv) the
starting current will be very low when compared with
a lower voltage (e.g. 415v). In this case, the use of a
direct contact starter would be acceptable.
Cost considerations
The cost of the starter should also be considered
when compared to the motor size and application.
As an example, a soft starter could be used to
reduce the starting current for a 10kW motor. Taking
into account the cost of the soft starter and
comparing it to the cost of the motor, the starter
could cost more than the motor however.
Star delta starters can for most applications be
considered more economically viable than a soft
starter, therefore balance the motor cost against soft
starter cost.
2.18.8 Protection device
The designer should categorise all loads connected
to the switchgear according to critical status in the
process and effect on operator safety. Table 2.18.5
provides examples.

Table 2.18.5 Examples of Protection Required
for Load Types
Load type
Type of
protection
Protective device
Main
incomer
feeder
(local
authority/
generator
set)
Overload, short
circuit,
restricted earth
fault, phase
losses, phase
reveres.
- main MCCB or
ACB

Pump,
grinder
Overload, short
circuit, earth
leakage, phase
losses, phase
reveres, under
voltage, motor
stall, winding
temperature.
1- conventional
protection device
(OLR), MCCB
2- Electronic
protection devices
3- motor manager
protection unit
Valve
actuator
Overload, short
circuit, earth
leakage.
Conventional
protection device
(OLR), ELCB
Instrument
(level/ flow/
pressure)
Overload, short
circuit, earth
leakage
Conventional
protection device
(OLR), ELCB
Building
services
(lighting/
sockets)
Overload, short
circuit, earth
leakage, phase
losses , phase
reverses.
Conventional
protection device
MCB, ELCB, Fuses

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Note: ELCB = Earth leakage circuit breaker
OLR = Over load relay
MCCB = Moulded case circuit breaker
ACB = Air circuit breaker
Type of protection
1. Short circuit protection:
This type of protection is required to protect the
equipment against short circuit (with three
phase, two phase or single phase), which can
occur due to: insulation failure or damage, or by
an incorrect switching operation. Short circuits
are associated with electrical arcs and can
therefore pose a fire risk.
2. Overload protection:
equipment against overload current which is
due to operational over current present for an
excessive period of time. This over current will
raise the motor winding or cable temperature
above the permissible level and shorten the
service life of the insulation. The task of
overload protection is to allow normal
operational overload current to flow, but to
interrupt these currents before the permissible
loading period is exceeded.
3. Under/over voltage protection:
equipment against over/under voltage which is
present due to main power supply instability
(e.g. transformer tap changing/load fluctuating)
or unstable supply from a standby generator
(due to large load connected, faulty governor or
voltage regulator). Operation with an under-
voltage condition will draw more current from
the supply, this over current will raise the motor
winding or cable temperatures above the
permissible level and shorten the service life of
the insulation. The same will be the case with
over-voltage which will effect the insulation of
the motor or cable leading to insulation failure.
This type of protection can be applied at the
main incomers of the switchgear by a special
relay to sense the voltage supply and trip the
main incomers if the set limits are exceeded.
4. Phase losses/phase reversal protection:
equipment against phase loss from the main
supply, or phase reversal which can happen in
the event of main supply reconnection or
reconnection of the motor after maintenance.
Operation with phase loss will raise the motor
winding temperature due to an unbalanced
current in the motor winding. In the case of
phase reversal, the motor direction will be
reversed, which will result in equipment
damage or faulty operation (pump vibration,
high sound levels etc). This type of protection
can be applied at the main incomers of the
switchgear or motor feeder by a special relay to
sense the phase status (direction/availability)
and trip the main incomers/feeder when a fault
occurs.
5. Earth leakage protection:
This type of protection is required to: protect
the equipment and personnel in the event of
indirect contact; give additional protection in the
event of single phase direct contact; earth fault
protection; and protection against fires resulting
from earth fault leakage current.
switchgear outgoing feeders (motor /
distribution board) by a special relay which
senses the earth leakage current through a
summation current transformer, the unbalanced
current from the transformer will release a
mechanism that will trip the breaker when a
fault occurs.
6. Motor protection relay (electronic relay):
This type of protection is used to protect the
motor against many faults that can affect the
motor operation and safety. The actual
protection type can be varied according to the
motor application (critical/normal) and size
(cost). The following types of protection can be
achieved by a motor protection relay:
Over / under current;
Phase loss/ unbalance/reversal;
Ground fault;
Locked rotor;

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Motor stall.
motor terminals. The fault signal from the relay
will release a mechanism that will trip the
breaker when a fault occurs. Fault indication
will usually be displayed on a LCD screen or by
indication LEDs.
2.18.9 Interlocking facility
An interlocking facility is required where more than
one incomer is used in the switchgear required.
Some examples are as follows:
Supply from two transformers/local authority
supply;
Supply from two incomers - one from
transformer/local authority supply, and one
from standby generator(s) panel;
Supply from three incomers - two from
transformers/local authority supply, and one
from standby generator(s) panel.
The interlock facility should guarantee the safety of
operation by not allowing under any condition the
connection of two different incomers to the same
bus bar section (transformer/transformer) or
(transformer /generator) or main bus bars with the
bus coupler closed.
2.18.10 Accessibility
The panel access for cable termination and
maintenance can be arranged in the following
format:
Front access (suitable for installation area with
limited space at the back of the MCC);
Back access (suitable for installation area with
available space at the back of the MCC,
minimum one metre);
Front/back access.
2.18.11 Cable entry
Cable entry to the MCC can be arranged in the
following format:
Bottom entry (suitable for MCC fixed at the top
of cable/MCC trench);
Top entry (suitable for MCC with cables such
as feeders and incomers installed at ground
level or above the MCC top level). Top entry
panels are not preferred and should only be
used in special circumstances.
Cables should be sized and installed in accordance
with the IEE (Electrical Wiring) Regulations and
QGEWC Regulations, and de-rated in accordance
with the Electrical Research Association Report No.
69-30
xlv
.
Instrument, alarm, and control cables should be
segregated from power cables.
The designer should consider the following when
selecting cable routes:
Number, size and function of cables;
Access for installation and maintenance;
Interface with other equipment, e.g. cable
routes should not prevent other equipment
being removed for maintenance;
Risk of mechanical damage ;
Means of support;
Effect of installation method on de-rating
factors;
Hazardous area classification.
2.19 PLCs
SCADA/Telemetry
2.19.1 PLC
PLC stands for Programmable Logic Controller. The
PLC is a microprocessor-based device which is
programmed to perform certain controlling tasks.
The PLC is the brain of the overall process. It can
receive analogue and digital signals from the
process devices, analyse them and send digital and
analogue signals to control these devices or activate
certain alarms.

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PLCs were originally used for controlling purposes.
Almost all PLCs are now equipped with signal
transmitters (i.e. include some RTU features) that
are capable of transmitting data to the network
operation centre.
A redundant PLC system with hot standby
configuration is highly recommended for critical
applications where uninterrupted control is required.
The power supply for the PLC system is usually
24Vdc or 110Vac. In case of power failure, the
equipment should be backed up by a UPS system,
which can supply the PLC with up to eight hours of
power depending on the importance of the process.
The modular type CPU (Central Processing Unit) in
the PLC is capable of: solving application logic;
storing the application program; storing numerical
values related to the application processes and
logic; and interfacing to the I/O systems.
The PLC carries out PID control, which is a
significant task. PID (Proportional-Integral-
Derivative) control action allows the process control
to accurately maintain a setpoint by adjusting the
control outputs. For example, pump flowrate setpoint
is maintained by the following:
Proportioning Band: is the area around the
setpoint where the controller is actually
controlling the process. The output is at some
level other than 100% or 0%. The band is
generally centred around the setpoint (on single
output controls), causing the output to be at
50% when the setpoint and the flow rate are
equal;
Automatic Reset (Integral): corrects for any
offset (between setpoint and process variable)
automatically over time by shifting the
proportioning band. Reset redefines the output
requirements at the setpoint until the process
variable (flowrate) and the setpoint are equal;
Rate (Derivative): shifts the proportioning band
on a slope change of the process variable.
Rate, in effect applies the brakes in an attempt
to prevent overshoot (or undershoot) on
process upsets or start-up. Unlike Reset, Rate
operates anywhere within the range of the
instrument. Rate usually has an adjustable time
constant and should be set much shorter than
reset. The larger the time constant, the more
effect Rate will have;
Modulated Simplex I/O system: is the preferred
solution for safe process since the duplex
(redundant) I/O system is usually expensive,
and the modulated simplex I/O configuration
guarantees that any failure of a single I/O card
will not cause the relevant I/O rack to fail. For
instance, if a rack contains three I/O cards,
which controls three pumps (two duty, one
standby), the failure of one card will cause the
whole pumping process to fail. In Modulated
Simplex I/O systems however, it will cause the
failure of one pump, which will be classed as
the standby pump, and the other two pumps
will continue run normally.
2.19.2 RTU
RTU stands for Remote Telemetry Unit. This unit
delivers remote information back to network
operation centres. Operations staff can access
remote sites that have RTUs, via a web browser,
SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol)
Manager, and XML (Extensible Markup Language).
If an ethernet connection is not available, then the
RTU's may be accessed via PSTN (Public Switched
Telephone Network), normal dialup and even SMS
(Short Message Service) messaging.
Earlier generation RTUs were hardwired and
supported limited functionalitys such as data
transfer and alarming. The new generation RTUs
are equipped with powerful processors that allow the
RTU to control certain instruments and devices, and
to receive/transmit analogue and digital I/O
(input/output) signals.
The microprocessor based RTU have a proven track
record within the water and wastewater industry, a
robust modular construction, and are constructed for
ease of maintenance and repair. These are
intelligent devices, capable of handling data
collection, logging, report by exception, data
retrieval and pump sequence control programs.
RTUs equipped with RS232/485 links are
recommended for interconnection to standalone
control systems, standard equipment packages and
PLCs (Programmable Logic Controller). A dedicated

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serial port should be provided for connecting a
hand-held programming unit or PC.
The RTU software enables the RTU to process local
input equipment information, before transmitting it to
the master station to reduce transmission
overheads. A report by exception operation is
necessary for cost effective communication. The
report is triggered by change of state of digital
values, analogues reaching threshold values or
varying by specified amounts. The RTU also reports
when polled, and when the memory buffer is full.
2.19.3 SCADA and Telemetry
Systems
Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition (SCADA)
is an industrial measurement and control system
consisting of a central host or master (usually called
a master station, master terminal unit or MTU); one
or more field data gathering and control units or
remotes (RTUs); and a collection of standard and/or
custom software used to monitor and control
remotely located field data elements. Contemporary
SCADA systems exhibit predominantly open-loop
control characteristics and utilise predominantly long
distance communications, although some elements
of closed-loop control and/or short distance
communications may also be present.
Systems similar to SCADA systems are routinely
seen in factories and treatment plants. These are
often referred to as Distributed Control Systems
(DCS). They have similar functions to SCADA
systems, but the field data gathering or control units
are usually located within a more confined area.
Communications may be via a local area network
(LAN), and will normally be reliable and high speed.
A DCS system usually employs significant amounts
of closed loop control.
SCADA systems on the other hand generally cover
larger geographic areas, and rely on a variety of
communication systems that are normally less
reliable than a LAN. Closed loop control in this
situation is less desirable.
The main use of SCADA is to monitor and control
plant or equipment. The control may be automatic,
or initiated by operator commands. The data
acquisition is accomplished by the RTU's scanning
the field inputs connected to the RTU (it may be also
called a PLC - programmable logic controller). This
is usually at a fast rate. The central host will scan
the RTU's (usually at a slower rate). The data is
processed to detect alarm conditions, and if an
alarm is present, it will be displayed on special alarm
lists.
Data can be of three main types:
Analogue data (i.e. real numbers) will be
trended (i.e. placed in graphs);
Digital data (on/off) may have alarms attached
to one state or the other;
Pulse data (e.g. counting revolutions of a
meter) is normally accumulated or counted.
The trending function can be a powerful diagnostic
tool for use by the operators or maintenance
personnel. The data stored and archived can be
viewed over any period of historic time, which allows
fault patterns, which would otherwise go unnoticed
to be detected. For stormwater stations the data can
be analysed to determine how the station coped with
storms. Based on this data, modifications can be
made to the operation of the station to improve its
response during such incidents.
The primary interface to the operator is a graphical
display (mimic) which shows a representation of the
plant or equipment in graphical form. Live data is
shown as graphical shapes (foreground) over a
static background. As the data changes in the field,
the foreground is updated, e.g. a valve may be
shown as open or closed. Analogue data can be
shown either as a number, or graphically. The
system may have many such displays, and the
operator can select from the relevant ones at any
time.
A further function of the SCADA system is the
production of maintenance data and management
reports. For example, SCADA systems can be easily
configured to produce maintenance requests for
equipment that has run a set number of hours, or if
its performance has been declining over time. If a
standalone maintenance system is already in place,
SCADA systems can feed information directly to the
maintenance software.
For managers, SCADA systems can produce
detailed reports on subjects such as power or
chemical usage. Combined with the trending facility

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that is also inherent within SCADA, and by inputting
cost data, it can produce cost forecasts for a wide
range of process consumables.
2.20 Lighting
The designer should follow the guidelines and
information given below to design a proper lighting
system. The British standards specified within and
the CIBSE lighting guide
xlvi
should be considered
during the design.
2.20.1 Light Fitting Selection
Criteria
Light fittings are selected according to the following
criteria and application.
2.20.1.1 Installation Location
The location of the light fittings to be designed has a
large affect on the type of luminaire to be specified.
Generally, the following categories can be
considered:
1. Internal Lighting
Internal lighting fittings are required in places such
as:
a. Motor control centre rooms (MCC);
b. Control and SCADA monitoring rooms;
c. Substation (11kv & transformer);
d. Pump rooms;
e. Off-loading bay & walk ways;
f. Kitchen and toilets;
g. Administration offices;
h. Machinery rooms (compressor, generator,
chemical storage, and chemical dosing
system room).
2. External lighting
a. Building (external wall mounted fittings);
b. Internal road lighting (inside station
boundary);
c. Water storage tank lighting;
d. External installed machinery (settlement
tanks, inlet works aeration tanks);
e. Pump wet wells and screen chambers.
2.20.1.2 Environmental Conditions
In many industrial applications the environmental
condition is hostile or hazardous as explained
below.
1) Hostile conditions - damage to light fittings can
occur due to:
a. High ambient temperatures;
b. Windy and vibrating environments;
c. Corrosive atmosphere (hydrogen sulphide
gases, high humidity);
d. Wet atmosphere (water ingress);
e. Dusty atmosphere.
2) Hazardous conditions - The operation of light
fittings in certain environments can cause fire
or explosion due to gas generation or fumes
(methane, etc).
A risk assessment on the source of ignition and type
of explosive atmospheres should be carried out
using the methodology suggested in BS EN 1127-
1
xlvii
for all potentially hazardous areas such as
screen chambers and wet wells.
2.20.1.3 Luminance Level Required
(Lux)
The luminance level required varies from one area
or application to another. The luminance level
should generally be in accordance with the CIBSE
lighting guide
xlvi
. The relevant levels are replicated
below for convenience in Table 2.20.1.

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Table 2.20.1 Luminescence Levels for Various
Service Areas
Service area Luminance
level (lux)
Internal area (inside building)
Motor control centre room 300
Control / SCADA room 500
11kv switchgear room 300
Transformer bay 150-200
Kitchen 150
Toilets 150
Store 200
Offloading bay / walkway 100-150
Pump house 150-200
Cable gallery 150-200
Administration offices 300
Machinery room 150-200
External area (Inside station boundary)
Internal Road lighting 50- 100
Tank area 50
Building (external wall and door
entrance)
70
External installed machinery 100

2.20.1.4 Type of Light Fitting
Light fitting types that can be used in different
locations can be categorised as follows.
1. Fluorescent fitting
The fluorescent fitting is a combination of lamps and
luminaries. The fittings are available with different
lamp sizes (18w, 36w, 58w), arrangements (3x18w,
4x18w, 2x36w, 2x58w) and installation type (surface
mounted, recessed mounted). This type of fitting is
ideally suited to internal installation use. It can be
used in most locations with some changes in the
body material, IP rating and lamp wattages.
2. Flood lights
Flood lights are used mainly for external building
area lighting such as tank areas, and machinery
areas (grit removal, settling tank, aeration tanks etc).
The lighting installation can be wall mounted on
external buildings or post mounted in working
machinery areas, or ground level mounted and
directed to the tank walls in case of tank area
lighting. The fittings should be a minimum of IP65;
and the body should be suitable for the environment
of the application (corrosion resistant, UV
protected).
3. High bay lights
High bay lighting should be used in pump rooms
when the bay heights are above six meters. The
high bay lamps can provide lighting for maintenance
purposes, in the case of regular inspections and
access to the pump house. Side mounted (4-meter
height) fluorescent fittings can be used due to the
extended start-up time of high bay lamps.
4. Emergency lights
Emergency lights are used in case normal lighting
fails or the power supply fails. They give light in
emergency situations such as a fire, to provide
escape-route sign lighting and emergency-exit sign
lighting as per BS 5266
xlviii
. The type and installation
of emergency lighting should consider the following
points:
Escape route signs shall be mounted above
building exit doors at 2 - 2.5m above floor level;
Escape route lighting such as Corridors,
gangway and stairs shall have a horizontal
luminance on the floor (centreline of escape
route) of not less than 0.2lux;
Emergency lighting in large open areas such as
open plan offices should have an average
horizontal luminance for escape purposes of
not less than 1.0lux;
Emergency lighting in Motor control centre
rooms and operator control rooms (SCADA)
should have an average horizontal luminance
not less than 2.0lux.

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Emergency light system
There are two types of emergency light system:
a. Self-contained;
b. Centrally powered.
Luminaire mode of operation
There are two modes of operation as follows:
Maintained: lamp used as normal when
the building is occupied. The power supply
is from the normal source directly or
indirectly;
Non-maintained: lamp off as long as the
normal power supply is available. The
lamp will energise from the emergency
power supply automatically in the event of
normal power failure.
Types of emergency lighting
The following types of emergency lighting
luminaire are commonly used:
Self-contained separate luminaire
(maintained/non-maintained);
Normal luminaires modified to contain a
battery pack and conversion unit
(maintained);
Normal luminaires fed from a central
battery system with conversion unit
(maintained);
Normal luminaires with a separate lamp
for use with a battery pack, inverters,
rechargeable unit (non-maintained);
Normal luminaires with a separate lamp
for emergency use, fed from a central
battery system (non-
maintained)/(sustained luminaire);
Normal luminaires fed from a central
power source (maintained/ non-
maintained).
5. Roadway lighting
The design of roadway lighting should be according
to BS 5489-3
xlix
. For lighting required for pumping
station roads, the selection of the suitable light
fittings, post heights and post spacing will be
according to the level of lux required. The light
fitting body and canopy material should be suitable
for the installation location and environmental
conditions. Usually, three types of lamp are
commonly used. These are; high-pressure sodium,
metal halide, and high-pressure mercury. The
installation of the fitting on the column can be on the
post top, bracket or side entry.
6. Bulk head
Bulk head light fittings are used at the entrance of
the pumping station building (located on top of the
door or at the side) as well as in substation entrance
doors and gates. The fitting can be suitable for
indoor or outdoor installation and should be IP65
with either a high pressure sodium or incandescent
lamp type).

7. Lighting design calculation:
The following formula is used to check the level of
lux provided and adjust the number of fittings to be
used. Professional software can be used for
increased accuracy and speed of design. The
following guide is given as an aid for the
experienced lighting engineer and not as a learning
guide for the novice engineer. The information
required to populate the formulae can be found in
manufacturers literature.
Internal Lighting (Lumen Method) Formula

Es = F x n x N x UF x MF
A
Equation 2.20.1
Es = Average illuminance (lux) of the plane
F = Initial bare lamp lumens flux (lumens)
n = Number of lamps per luminaire
N = Number of luminairies
UF = Utilisation factor
MF = Maintenance factor
A = Area (m2)
Calculation procedure
Calculate the room index (K), floor cavity index (CIf)
and ceiling cavity index (CFc).

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(K) = (LxW)/(L+W)hm
Equation 2.20.2

(CIf) OR (CFc) = L x W/(L+W)h
Equation 2.20.3
Where:
L = room length
W = room width
Hm = height of the luminaire plane above the
horizontal reference plane
H = depth of the cavity
Calculate the effective reflectance (REx) of the
ceiling, wall and floor cavity (from tables using
above calculated (CIx).
Determine the utilisation factor value (UF) using
luminaire manufacturer data sheets; room index and
effective reflectance (apply any correction factors).
Determine the maintenance factor (MF)
MF = LLMF x LSF x LMF x RSMF
Equation 2.20.4
Where:
LLMF = lamp lumen maintenance factor
LSF = lamp survival factor
LMF = luminaire maintenance factor
RSMF = room surface maintenance factor
Thus, the lighting design is determined as follows:
Using the lumen method formula, calculate the
number of luminairies required (N);
Determine the suitable layout;
Check if the (spacing / height) ratio of the
layout is within the range according to UF;
Check that if the proposed layout is does not
exceeding the maximum ratio limit;
Calculate the luminance that will be achieved
by the final layout.
External and Roadway Lighting Calculation
The calculation for roadways can be carried
according to BS 5489-3
xlix
. Caution must be taken in
lamp post foundation design to ensure that the wind
effect on the post is fully considered.
The flood light calculation can be carried out using
the same formula applied for internal lighting
calculation with slight modification.
E = N x L x BF x WLFxMF
A
Equation 2.20.4
Where:
E = Illuminance required (lux)
L = Lamp output per lumens (lm)
BF = Beam factor number of lamps per
luminaire
N = Number of luminaries
WLF = waste light factor (usually considered
as
0.9)
MF = maintenance factor
A = area to be lighted (m2)

Light control: The control of the lighting system can
be provided by the following means to control the
operation of different lighting systems within the
pumping station:
One-way light switches can be used for
controlling a lighting system in an area with a
single access, for example at the main access
door to the station;
Two-way light switches can be used for
controlling a lighting system in an area with
multiple access and egress points;
The automatic control of external lighting
systems can be achieved by two main
methods:

Drainage Affairs

a) Photocell controller for automatic dusk till
dawn control;
b) Time clock operation for full control of
when external lights are in operation.

2.21 Maintenance Access
Safe access should be provided to all equipment
and local control panels at all times.
Access walkways, platforms and stairs should be
designed so that no dismantling is required for
normal routine maintenance. Vertical access should
be by staircase so that tools and equipment can be
carried in and out safely. Ladder access should be
restricted to infrequent visual inspection points.
Access around equipment for operation should be
installed at a level where all the controls can be
reached and operated easily without excessive
stretching or bending and where all indicators can
be seen.
Access around equipment for maintenance and
repair should be installed at a level where all the
maintenance points can be reached, dismantled and
removed without excessive stretching or bending.
Particular attention should be paid to lifting gear
access and operation where heavy equipment is
involved.
Access below ground to dry wells should be by
staircase so that tools and equipment can be carried
in and out safely.
Permanent access to wet wells and screen
chambers should be provided, using stainless steel
or GRP to just above TWL to allow for cleaning. The
access arrangements should be designed such that
an operator could be rescued from the sump with a
safety harness and man-winch.
When designing access to equipment, careful
thought should be given to shipping routes for
removing equipment to a suitable position for further
work, or for removing from the pumping station
completely. Exit routes for equipment should not be
the same as for personnel access unless there is an
alternative escape route.
When the lifting gear has taken the weight of
equipment and the equipment is released from its
position, the clearance in the shipping route should
be large enough for the equipment to pass through
without rearrangement.
2.22 Gantry Cranes and
Lifting Facilities
Permanent or temporary lifting facilities should be
provided for equipment that can not be easily lifted.
Consideration should be given to the weight, shape
and position of the item to be lifted. As a guide lifting
facilities should be provided for anything over 25kg.
For long or heavy lifts, gantry cranes should be
powered in all motions. Trolley cranes should
generally be power lift with manual motion, but small
units should be manual on all motions.
Access must be provided to permanent lifting
equipment, particularly gantry cranes, for
maintenance as generally described in section 2.21.
The following types of lifting equipment are
available:
Lifting Eye and Chain Block. Suitable for
single straight lifts only inside a building or dry
well. Not suitable for side forces, but may be
used in conjunction with other suitable lifting
eyes to swing a load sideways;
Davit, Socket and Chain Block. Suitable for
most small single lifts i.e. submersible pumps
up to 250kg. Above this, the davit becomes too
heavy to be manhandled;
Runway Beam, Trolley and Chain Block.
Suitable when there are a number of loads in a
straight line, or where a single load must
moved sideways. For heavy loads or long lifts,
the chain block and trolley should be electrically
powered;
Overhead Gantry Crane. Suitable for
installations where there are dispersed or
heavy loads that must be moved in all
directions;
Mobile Crane. Suitable for single heavy loads
outdoors which must be moved in all directions
i.e. large submersible pumps.

Drainage Affairs
Submersible pumps should be fitted with stainless
steel chains, with change-over rings every 1.0m,
and the lifting equipment should be fitted with a
change-over sling.
Location of lifting equipment
Lifting equipment should be provided adjacent
to all heavy items that require lifting;
Lifting equipment should be positioned to
provide a straight lift of the load and also be
able to lower the load directly to a suitable
setting down position;
Where lifting through openings in floors, the
lifting gear should be positioned to allow a
direct single lift up through all floors without
moving the lifting point or rearranging the load.
Controls for Lifting Equipment
Overhead electric cranes and chain blocks
should be provided with a low voltage pendant
control suspended from a glide track,
independent of the lifting block. The pendant
control should extend to within 500mm of the
operating floor, but not touch the floor;
Electric chain blocks should be provided with a
low voltage pendant control suspended from
the block. The pendant control should extend to
within 500mm of the operating floor but not
touch the floor;
Hand operating chains should extend to within
500mm of the operating floor but not touch the
floor;
Long travel drive chains should be located to
avoid snagging, and allow the operator safe
passage;
With the load hook in its highest position, if a
load chain touches the operating floor or any
item of plant, a chain collection box should be
fitted.
2.23 Ventilation, Odour
Control and Air
Conditioning
2.23.1 Ventilation
Ventilation of pumping stations is required to prevent
the accumulation of high levels of potentially
hazardous chemicals, and ensure that working
conditions meet health and safety requirements. UK
occupational exposure limit (OEL) concentrations
l

for hydrogen sulphide and other gases associated
with septic conditions are given in section 1.6 of this
manual.
Typical ventilation rates for odour containment in
pumping stations used in current operational
practice in Doha are given in Table 2.23.1.
Table 2.23.1 Typical Ventilation Rates for
Odour Control in Pumping
Stations
Air changes per hour
Pumping station
(no man access)
One for local covers
12 for pumping
stations extracted
from close to the
sump and process
units
Pumping station
working area
(current
practice)
20 during man
access (initiated by
light switch)
Dry wells
(current
practice)
12
Separate screen
chamber
Passive ventilation
through carbon filter
(where there is no
other route for odour
escape)
Ventilation systems should be designed so that in
the event of a fire being detected in any area, all the
air conditioning equipment and ventilation systems
are shut down. All supply and exhaust ventilation
louvers should shut automatically to

Drainage Affairs

compartmentalise the buildings and below ground
chambers. This restricts the spread of the fire and
smoke, and ensures effective use of automatic fire
extinguishing systems.
Other points to consider include:
The air conditioning systems, ventilation fans and
odour control equipment should be run
simultaneously and ventilation fan louvers should
shut, when the fan stops;
Louvers should be sized to keep the air velocity
through them below 0.5m/s;
Air ducts should be designed to ensure the velocity
through them does exceed 10m/s in occupied areas;
Materials should be selected to limit the corrosion
effects of hydrogen sulphide (H2S).
Ventilation of Pump Rooms and Dry
Wells
Air supply should be provided by either two or three
duty fans and one standby fan, depending on the
size of the pump room.
Exhaust air should be removed by either two or
three duty fans and one standby fan, depending on
the size of the pump room.
The exhaust fans should have approximately 5%
less flow capacity than the air supply fans to keep
the building at a slight positive air pressure. This is
to avoid drawing unfiltered dust laden air into the
pump room which can drastically shorten the
equipment life.
Pump rooms and dry wells should typically have 12
air changes an hour for normal operation, increasing
to 16 air changes an hour during man entry. The
cable basement should be ventilated as part of the
pump room ventilation system.
Ventilation of Wet Areas - Pump Sumps &
Screen Chambers
Wet areas should normally be ventilated by air
extraction only, with a natural air supply to keep the
wet area under slightly negative pressure and avoid
releasing odours to the atmosphere.
Exhaust air should be removed by duty/standby
fans, the number and configuration depending on
the size of the wet areas. Each fan should have a
two-speed motor.
During man entry, the additional air supply should
be provided by the fans running at high speed.
The fans should be sized so that with all fans
running at high speed, the required air changes per
hour for man entry are achieved.
Ventilation rates should be designed to ensure a
maximum of 3ppm of H2S in the wet areas. The
system should be designed to achieve this with only
one fan operating.
Wet areas should typically have 12 air changes an
hour for normal operation, increasing to 20 air
changes an hour during man entry.
2.23.2 Odour Control
Air vented from pumping stations will in most cases
require odour treatment. In most cases, a two bed
(duty/standby) system using carbon regenerated
using alkali (caustic soda or potash) is preferred. At
larger pumping stations consideration may be given
to pre-treatment of strong sources using catalytic iron
filters.
Further details of requirements are given in Volume 5
Section 1.5. Reference should also be made to
Section 1.6 of this Volume
Typical conditions to be considered in the design of
the odour control unit are given in the table below.
Table 2.23.2 Conditions to be Considered in
Odour Control Unit Design
Sewage temperature 25 35
o
C
Ambient temperature 050
o
C
Relative humidity Up to 100%
Temperature of air
vented from the
sewerage system to an
Odour Control Unit
Up to 30
o
C
Radiating surfaces
temperature
85
o
C maximum
Hydrogen sulphide from
below covers
250ppm

Drainage Affairs
Hydrogen sulphide with
workplace air
10ppm

2.23.3 Air Conditioning
The required air conditioning systems and
ventilation capacities are shown in the tables below.
Table 2.23.3 - Air Conditioning (AC) Systems
Location Air Condition system
Electric Switch Gear Dual Split AC unit system
Control Room Split AC unit system

Table 2.23.4 - Ventilation Capacities
Location Ventilation
(l/s)
per person
Ventilation
(l/s) per
sq.m.
Approximate
air changes
per hour. *
Electric
Switchgear
Room
- 0.8 1
Control
Room
10 1.3 2
Kitchen
and Toilet
- 10 8
Note: Figures extracted from BS 5720, Table 1.
*Depending on the dimensions of the rooms.
The designer shall assess the potential for corrosion
of A/C units, particularly from H2S, and ensure that
they are appropriately designed and located.
Air Conditioning of Electrical Switch Gear
Rooms
Electrical switchgear rooms should be completely
isolated from the remainder of the building for the
following reasons:
The thermal loads are higher than elsewhere in
the building;
In the event of a fire being detected the air
conditioning should be switched off to allow the
fire suppression equipment to operate
effectively.
Two split AC units working independently
(mechanically and electrically) of each other should
be used to air condition the room, with air diffusers
discharging horizontally towards the panels. Return
air should be sucked back by the split unit, via
receiving air diffusers located at evenly placed
points between the supply air diffusers, and fixed to
the ceiling.
Each split AC units should be rated at 50% above
the required capacity (i.e. 150% total), so that
should one unit fail, the other unit will provide 75%
of the required air conditioning capacity.
The required thermal load should be calculated on
the basis of peak conditions.
The required quantity of exhaust air should be
removed from electrical switchgear rooms to
atmosphere by a fan with an actuated louver.
Air inlet should be by natural supply through a
filtered and actuated louver.
In the event of a fire, the electrically actuated
louvers should be closed to seal electrical
switchgear rooms during the use of any fire
extinguishing system.

Air Conditioning of Control Rooms, Kitchens
and Toilets
A single split AC unit should be provided for air
conditioning the control room. No air conditioning
should be provided for the kitchen or toilet.
The kitchen and toilet areas should be air
conditioned by exhausting part of the control room
air through them.
Exhaust air in the kitchen and toilet areas should be
discharged outside the building. The fans should be
run continuously for the following reasons:
To provide the required air changes for the
control room and kitchen;
To keep the toilet and kitchen area ventilated.

Drainage Affairs

Air louvers should be fitted in the bottom of kitchen
and toilet doors.
2.24 Structural Design
General Design Requirements
Unless local design standards dictate otherwise, in
general, he design of concrete structures shall be in
accordance with BS 8110-1 Structural Use of
Concrete
li
and BS8007 Design of Concrete
Structures for Retaining Aqueous Liquids
lii
.
Likewise, the design of steel structures shall be in
accordance with BS5950-1 Structural Use of
Steelwork in Buildings. Local standards shall
govern if any conflict arises. All structures shall be
designed based on a limit-states philosophy.
Unless required otherwise, all structures shall be
designed for a minimum service life of 60 years.
The designer shall prepare calculations for each
design package, including as a minimum the
following information:
Description of the structure and design
methodology adopted;
All assumptions made for design (i.e.
geotechnical parameters, loadings, etc);
Standards, guidelines and specifications used
for design;
Input and output from software where
appropriate.
2.24.1 Substructures
2.24.1.1 Thermal Crack Control
Requirements
Calculation of the reinforcement requirements for
control of early-age thermal cracking shall be in
accordance with BS 8007
lii
.
For the calculation of the likely maximum crack
spacing and the reinforcement ratio the following
formula shall be used:
( )
2 1
max
max
T T R
S
+
=

Equation 2.24.1

Equation 2.24.2
Were:
max = allowable crack width (0.2mm maximum)
Smax = likely crack spacing (mm)
R = restraint factor (0<R<0.5; to be taken as
0.5 for most structures)
= co-efficient of thermal expansion (varies
between 10x10
-6
/
o
C 12x10
-6
/
o
C)
T1 = fall in temperature between the
hydration peak and the ambient (
o
C)
T2 = ambient placing temperature (
o
C)
bar = reinforcement ratio (min = 0.0035)
bar = reinforcement diameter (mm)

Where the section thickness exceeds 500m, only
the outermost 250m of each face shall be used in
calculating reinforcement areas; however, the
design temperature T1 shall still be based on the
entire element thickness.
h<500mm
h/2

For h < 500mm assume each reinforcement face
controls h/2 depth of concrete
h 500mm
250mm
250mm

For h 500mm assume each reinforcement face
controls the outer 250mm depth of concrete. Ignore
any central core beyond these surface zones.
Given that thermal crack control requirements
determine the minimum limit of reinforcement,
particular care should be given to the adopted
values of T1 and T2. Factors including local site
conditions, concrete mix design, formwork type,
seasonal variations in ambient temperature,
distance from plant to site, etc shall all be taken into
account.
Considering the relatively high ambient
temperatures that may be encountered in the Qatar
region, consideration shall be given to limiting the
concrete placing temperature T2 to a value ranging
between 15
o
C and 30
o
C. Designers are referred to
max
2
67 . 0
S
bar
bar
=

Drainage Affairs
CIRIA Report Nos 91
liii
and 135
liv
for further
information on this subject.
Ground Investigation & Flotation
The designer shall have, at a minimum, an
understanding of the basic ground conditions likely
to be encountered on site, either from historical data
or a desk-top study. Preferably, the designer shall
obtain a Ground Investigative Report (GIR) from
suitably competent geotechnical engineers giving
more precise values and ground conditions. Data to
be considered includes ground level (GL), ground
water level (GWL), soil types, classification and
properties, allowable bearing capacities and a soil
chemical analysis.
Depending on the GWL and GL conditions,
buoyancy (or flotation) of the structure may govern
the section thickness. Flotation of all structures shall
be checked in accordance with BS 8007
lii
against
the anticipated GWL. In considering the flotation
calculations, the following methodology is
recommended:
Calculate the volume of water displaced based
on external dimensions of the structure and the
GWL;
Calculate the mass of the structure taking into
account construction assumptions (e.g. does
the site need to be de-watered until after the
roof has been placed? does the site need to be
de-watered until any mass concrete benching
has been placed?);
Calculate the factor of safety to obtain 1.10 as
a minimum;
Re-size any element thicknesses as required
(ensuring that structural requirements are still
maintained).
A factor of safety of 1.10 shall be achieved for both
temporary and permanent conditions. For the
flotation calculations the following concrete unit
weights are recommended:
Minimum Maximum
In-situ RC 22.5kN/m
3
23.5kN/m
3

Unreinforced 21.6kN/m
3
22.5kN/m
3

2.24.1.2 Structural Analysis
Loading
All liquid retaining structures are to be designed for
both the full and empty conditions, with the load
combinations arranged to give the most severe
combination likely to happen.
Both serviceability (SLS) and ultimate (ULS) load
conditions shall be considered. The following load
factors shall be adopted (unless local design codes
specify more onerous load factors) as per Table
2.24.1.
Table 2.24.1 Serviceability (SL) and Ultimate
(ULS) Load Factors
Load SLS Factor ULS
Self Weight 1.0 1.4
Dead Loading 1.0 1.4
Retained Liquids 1.0 1.4
Retained Soils 1.0 1.4
Live Loads (incl.
surcharges)
1.0 1.6

In general the walls and base shall be checked
against the following load combination (where
appropriate):
Internal hydrostatic pressure only (water-
tightness test before backfilling);
External soil pressure only (backfilled soil but
no water);
Hydrostatic uplift on base;
Base soft-spot capacity;
Hydrostatic + soil pressure + uplift (normal
working conditions);
Roof loading.
Where required, the structure shall be designed for
an appropriate wheel/vehicle live load. Vehicle live
loads shall be in accordance with local standards
and engineering judgement (where local standards
do not cater to vehicle loads then loading shall be in
accordance with BS 5400-2
lv
and BS6399-1
lvi
). A
minimum live load of 5kN/m
2
shall be adopted
regardless of code requirements.

Drainage Affairs

Elements shall be analysed in accordance with BS
8007
lii
, BS 8110-1
li
and established engineering
principles. Depending on the slab arrangement (i.e.
degree of restraint, span ratios, etc), bases and
walls may be considered as either one-way or two-
way spanning.
Where appropriate seismic loading shall be
considered in accordance with local design codes.
Base Slabs
Base slabs designed as one-way spanning shall be
designed for flexure in accordance with engineering
principles and the following formulae:
156 . 0
2
=
cu
ULS
f bd
M
K
Equation 2.24.3
d
K
d z 95 . 0
9 . 0
25 . 0 5 . 0
\
|
+ =
Equation 2.24.4
and
z f
M
A
sy
ULS
st
95 . 0
=
Equation 2.24.5
where:
MULS = design ultimate moment (kNm)
b = width of section (mm - typically taken as 1
m)
d = effective depth (mm)
fcu = concrete strength (N/mm
2
)
z = lever arm (mm)
Ast = area of required tension reinforcement
(mm
2
)
fsy = reinforcement strength (N/mm
2
)

With K 0.156, compression reinforcement is not
required. Designers are referred to BS8110-1
li
for
cases where compression reinforcement is required.
Base slabs designed as one-way spanning shall be
designed for shear in accordance with engineering
principles and the following formula:
( )
cu
v
f
d b
V
8 . 0 , N/mm 5
2
=
Equation 2.24.6
where:
= design ultimate shear stress (N/mm
2
)
V = design ultimate shear force (kN)
bv = width of section (mm - typically taken as
1m)
d = effective depth (mm)
fcu = concrete strength (N/mm
2
)

Table 2.24.2 Shear Stress and Rebar to be
provided
Shear Stress
Form of shear
rebar to be
provided
Area of shear
rebar to be
provided
<0.5c None Required -
0.5c < <(c +
0.4)
Minimum links in
areas where <c
Asv 0.4bsv/0.95fsyv
(c + 0.4) < <5
or 0.8fcu
Links in any
combination
Asv bsv(-
c)/0.95fsyv

Shear reinforcement shall be provided based on the
following:
The critical shear stress uc shall be determined
in accordance with BS 8110-1
li
;
Base slabs designed as two-way spanning
shall be designed for flexure in accordance with
engineering principles and the following
formula:
2
x sx sx
nl m = &
2
x sy sy
nl m =
Equation 2.24.7
Values of sx and sy shall be obtained from
Table 2.24.3.
Base slabs designed as two-way spanning
shall be designed for shear in accordance with
engineering principles and the following
formulae:
x vx vx
nl = &
x vy vy
nl =
Equation 2.24.7

Drainage Affairs
Values of vx and vy shall be obtained from
Table 2.24.4.
A nominal soft spot diameter shall be
assumed in the subgrade (unless local
conditions preclude this from occurring) and
the base checked accordingly.

Drainage Affairs

Table 2.24.3 Base Slab Flexure Coefficients
Edge Condition
Short Span Co-efficient ( sx)
Long Span Co-
efficient ( sy) for
all values of Ly/Lx
Values of Ly/Lx
1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.75 2.0
1. Four edges continuous 0.024 0.028 0.032 0.035 0.037 0.040 0.044 0.048 0.024
2. 1 short edge discontinuous 0.028 0.032 0.036 0.038 0.041 0.043 0.047 0.050 0.028
3. 1 long edge discontinuous 0.028 0.035 0.041 0.046 0.050 0.054 0.061 0.066 0.028
4. 2 short edges
discontinuous
0.034 0.038 0.040 0.043 0.045 0.047 0.050 0.053 0.034
5. 2 long edges discontinuous 0.034 0.046 0.056 0.065 0.072 0.078 0.091 0.100 0.034
6. 2 adjacent edges
discontinuous
0.035 0.041 0.046 0.051 0.055 0.058 0.065 0.070 0.035
7. 3 edges discontinuous
(1 long edge continuous)
0.043 0.049 0.053 0.057 0.061 0.064 0.069 0.074 0.043
(1 short edge continuous)
0.043 0.054 0.064 0.072 0.078 0.084 0.096 0.105 0.043
9. 4 edges discontinuous 0.056 0.066 0.074 0.081 0.087 0.093 0.103 0.111 0.056

Table 2.24.4 Base Slab Shear Coefficients
Edge Condition
Short Span Co-efficient ( vx)
Long Span Co-
efficient ( vy) for
all values of Ly/Lx
Values of Ly/Lx
1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.75 2.0
1. Four edges continuous 0.33 0.36 0.39 0.41 0.43 0.45 0.48 0.50 0.33
2. 1 short edge discontinuous 0.36 0.39 0.42 0.44 0.45 0.47 0.50 0.52 0.36
3. 1 long edge discontinuous 0.36 0.40 0.44 0.47 0.49 0.51 0.55 0.59 0.36
4. 2 short edges
discontinuous
0.40 0.43 0.45 0.47 0.48 0.49 0.52 0.54 0.26
5. 2 long edges discontinuous 0.26 0.30 0.33 0.36 0.38 0.40 0.44 0.47 0.40
6. 2 adjacent edges
discontinuous
0.40 0.44 0.47 0.50 0.52 0.54 0.57 0.60 0.40
(1 long edge continuous)
0.45 0.48 0.51 0.53 0.55 0.57 0.60 0.63 0.29
(1 short edge continuous)
0.29 0.33 0.36 0.38 0.40 0.42 0.45 0.48 0.45
9. 4 edges discontinuous 0.33 0.36 0.39 0.41 0.43 0.45 0.48 0.50 0.33

Drainage Affairs
Walls
Walls may adopt vertical, horizontal or two-way
spanning action. Walls may be analysed by first
principles, design charts or software. Earth
pressures shall be calculated using Rankines
theory. At-rest earth pressures shall be used for
structural design. The value of ko will vary according
to site conditions but a minimum value of ko = 0.5
shall be adopted. Surface surcharging shall be
allowed for (typical values range between 5-
10kN/m
2
), as shall construction and permanent live
loads.
sin 1
sin 1
+
=
a
k Active

Equation 2.24.9
sin 1
sin 1
+
=
p
k Passive

Equation 2.24.10
) 5 . 0 ( sin 1 design for k rest At
o
= =

Equation 2.24.11

S
u
r
c
h
a
r
g
e
C
o
m
p
a
c
t
i
o
n
H
y
d
r
o
s
t
a
t
i
c
S
o
i
l
kqsurch kqcomp wHw ksH
s
------------------ where required -----------------

Where the structural arrangement calls for internal
walls, these walls shall be checked for a full
hydrostatic head against one side only (representing
a full chamber on one side, an empty chamber on
the other).
Where designed as vertical cantilevers, walls shall
be checked for deflection in accordance with
BS8110-1
li
span-depth criteria.
Roof Slabs
Roof slabs shall generally be designed in a similar
fashion to base slabs, however, they should be
considered as simply supported with limited fixity
(and hence moment transfer) at the supports.
Particular care shall be given to roofs subject to
vehicle loading.
Design Software
Slab and wall elements may also be designed using
appropriate commercial software (e.g. ROBOT
Millennium, STRAND 7, STAADPro, Microstran V8,
etc), either as 2D, or preferably 3D, models.
Appropriate spring elements shall be used to
represent the soil stiffness. Designers should refer
to the program user manuals for assistance with
design software.
Foundations and Settlement
Where an interface between a structure (be it above
ground, partially buried or completely buried) and
the underlying ground exists, there is said to be soil-
structure interaction. The actual behaviour of
structures and soil-structure interaction is complex
and leads to some simplification of assumptions in
order to obtain a design.
A fundamental design concept is the selection of
either a rigid structure or a flexible structure. A
flexible structure will be able to tolerate a degree of
differential settlement by the basic arrangement of
the structure, the nature of its materials and by the
inclusions of movement joints. Conversely, a rigid
structure is designed to neglect any differential
settlement by having sufficient strength to span
across any loss of ground support. Factors to
consider include the relative settlements likely to
occur (i.e. immediate and long-term), any history of
previous soil loading (i.e. over- consolidation) and
the non-homogenous content of most soils.
The support given by the subgrade is often modelled
as springs of varying stiffness (with the stiffness
based on geotechnical parameters), and base slabs
may occasionally be designed as beams on elastic
foundations. This is a time-consuming and
complicated procedure, and many design software
programs are ideally suited to this task (although it
should be remembered that any software output is
only as good as its input).

Drainage Affairs

As stated, the analysis and consideration of any soil-
structure interaction is a complex affair, and in part
depends on a degree of experience. Designers are
strongly recommended to consult geotechnical
engineers and to refer to specialist literature such as
Soil-structure interaction The real behaviour of
structures
lvii
for further information on this subject.
Ground movement leading to differential settlement
can cause severe cracking and leakage from liquid
retaining structures, and as a general rule they
should be designed as rigid structures. Where
appropriate the design bearing pressure shall be
calculated and checked against the allowable
bearing capacity. If required, measures shall be
taken to provide suitable foundations such as piling
or other ground improvement techniques -
consultation with suitably competent geotechnical
engineers is strongly recommended. A maximum
differential settlement value of 2025mm should be
adopted.
Where piled foundations are required, the design
ultimate resistance of a single end-bearing pile shall
be determined from the following formula:
b b s s
A f A f P
*
_
* *
+ =
Equation 2.24.12
where:
P* = design ultimate resistance (kN)
f*s = average ultimate skin resistance of
pile shaft
(kN/m
2
)
As = surface area of pile shaft (m
2
)
f*b = net ultimate bearing resistance (kN/m
2
)
Ab = bearing area of base (m
2
)

For elevated structures more traditional foundations
may be required. Examples include:
Pad (isolated) footings;
Combined footings;
Strip footings.

Simple, concentrically loaded pad (isolated) footings
shall be designed in accordance with engineering
principles and the following methodology:
Determine required size of footing based on
allowable bearing capacity (SLS) and adopt a
suitable thickness;
Design for flexure (ULS) taking a critical section
at the face of the column, designed as a
cantilever;
Design for shear (ULS) taking a critical face
located distance d from the column face;
Design for punching shear (ULS), adopting a
shear perimeter of 4(column width + 3d);
Adjust footing thickness as required.

For eccentric column loading and other foundation
types designers are referred to appropriate
literature.
Structures shall be founded on a layer of suitably
compacted subgrade material, a 50100mm blinding
layer, and a suitable slip membrane.
Concrete Slab
Blinding Layer & Slip Membrane
Subgrade

Movement Joints
Where effective means of avoiding differential
settlement or excessive cracking can not be
avoided, then consideration shall be given to the
provision of movement joints at suitable locations.
The location of construction joints shall be specified
by the designer and marked on drawings. Full
structural continuity is assumed at construction
joints, with reinforcement fully continuous across the
joint. Conventional construction techniques should
be followed for all construction joints (i.e. scabble
concrete surface to an acceptable depth, remove all
loose debris, etc).
Movement joints may consist of the following:
Expansion Joint - No restraint to movement,
can freely accommodate either contraction or
expansion;
Complete Contraction Joint - No restraint to
movement, freely accommodates contraction;
Partial Contraction Joint - Partial restraint of
movement, partial contraction allowance;

Drainage Affairs
Sliding Joint - Allows two structural members to
slide against each other with minimal restraint.
The use of water-stops and sealing compounds is
essential for movement joints. Due care and
consideration shall be given to the most appropriate
product utilised.

Drainage Affairs

Volume 2 Foul Sewerage
Page 89

Table 2.24.5 -Typical Allowable Bearing Pressures
Type of Ground
Bearing Pressure
Type of Ground
Bearing Pressure
kN/m
2
tons/ft
2
kN/m
2
tons/ft
2

Clay Soft < 75 < 0.75 Chalk - Hard Sound 600 6
- Firm 75-150 0.75-1.5 Limestone Soft 600 6
- Stiff 150-300 1.5 3 Shale & Mudstone
- Very Stiff 300-600 3 6 - Soft 600-1000 6 - 10
Sand Loose < 100 < 1 - Hard 2000 20
- Medium Dense 100-300 1 3 Sandstone Soft 2000 20
- Compact 300+ 3+ Schist, Slate 3000 30
Gravel & Sandy Gravel Sandstone, Limestone
- Loose < 200 < 2 - Hard 4000 40
- Medium Dense 200-600 2 6 Igneous Rock - Sound 10000 100
- Compact 600+ 6+

Construction Material 28-day Cube Strength Max. Bearing Pressure under uniform loading
Plain Concrete N/mm
2
lb/in
2
MN/m
2
Lb/in
2

Max. Bearing Pressure under Eccentric Load
= 1.25 x Uniform Pressure
- 1:4:8 8.6 1250 1.7 250
- 1:3:6 11.5 1650 2.4 350
- 1:2:4 21.0 3000 5.3 760
Max. Bearing Pressure , Concentrated Load
= 1.50 x Uniform Pressure
- 1:1.5:3 25.5 3750 6.5 950
- 1:1:2 30.0 4500 7.6 1140

Drainage Affairs
Retaining Walls
Where required, retaining walls shall be designed in
a similar fashion to the walls of liquid retaining
structures. Earth pressures shall be calculated using
Rankines theory. At-rest earth pressures shall be
used for structural design. The value of ko will vary
according to site conditions but a minimum value of
ko = 0.5 shall be adopted. Surface surcharging shall
be allowed for (typical values range between 5-
10kN/m
2
), as shall construction and permanent live
loads.
Global stability of the retaining walls shall also be
considered (i.e. sliding failure, overturning failure,
bearing capacity failure, etc).
Concrete
Concrete mix design shall be in accordance with BS
8500
lviii
or local standards, with an appropriate
exposure class selected to meet the chemical
environment conditions of the ground. Concrete
shall have as a minimum a 28-day characteristic
cube strength of 35N/mm
2
. A minimum cement
content of 325kg/m
3
and a maximum, water-cement
ratio of 0.55 shall also be maintained.
Given that control of cracking from thermal effects
often governs the reinforcement requirements for
water retaining structures, consideration should be
given to the availability and use of blended cement
mixes. The inclusion of pulverised fuel ash (PFA) or
ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS) can
significantly reduce the effects of hydration
temperature rise and hence reinforcement
requirements. Designers are referred to CIRIA
Report No 91
liii
(particularly Tables 5 and 6) for the
use of blended concrete mixes.
It should be noted that natural conditions in the
Middle East, both above and below ground, are
often of an aggressive nature. The climate can
significantly affect above and below ground concrete
due to the high ambient temperatures accelerating
chemical attack and physical degradation. The
existence of soluble salts (mainly sulphate or
chlorites) can be very detrimental to concrete, and
the designer shall take all appropriate measures
should these chemicals be detected in the soil.
Factors to be considered shall include:

Aggressive ground water;
Contaminated aggregates;
Brackish water;
Rapid drying of concrete.

In these situations the designer shall follow the
recommendations made in BS 8500-1
lviii
and BRE
Special Digest 1
lix
.
Reinforcement
Reinforcement shall comply with BS 4449 or local
standards. The provisions of section 7 of BS 8110-1
shall apply. High-yield reinforcement of between
400500N/mm
2
characteristic strength shall be
adopted throughout.
Cover to Reinforcement
The nominal cover of concrete for all steel shall be a
minimum of 40mm in accordance with BS 8007
lii
.
This may need to be increased depending on local
soil conditions.
2.24.2 Superstructures
Portal Frame Structures
Portal frame type structures are used extensively for
framing of single-story buildings. They offer cost
advantages over other framing systems for short to
medium span structures in addition to a low
structural depth, clean appearance and relatively
easy maintenance of structural elements. A further
benefit is the relative ease with which overhead
gantry and monorail cranes can be fitted.
Portal frames are readily designed and constructed
from either steel or concrete. External cladding
ranges from masonry to steel sheeting to
transparent plastics, and can be either structural or
non-structural.
Regardless of the material adopted for construction,
the same basic design methodology shall be
adopted.
Load Combinations
Both serviceability (deflection and vibration) and
ultimate (strength, stability and fatigue) limit state
load conditions shall be considered, with the various
load combinations arranged to give the most severe
combination likely to happen.

Drainage Affairs

Where appropriate, seismic loading shall be
considered in accordance with local design codes.
The load factors shown in Table 2.24.6 shall be
adopted (unless local design codes specify more
onerous load factors).

Drainage Affairs
Wind Loads
The calculation of wind loads will predominantly
depend on local site conditions and a localised
design standard. The majority of design codes used
world-wide will include a simplified procedure for
determining the wind forces on relatively small
buildings, with limitations placed on the height, roof
area and slope, and terrain factor. These simplified
methods will give a quick, if somewhat conservative
pressure; hence most codes also make provisions
for a more detailed analysis. These detailed
procedures are often tedious to perform, and lend
themselves readily to spreadsheets or other
software.
As the wind forces and pressures depend on local
conditions the designer shall adopt any and all
recommendations made in local design standards
and codes. The strict use of BS 6399-2
lx
is not
recommended, as it is tailored to British
requirements, however, the design procedure as
described in BS 6399-2 could be used provided
local wind speeds and conditions were adopted.
Dead Loads
Dead loads comprise the self-weight of the structure
and any permanently fixed loads from non-structural
elements. Some common unit weights of materials
are given in Table 2.24.7.
Imposed (Live) Loads
Imposed (or live) loads will be determined from the
intended function of the building. For the type of
buildings that could reasonably be expected to be
found at water or sewerage treatment plants, the live
loads will most likely be either human occupation
(e.g. office facilities), various plant loadings (e.g.
pump, control units, etc) or overhead gantry or
monorail cranes for lifting facilities. Designers are
referred to local standards or specific manufacturer
data for plant loading. BS 6399-1
lvi
provides some
recommendations for imposed loads, as listed in
Table 2.24.8.
Crane Loads
The design of steel crane gantry beams for
overhead cranes presents some specific problems
that need to be carefully considered. The design of
crane beams differs from the design of floor beams
in the following ways:
The loads are moving;
Lateral loading is usually involved;
The magnitude of loading depends on the type
of crane (i.e. either electric or hand operated);
Localised stresses occur in the web at the top
flange junction;
Lateral buckling (twisting) needs to be
considered
Fatigue assessment may be required.

As the crane operation is not a steady-state
operation, there are also significant dynamic effects
to be considered. This is usually done by applying
dynamic load multipliers to the calculated static
loads.
Designers are recommended to follow the rules set
out in BS 2573-1
lxi
and to consult local design
guides and specialist literature for the design of
crane beams.
Structural Design
Structural design of simple framed buildings shall
generally follow the methodology below:
Calculate all the various loads and arrange into
required combinations (paying particular
attention to the wind loading combinations);
Design the rafter elements;
Design the column elements;
Design the connections (including column base
connections);
Design the cladding;
Design the longitudinal bracing as required.

In general, structures should be considered as
having pinned feet (i.e. column base plates
incapable of transferring moments).
Generic Design Formulae
Simple portal frame structures also lend themselves
readily to be designed using generic formula, which
depend on the relative structural stiffness of the
column and rafter elements. Some generic formulas
are shown in Figure 2.24.1, based on pinned feet.
For further generic formula (including fixed feet
design) designers are referred to Reynolds
Reinforced Concrete Designers Handbook 10th
Ed.
lxii

Drainage Affairs


Table 2.24.6 Load Factors for Load Combinations
Load Combination Ultimate Limit State (ULS) Serviceability Limit State (SLS)
Dead Live Wind Dead Live Wind
Load Combination 1 1.4 1.6 - 1.0 1.0 -
Load Combination 2 1.4 - 1.4 1.0 - 1.0
Load Combination 3 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.0 0.8 0.8

Dead Live Crane Dead Live Crane
Vert. Horiz Vert. Horiz
Crane Combination 1 1.2 1.4 1.4 - 1.0 1.0 1.0 -
Crane Combination 2 1.2 1.4 - 1.4 1.0 1.0 - 1.0
Crane Combination 3 1.2 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0

Table 2.24.7 Common Unit Weights of Materials
Material Unit Weight Material Unit Weight
kN/m
2
kN/m
3
kN/m
2
kN/m
3

Concrete Gypsum plasterboard 0.115
- Unreinforced 22.0 (12mm thick)
- Reinforced 24.0 Plaster render
Concrete Masonry 24.0 - Lime, 20mm tk 0.380
Bricks Structural 22.6 - Cement, 20mm tk 0.450
- Clay 18.9 - Gypsum, 12mm tk 0.220
- Hollow clay 11.5 Polyester corrugated 0.020
Metal Cladding Sheets
- Aluminium 0.038 Thermal insulation 0.010
- Galv. Steel 0.050 (fibreglass bats)

Table 2.24.8 Recommendations for Imposed (Live) Loads
Type of Activity Examples of Specific use UDL (kN/m
2
) Concentrated Load (kN)
Office and Work areas
Offices for general use 2.5 2.7
Factories, workshops and similar 5.0 4.5
Catwalks - 1.0 at 1m ctrs
Balconies 4.0 1.5/m run
Warehousing and Storage areas
General areas for static equipment 2.0 1.8
Plant rooms, boiler rooms, etc 7.5 4.5
(including weight of equipment)

Parking for cars, vans, etc (<2500 kg gross) 2.5 9.0

Drainage Affairs

L
b
b =
1

h
f
f =
1

s I
h I
k
1
2
1
=
h
L
k =
2

3 3
1 1
2
3
1
+ + + = k f f k

( )
3
1
2
4
65 . 0 1
hk
f wL
H H
E A
+
= =
V
A
= V
E
= 0.5wL M
B
= M
D
= -H
A
h

( )
3
2
1 1 1 1
2
8
2 4 3 6
hk
b f b f wb
H H
E A
+
= =
L
wb
V
A
2
2
= M
B
= M
D
= -H
A
h

( )
3
1 1 1 1
4
3 4 6 6
k
f b f b Pb
H H
E A
+
= =
L
Pb
V
A
= M
B
= M
D
= -H
A
h

( )
3
1 1
6
12 6 5
k
f k wh
H
A
+ +
= H
E
= H
A
- wh
L
wh
V V
E A
2
2
= =
2
2
wh
h H M
E D
=
M
B
= H
A
h

( )
3
2
1 1 1
2
625 . 0 5 . 2 3
k
f f k wf
H
A
+ + +
=
( )
L
f h wf
V V
E A
2
2 +
= =
M
B
= -H
A
h M
D
= H
E
h H
E
= H
A
- wf
Figure 2.24.1 Generic Formula for Portal Frames based on Pinned Feet

Drainage Affairs


F = Total Load
I
AB
= I
CD
L I
h I
K
AB
BC
= k
1
=K+2
k
2
=6K+1 k
3
=2K+3 k
4
=3K+1

3
4hk
FL
H H
D A
= =
2
F
R R
D A
= =
0 = =
D A
M M
3
4k
FL
h H M M
A C B
= = =

3
8
3
hk
FL
H H
D A
= =
2
F
R R
D A
= =
0 = =
D A
M M
3
8
3
k
FL
h H M M
A C B
= = =

|
|
\
|
=
3
3
6
8 k
K k F
H
A

A D
H F H =

L
Fh
R R
A D
2
= =
3
1
8
3
2 k
Fhk
H
F
h M
D B
=
|
\
|
=
0 = =
D A
M M
|
|
\
| +
= =
3
3
2
8 k
K k Fh
h H M
D C

2
F
H H
D A
= =
L
Fh
R R
A D
= =
0 = =
D A
M M
2
Fh
M M
C B
= =
Figure 2.24.1 Generic Formula for Portal Frames based on Pinned Feet
L
h
A
B C
D
F
F
F
F

Drainage Affairs
Foundations and Floor Slabs
The designer shall have, at a minimum, an
understanding of the basic ground conditions likely
to be encountered on site, either from historical data
or a desk-top study. Preferably, the designer shall
obtain a Ground Investigative Report (GIR) from
suitably competent geotechnical engineers giving
more precise values and ground conditions. Data to
be considered includes ground level (GL), ground
water level (GWL), soil types, classification and
properties, allowable bearing capacities and a soil
chemical analysis.
The analysis and consideration of any soil-structure
interaction (i.e. any interface between a structure
(be it above ground, partially buried or completely
buried) and the underlying ground) is a complex
affair, and in part depends on a degree of
experience. Factors to consider include the relative
settlements likely to occur (i.e. immediate and long-
term), any history of previous soil loading (i.e. over-
consolidation) and the non-homogenous content of
most soils.
Designers are strongly recommended to consult
geotechnical engineers and to refer to specialist
literature such as Soil-structure interaction The
real behaviour of structures
lvii
for further information
on this subject.
By their inherent nature steel portal frames with
profiled sheet cladding may be classified as
somewhat flexible structures, able to tolerate
relatively large differential settlements between
adjacent frames.
Concrete frames though, with masonry panels, are
not so flexible and ground movement leading to
differential settlement could cause severe cracking
in the faade. There is also the strong possibility
that shrinkage will occur between the frames and
masonry panels, although joints at these positions
can alleviate this problem.
The design bearing pressure shall be calculated and
checked against the allowable bearing capacity, and
if required measures shall be taken to provide
suitable foundations such as piling or other ground
improvement techniques - consultation with suitably
competent geotechnical engineers is strongly
recommended. A maximum differential settlement
value of 2025mm should be adopted.
For a lightly loaded industrial building that might
reasonably be expected to be used for sewerage
and water treatment plants Table 2.24.9 is a good
guide to the nominal slab thickness required.
Table 2.24.9 Nominal Slab Thickness Required
for Lightly Loaded Industrial
Buildings
Typical Application
Classification
of Subgrade
Floor Slab
(mm)
Light industrial
premises with live
loading up to 5kN/m
2

Poor 150
Medium / Good 125
Medium industrial
premises with live
loading between 5 and
20kN/m
2

Poor 200
Medium / Good 175

Where dynamic loading (i.e. from forklifts, trucks,
etc) is applicable, thicknesses will be determined
from calculating flexural tensile stresses in the slab.
Designers are referred to specialist literature for the
design of floor slabs with dynamic loads.
Reinforcement in industrial floor slabs is located
near the top surface to control crack width
development. It does not increase the flexural
strength of the slab. For a jointed reinforced
industrial floor, reinforcement ratios of between
0.1% to 0.3% of the cross-sectional area shall
normally be sufficient. This reinforcement most often
takes the form of steel mesh.
Joints are required to control cracking that occurs
within a slab. Three main types of joints are used for
industrial floor slabs:
Contraction Joints - Allow horizontal movement
of the slab. They are provided transversely to
the direction of placing, and should be spaced
at maximum centres of 15m. Contraction joints
may be either plain (unreinforced) or reinforced
with steel dowels or shear keys, dowels being
the more common method;
Construction Joints - Transverse construction
joints generally occur at unplanned locations
(such as may be caused by adverse weather or
equipment failure), or planned locations (such
as the last concrete pour at the end of the days
work). Longitudinal construction joints are used
to form the edges of each pour;

Drainage Affairs

Isolation Joints - Isolation joints permit
horizontal and vertical movement between
adjacent elements (e.g. between the floor slab
and column pad foundations, etc).
2.25 Site Boundary
Wall/Fence
The demarcation of site boundaries is generally only
required for the compound for above ground
installations, such as pumping stations, storage
tanks and treatment plants.
The boundary structure must provide adequate
security to prevent, or at least discourage
unauthorised access to the site. For this reason a
boundary wall is preferable to a fence, which should
only be used to provide temporary security, for
example during construction or maintenance. The
wall should be of solid block or concrete
construction, without decorative openings.
Sewerage and drainage installations can be subject
to public concern, and it is therefore important that
they are compatible with their surroundings as far as
possible.
Since the boundary wall is the most visible part of
the installation, its general appearance needs to
blend in naturally with the neighbourhood. The wall
height, architectural features, colour and finishes
should therefore match those of the surroundings,
consistent with the need to provide security to the
site.
The boundary wall and gate details will be subject to
planning approval, along with the buildings and
structures within the compound. The access gates
shall be located and sized to avoid obstruction from
the public.
Typical boundary wall, fence and gate details are
contained in the Standard Drawings in Volume 8.
2.26 Site Facilities
The extent and layout of site facilities are to a great
extent controlled by the available land, and the
purpose and location of the site. Site facilities should
be agreed before design is undertaken, but typical
requirements for urban sites would be:
Stand-by generator plinth (or room for major
installations), water tank and hydrants for
washdown of vehicles and equipment, surge
suppression installation, guardhouse, car ports;
For remote locations, canteen, living
accommodation and facilities for worship
should be considered.
Site layouts should provide adequate space for
access by operation and maintenance vehicles; with
suitable paved turning areas to allow vehicles to turn
and to pass each other within the compound.
Access roads and paved areas are to be provided
for tankers, cranes, lorries and mobile generators.
Space shall be provided for doors to buildings to
open fully, and for vehicles to enter buildings for
handling of equipment.
Road design and construction should be in
accordance with the Qatar Highway Design Manual,
with all access roads and hardstandings paved and
drained. Open areas should have gravel finish to
discourage weed growth.
The site layout shall accommodate the access
requirements for all utilities, including the electricity
supplier.
Any potential source of odour nuisance is to be
located a distance of at least 15m for any habitable
building.
The site drainage system shall discharge to the
public system where possible, or to a SW pumping
station on the site.
Typical details for site facilities are contained in
Volume 8 - Standard Drawings.

Drainage Affairs
3 Documentation
3.1 Reference Standards
A full list of standards used in all of the manuals for
design purposes is included in Volume 1 - Foreword.
References used in this Volume are included at the
end of the text.
3.2 House Connection
Survey
When designing new sewerage systems to serve
existing developments, it is necessary to establish
the location of connection points from the existing
buildings.
The first stage is to establish the number and
locations of properties to be served by the sewerage
system. This can be done by reference to mapping
and aerial photographs where these are available.
Using this information, the numbers of properties
can be established, including those within
compounds.
An external survey of the buildings within the
property boundary must then be undertaken to
establish the location of the discharge points from
each building. Where large and complex buildings
are involved, it may be necessary to undertake an
internal survey to determine the facilities within the
building that contribute to the sewerage system.
Individual buildings should be drained, either in
parallel or in sequence, to a terminal manhole that is
then connected to the main sewer. Please also
refer to Vol 1 Section 3.3.1. An example house
survey proforma is appended in Vol 1, Appendix 1.
3.3 Building Permit
Please refer to Volume 1, Section 4.6 for a
description of the procedures to be followed in this
respect.

Drainage Affairs

4 Health and Safety
Please refer to Volume 1 sections 4.9 and 4.10 for
more detailed coverage relating to this subject.
Health and Safety (H&S) design considerations for
foul sewerage are not exclusive or prescriptive. In
keeping with the DA policy, H&S is paramount in all
aspects of infrastructure design and operation. The
designer must be aware of the implications of design
decisions on not only the finished product, but also
on its buildability, construction stage safety,
operating life and decommissioning at the end of its
working life.
For this reason, it is essential that the procedures for
production of a Hazard and Risk analysis are carried
out, and incorporated into the pre-tender H&S plan.
No design projects will be accepted as completed by
DA without such steps having been taken, and
provision of paperwork to demonstrate this.
Considerations in design to mitigate risks will include
but not be limited to:
The designer must design out the need for
entry into all confined spaces wherever
possible;
Safe access should be provided to all plant
requiring maintenance;
All above ground installations must be fenced
off and made inaccessible to the general
public. Security arrangements must be
designed in consultation with the Operation &
Maintenance (O&M) section of the DA;
Craneage or mobile lifting facilities must be
provided for all heavy equipment;
Stairways should be equipped with handrailing
and toe plates in accordance with the relevant
BS;
Tripping hazards should be avoided, likewise
overhead obstructions;
Barriers should be provided to prevent falling
from height;
All hazards should be signposted;
Gas monitoring equipment and alarms to be
designed as hard wired for all confined spaces
requiring access;
Adequate lighting to be provided wherever
access is required;
Welfare facilities should be provided to allow
operatives to clean up after maintenance work;
Manholes must be equipped with covers which
are secure yet can be easily removed for
maintenance purposes;
Covers should be a minimum size to allow
operatives wearing breathing apparatus. A
minimum of 675mm square should be
appropriate in most cases, but will depend
upon the apparatus used by the O&M section
of the DA;
Flow isolation facilities shall be provided;
Access to long tunnels to allow desilting
equipment as necessary;
Zoning classification should be established for
all work carried out on existing and proposed
installations.

Drainage Affairs
5 Trenchless
Technologies
The following is an overview of trenchless
excavation techniques generally suitable for ground
conditions in Doha. A brief summary of the typical
purpose and diameter range appropriate for each
technique is presented at the beginning of each
overview. The techniques reviewed all relate to
installation of new pipes. There is also extensive
information available relating to sewer rehabilitation
and renovation, but this relates more to the
maintenance of older sewerage infrastructure. As
the majority of work in Qatar relates to new build,
the following section contains new build information
only. Reference documents relating to this subject
include the WRC Sewer Rehabilitation Manual
lxiii

and the Trenchless Techniques Review
lxiv
. This area
of the market is under continual review and new
techniques are regularly introduced.
Trenchless methods considered cover pipes ranging
up to 1000mm in diameter.
The most suitable methods (microtunnelling and
pipejacking) for ground conditions in Doha are
presented in greater detail.
A general guide to designing structural elements is
also given in the latter part of this section.
All tables and figures are presented in the end of the
section.
5.1 Alternative Techniques
5.1.1 Pipe jacking (Open/Close
Face)
Purpose: New Installation, Tunnelling
Diameter Range: 900mm and above
Pipe jacking involves the jacking of a tunnelling
shield and/or a complete length of tunnel lining into
the ground from a drive shaft. High pressure
hydraulic jacks are used to push the pipes through
the ground behind a shield, while excavation takes
place within the shield. Further lengths of pipe are
added at the drive shaft and the process continues
by pushing or jacking the complete string forward. It
is important to keep the string of pipes moving
forward and to maintain lubrication, to ensure that
the pipes stay buoyant during jacking.
A drive shaft is required, the dimensions of which
vary according to the specific requirements of each
situation. A thrust wall is constructed to provide a
reaction to the jacking forces. The initial alignment
of the pipe jack is obtained by positioning guide rails
within the thrust pit on which the pipes are laid. To
maintain alignment accuracy a steerable shield is
used which must be frequently checked for line and
level from a fixed reference. Upon completion of the
drive length, the shield is recovered at the reception
shaft, leaving a complete installed product pipeline.
For long lengths of pipeline, intermediate jacking
stations may be necessary to allow sequential
thrusting of sections of the pipeline. Drives of
several hundred metres are attainable using this
technique.
Spoil from the excavated face may be removed by a
variety of means including auger flight, slurry
pumping and on larger man-entry constructions, by
skips, trucks and conveyers.
Normally the size of tunnel is of man-entry and
above, i.e. greater than 1000mm. If the internal
diameter is less than 1000mm and is conducted and
steered by remote control, the process is generally
classified as Microtunnelling.
Guidance on land requirements for shaft
construction for this technique is given in Table
5.1.1.
This technique, when operating in the closed mode
is generally suitable for ground conditions in Doha.
Advantages:
Minimal surface disruption;
Noise level and traffic disruption are minimised
compared to conventional trenching;
Compact size operation.
Limitations:
Thorough site investigations are essential;
The impact of varying soil properties can be
significant;

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Difficult to deal with boulders occupying a
significant percentage of the face area;
Operators must be experienced and familiar
with the machine and its expected performance
in the expected ground conditions.

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5.1.2 Microtunnelling (Closed
Face)
Purpose: New Installation, Tunnelling
Diameter Range: 3002400mm
Microtunnelling is a method of installing pipes of up
to 2400mm diameter. This is done using a
steerable, remote controlled tunnelling machine,
which is pushed horizontally into the ground from
the drive shaft by a set of hydraulic jacks, in a
jacking frame. When the tunnelling machine has
entered the ground, a pipe is placed in the jacking
frame behind the tunnelling machine and this is
jacked forward, pushing the tunnelling machine
ahead of it. This process continues until the
tunnelling machine arrives at the reception shaft,
leaving behind a length of installed pipe.
Microtunnelling systems fall into two main categories
corresponding to the spoil transport method. One
system uses a flight of augers running through the
newly installed pipeline to transport spoil from the
cutting head to the drive shaft. The spoil is then
collected in a skip.
Alternatively, water or bentonite may be used to
convert the soil into slurry at the cutting face. The
slurry, which is water based, is then pumped to the
surface along pipes within the product pipeline being
jacked, where it enters a slurry processing plant.
The spoil is removed and the slurry is recycled back
to the cutting face. The slurry system can be used
to control external groundwater by balancing the
slurry pressure so that it offsets the groundwater
pressure. The slurry system is generally more
expensive than the auger system, and utilises more
space on site.
The choice of system depends upon the soil type
that is being excavated, and the distance to be
tunnelled. The auger system is preferred for short
drives since the removal rate is considerably faster.
No slurry pumps or slurry processing plant are
needed. For longer distances, especially in granular
soil, weathered rocks, and where there is
groundwater, the slurry system is usually more
suitable.
The launch and retrieval pits will be sized according
to such factors as drive diameter, access restrictions
and the presence of other services.
Both systems provide face support by maintaining a
positive pressure on the face through the cutting
head and the soil in the collection system using an
adjustable control at the head. It is imperative to
know the type of ground conditions present as this
will determine the type of machine to be used, the
cutting head, the soil removal system and the
jacking forces required.
A range of cutting heads is available according to
the type of soil conditions present. The boring
heads may be fitted with blades for soft soil, picks
for hard soil, and soft rock and disc cutters for hard
rock.
Microtunnelling machines are operated from a
control cabin at the surface. Machines can drive
100m or more in soft ground for sizes of 100mm
diameter upwards, from drive shafts of less than 3m
diameter. These shafts can be located so that they
become manholes in the finished scheme. The use
of laser guidance control systems ensures a high
degree of accuracy. Automatic computer monitoring
is available on some systems.
Guidance on land requirements for shaft
construction for this technique is given in Table
5.1.1.
Microtunnelling using slurry is generally more
suitable for ground conditions in Doha than auger
transported spoil.
Advantages:
Can be less expensive than conventional
trenching, especially for deep installations;
Settlement is minimised, especially with the
use of slurry machines;
Noise level and traffic disruption are minimised
compared to conventional trenching;
Print out of line and level available, with high
control and monitoring during driving.
Limitations:
Boulders and obstructions such as timber can
halt installation;
The capital cost of equipment is high;
Requires skilled and experienced operators.

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Tables 5.1.1 - Guidance on Land Requirements, for Microtunnelling and Pipe Jacking Techniques
Nominal Pipe
Diameter
(mm)
Minimum Diameter
of Drive Shaft (m)
Minimum Diameter
of Reception Shaft
(m)
Minimum Site Area Required
Open ground (m x m) Minimum width of site
in roads (m)
250 to 500 3 3 15 x 10 5
600 to 700 3 3 20 x 10 5
800 to 1000 5 4 30 x 10 6.5
1100 to 1500 6 5.5 40 x 10 7.5

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5.1.3 Directional drilling
Purpose: New Installation, Drilling
Diameter Range: 3001500mm
Directional drilling was originally developed to
install pipelines under obstacles such as roads
and river crossings, whereby the pipeline follows
a shallow arc to avoid the obstacle. In general,
the system involves large diameter steel or
polyethylene pipelines being installed over long
distances.
A rotating and steerable hollow drill of around 80
to 140mm diameter is launched from the surface
at an angle of between 8
o
and 15 and is used to
drill a pilot bore under the obstacle. Either a fluid
jet cutter or a mud driven motor head is used,
depending on ground conditions. The mud
driven motor is principally used in sands, clays or
soft rock with the slurry discharging from the bit
lubricating the hole and removing soil cuttings.
The fluid jet cutter is principally used in silts, silty
clay or sands, and operates by forcing the slurry
through small holes with the motive energy of the
fluid jet cutting the soil.
A washover pipe of around 140mm diameter is
drilled over the pilot string and follows behind the
drill head. Alternate drilling then continues on the
pilot string and the washover pipe until the exit
point on the far side of the obstacle is reached.
The pilot string is retracted and a rotating barrel
reamer, attached to and pulled back by the
washover pipe, enlarges the bore. Subsequent
reaming continues until the required diameter is
achieved. The product pipe is pre-assembled in
the area of the drill exit point and usually the full
pipeline length is jointed and pressure tested
prior to installation. The product pipe is then
attached to the reaming head via a swivel joint
and pulled through the newly formed bore using
the pullback capacity of the drilling rig. This can
be carried out at the same time as the final back
reaming operation.
A high level of accuracy is not usually required
for this type of operation. A survey package fitted
behind the drill head ensures that an accurate
path is maintained. If necessary, the drill string
can be drawn back as it approaches the target
area and the bore re-drilled to improve accuracy.
This technique is also employed when a
boulder or small obstacle is encountered.
The directional drilling process is a surface-
launched method, therefore, it usually does not
require access pits or exit pits. The rig working
area should be reasonably level, firm, and
suitable for movement of the rig. For maxi- and
midi-HDD, an area of 100m by 60m is
considered adequate. The equipment used in
mini-HDD is portable, self-contained, and
designed to work in congested areas.
Ground investigation is essential to ensure that
the ground conditions are favourable.
Directional drilling is unsuitable for use in
granular soils and gravels due to the increased
possibility of sidewall collapse.
Advantages:
Installation is rapid;
Long distances with relatively large
diameter pipelines can be achieved;
Printout of line and level available.
Limitations:
A large area is required for the drilling rig,
ancillary equipment and assembled
product pipeline;
Not suitable for gravity pipelines, with the
exception of outfalls;
The equipment has difficulty operating in
granular soils;
Accuracy of line and level cannot be
maintained.
5.2 Planning and
Selection of
Techniques
The selection procedures presented in this
manual are a general methodology that can be
used to identify suitable trenchless techniques
for new pipelines. However, they do not cover
the cost or availability of each technique, which
are controlled by local considerations that will
change from time to time.

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It must be stressed that the planning, feasibility
and outline design stages are very closely
related, and iterative in nature. Feasibility is
covered under section 5.4.1, but is very much an
extension of the planning process. A choice
between open cut and trenchless methods will
depend on environmental (vibration, noise,
settlements, traffic disruption etc.), buildability
(complexity of temporary works, settlement
monitoring programme, advanced works etc.),
commercial factors (cost vs benefit analysis), and
health and safety requirements.
5.2.1 Initial Planning
Planning for the installation of pipes requires:
Establishing system/network performance
requirements;
Establishing system design criteria;
Topographical survey data;
Route optimisation;
Determination of the location of existing
utilities;
Site investigation, establishing site specific
geology;
Consideration of construction methods.
Early consideration needs to be given to the
information required to procure and construct the
work. This includes the following:
Contract terms;
Risk assessment;
Ground Investigation;
Statutory requirements;
Settlement restrictions (ground, affected
services and buildings);
Noise restrictions;
Access requirements;
Traffic management requirements;
Land use restriction;
Checking the feasibility of method by
consulting specialist contractor;
Environmental constraints.
The procedure for establishing various aspects
of the planning and investigation for Trenchless
Techniques is set out in the flow diagrams in
Figure 5.2.1.

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Figure 5.2.1 Flow Diagram for Planning and Selecting Installation Techniques for New Pipe Installation

1) SEWER DESIGN (Hydraulic)
Establish required system performance and design
criteria
Determine type, size, depth and length of pipes to
be installed
Initial inquiries to statutory authorities
Collect details of restrictions and requirements which
will apply throughout the project

For Planning Issues Refer to Volume 1, Section
2
2) OPTIONS ASSESSMENT
Feasibility Study
Collate existing geotechnical data
Availability of equipment
Requirement for site working areas
Availability of resources (power / water / drainage)
Design and procure initial Ground Investigation
Risk Assessment
Prepare cost estimates
3) TRENCHLESS DESIGN
Identify advantages of trenchless techniques over
open cut methods (depth of service, crossing
highway or other structures, site restrictions such as
utility services, working hours, traffic restrictions etc.)
Consider and select suitable trenchless techniques
based on Site Investigation results (refer to Tables
5.1.1,and 5.2.1 for suitability of various trenchless
techniques in recent ground conditions in Doha)
Consider drive lengths available for selected pipe
material to select suitable trenchless technique
(refer Figure 5.2.2), and suitability of slurry TBM and
EPB for ground condition (refer Figure 5.2.3)
Design and procure site-specific survey, including
ground Investigation to suit chosen trenchless
technique as in Volume 1, Section 3
Identify existing structures and utility services along
the route of the pipe and carry out preliminary
assessment of ground settlements as a result of
trenchless techniques and their effects on the
identified structures
Prepare site monitoring plan (settlement monitoring
points, other instrumentation such as piezometer,
extensometer)
Design Process as per Volume 1, Section 4
4) CONSTRUCTION
Decide on form of contract
Prepare contract documents to tender
Firm up cost estimates

Refer Volume 1, Appendix 4 - Tender Procedure
Flow Charts

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Table 5.2.1 - Suitability of Trenchless Techniques for Various Ground Conditions in Doha

Ground Condition Microtunnelling and Pipe
Jacking
Directional Drilling Rock TBM

Soft to very soft clays, silts and organic deposits

GS

DMO

NS
Medium to very stiff clays and silts
GS

GS

NS
Hard clays and highly weathered shales
GS

GS

NS
Very loose to loose sands above and below the
water table
(Local geology: Reclaimed land)

GS

DMO

NS
Medium to dense sands above the water table
(Doha geology: Reclaimed land)

GS

DMO

NS
Medium to dense sands below the water table

GS

DMO

NS
Gravel and cobbles <50100mm dia

GS

DMO

NS
Soils with significant cobbles and boulders. 100
150mm dia

DMO

DMO

NS
Weathered rocks and firmly cemented soils
(Doha geology: Soft weathered limestone / caprock)

GS

DMO

DMO
Slightly weathered to unweathered rocks
(Doha geology: Slightly weathered to Unweathered
limestone)

DMO

NS

GS

NOTE:
GS: Generally Suitable Caution is needed in the presence of identifiable groups / nests of
boulders. If they represent a significant percentage of the face area
it may preclude small diameter bores

DMO: Difficulty May Occur Modifications to the machine and very detailed ground investigation
needed to establish ground conditions and machine performance

NS: Not Suitable Unsuitable in given ground conditions

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Figure 5.2.2 - Drive Lengths for Different Trenchless Techniques and Suitable Pipe Material
DIRECTIONAL
DRILLING
PIPE JACKING
MICROTUNNELLING
HPPE, MDPE, STEEL
1500 m
DI, GRP, PC, PSC, RC
300 m
DI, GRP, PC, PSC, RC, VC
180 m

Product Pipe Material Key:
Abbreviation Definition
CM Cement mortar
COMP Polyester resin conforming to WIS 4-34-04
DI Ductile Iron
ER Epoxy resin
GRP Glass Reinforced Plastic
HPPE High Performance Polyethylene
MDPE Medium Density Polyethylene
PC Plain concrete
PP Polypropylene
PRC Plastic Reinforced Concrete
PSC Pre-stressed Concrete
PVC Polyvinyl Chloride
RC Reinforced concrete
STEEL Steel
VC Vitrified Clay

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Figure 5.2.3 - Suitability of Slurry TBM and EPB, based on Various Grain Size Distribution Curve in Various
Loose Ground
Note: COPYRIGHT BY HERRENKNECHT AG. PRINTED WITH PERMISSION FROM HERRENKNECHT, 2003

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5.2.2 Selection Criteria
Planners should consider a number of factors when
deciding the most appropriate method for installation
of pipes. The factors include:
Diameter of pipeline;
Length;
Depth;
Location;
Topography;
Ground and site conditions;
Cost;
Presence of other services;
Physical obstacles (e.g. buildings);
Traffic disruption;
Disruption to third parties;
Installation techniques;
Experience of techniques;
Safety and Risk assessment;
Availability of services (power, water,
drainage);
Reinstatement requirements;
Environmental considerations;
Settlement predictions and ground monitoring,
including action plan preparation.
5.2.3 Factors Affecting Choice
Of Method
Trenchless techniques should be considered instead
of traditional open-cut techniques in the following
circumstances:
Installation of pipelines greater than 7m depth;
Installation of pipeline in poor ground
conditions and high water table;
Installation in congested urban areas where
damage to utility services and disruption to
traffic would make open-cut methods
unacceptable;
Crossing of busy highways and other
infrastructures;
Minimising the length of the pipeline route.
5.3 Geotechnical
Investigations
5.3.1 Geological Strata
Overview
The geology of the Doha region is described in
Volume 1, Section 4.2. Generally, trenchless
techniques in Doha are likely to encounter the
following ground conditions:
Superficial deposits of silty fine to coarse
carbonate sand and fine to coarse crystalline
limestone gravel, with occasional cobbles;
Weathered bedrock, fractured to varying
degrees comprising crystalline limestone,
carbonate siltstone and carbonate mudstone;
Reclaimed land (mainly the West Bay area) A
mixture of sand, silt and gravel overlying
coastal silts and sands. Some areas using
various natural and man-made rubble.
5.3.2 Groundwater Regime
Hydrogeology and groundwater levels in Doha are
described in Section 4.2 of Volume 1.
The rising ground water levels in Doha should be
considered at the design stage of the project. This
can have long term effects on installed pipelines
such as loading due to water pressure, joint sealing
between pipe sections, flotation, and long-term
durability.
Groundwater should also be tested for salinity in
order to determine durability requirements of the
pipe material. Generally, chemical analyses of the
soil and water samples in Doha indicate high
sulphate and water-soluble chloride contents. It is

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important that dense fully compacted concrete, is
used to manufacture pipes. Also, pipes should have
corrosion resistant finishes. These finishes are cast
into the pipes during manufacture and form an
integral part of the pipe. BRE digest 250
lxv

recommends protection measures necessary for
concrete against sulphate attack.
All pipes delivered on site should come with up-to-
date Quality Certification.
Evaluation of groundwater presence and pressures
during site investigation is of utmost importance in
the design of, and construction of, pipes using
trenchless techniques. Unforeseen groundwater can
cause major problems during construction, resulting
in significant delays and increased costs.
5.3.3 Soil/Rock properties
When designing and planning installations to be
carried out by trenchless techniques, the planners
should consult geotechnical engineers on the
characteristic of the soils and/or rock likely to be
encountered, together with details of the water table,
ground permeability, and seasonal changes.
Site investigations, field tests, laboratory tests,
reports and interpretation are described in Volume
1, Section 3. In addition to these, the following
information is required for planning trenchless
techniques:
Abrasivity of rock samples;
Historical information of reclaimed land where
applicable (material used, compaction method,
completion date).
A list of soil parameters required for design and
construction of trenchless techniques is given in
Table 5.3.1.

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Table 5.3.1 - Geotechnical Parameters Required for Design
Geotechnical Parameter Symbol Application for planning
Soil and / or rock description Define types of ground
Grade of rock Q, RMR Extent of ground support
Percentage core recovery and core condition TCR , SCR, RQD State of weak rock or hard ground
Unit total and effective weights ,

Overburden pressure
Relative Density of coarse grained soils Dr State of natural compaction of cohesionless
soft ground
Moisture content W Profiling of property changes with depth
Specific Gravity Gs Type of Ground
Plasticity and Liquidity Indices LL, LP, PI, LI Type and strength of cohesive soft ground
Particle size distribution Composition of soft ground
Unconfined Compressive Strength qu Intact strength of hard ground
Point Load Index Strength of lump lp Intact strength of hard ground lump
Axial and Diametrical Point Load Index Strengths la , ld Axial and diametral intact strengths
Undrained Shear Strength CU , SU Shear strength of soft ground
Effective Stress Shear Strength C

Long term cohesion of soft ground
Angle of Shearing Resistance
,
Long term shear strength of cohesive soft
ground, short and long term Shear Strength
of cohesionless soft ground
Drained Deformation Modulus E

Long term stiffness
Poissons Ratio Influences stiffness values
Coefficient of Effective Earth Pressure Ko, Ka, Kp Ratio between horizontal and vertical
Effective stresses at rest, Active and
Passive
In situ Stresses in Rock Magnitude of principal stresses in rock in
three directions
Permeability K Characteristic ground permeabilitys and
variations.
PH, Sulphate and Chloride contents Ph, SO3 , CI Concrete and steel durability
Chemical contamination Extent of ground contamination
Abrasion Rate of cutter tool wear

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5.3.4 Indicative Scope of
Interpretative Reporting
The Geotechnical Factual Report (GFR) should
contain all the findings of the field and laboratory
work. BS 5930:1999 sets out, in general terms, the
contents of a GFR. Based on the GFR, a
Geotechnical Interpretative Report (GIR) is
prepared.
The GIR provides an overview of the ground
conditions and the likely construction methods,
together with the suitability of various techniques
and risk assessment. Typically, the GIR would
contain the following sections:
Outline of the proposed scheme;
Definition of route corridor;
Desk study and site reconnaissance findings;
Identification of route and alignment options;
Summary of the ground investigation work;
Description of ground and groundwater
condition;
Interpretation of ground conditions in relation to
the design and construction of the proposed
scheme;
Recommendations for design of temporary and
permanent works, and further ground
investigation if necessary;
Risk assessment for various
schemes/trenchless techniques.
5.4 Design
5.4.1 Feasibility Study
The information useful when planning and designing
new installations includes:
Land ownership;
Historical maps of the area that may reveal
obstacles (e.g. wells, mine shafts etc.);
Geological map of the area;
Aerial photography;
Topographical survey;
Site investigation to determine the location of
existing services and potential buried
obstructions;
Contamination.
5.4.2 Pipe Design
In this section guidelines for structural design of
pipes and shafts are provided with regards to
construction and permanent loadings.
Frictional Resistance
During installation of pipes using trenchless
techniques, frictional forces build up around the
pipeline as the line of pipes is advanced behind the
shield. The frictional forces arise from soil cover
and surcharge loads and are affected by the quality
of lubrication. The frictional forces depend on the
type of soil, depth of overburden, length and
diameter of the pipe(s) being jacked, the speed of
excavation and most importantly, the lubrication
agent injected between pipes, the quality of
workmanship, and the ground properties during
jacking. Empirical values for friction coefficients
may vary between 0.5 and 2.5 tonnes per square
meter of external circumferential area, depending on
site conditions and the type of excavation.
Alternatively, frictional force can be estimated from
the procedure outlined in Milligan et. al
lxvi
.
Using lubricating agents such as bentonite under
pressure generally reduces frictional forces on the
pipeline. If high frictional forces are expected due to
factors such as ground roughness, together with
high fracturing/permeability conditions, and there is
a high likelihood of pressure loss. It is recommended
that intermediate jacking stations be placed at
regular intervals in the pipeline and/or pre-treating,
undertaken in the areas of potential pressure loss.
Jacking Loads
Jacks push the pipes forwards against the ground
frictional resistance (depending on the effect of
lubrication), the face support pressure detailed in
Milligan et. al
lxvi
, and the force on the cutting edge of
the leading pipe. A factor of safety is also used to
allow for unforeseen obstacles, varying ground
conditions and poor workmanship. The jacking force
required is as follows:

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Jacking Force = Frictional resistance + Weight of
Pipe + Face Pressure (Closed mode)
Equation 5.4.1
Pipe Design
The pipes are designed to withstand axial forces
applied to the pipe during the jacking operation. As
well as jacking forces, the pipes must be designed
for external forces due to soil and groundwater
pressures and live loads such as traffic.
Pipe Joint
Jacking force causes the maximum loading on a
pipeline. The joints are designed to ensure jacking
forces are transmitted over the maximum area of the
pipe. The design information required is: maximum
allowable concrete strength; the stiffness of packing
material; and maximum allowed misalignment angle.
Where the jacking force is well distributed over the
pipe end area, it would be appropriate to use a
concrete strength of 0.4fcu, where fcu is the
characteristic cube strength of concrete. For the
highly localised stresses at the joints in the extreme
conditions, a joint face stress of 0.8fcu can be used.
Milligan et. al
lxvi
, contains example calculations for
determining permissible jacking force based on
linear stress theories.
Pipe Lining
Pipe lining can be designed using simple
compression theory. Hoop reinforcement will
generally be needed in larger diameter pipes to
resist bending due to ground pressures and stresses
near the pipe ends due to jacking loads, or as
nominal reinforcement for crack control. Structural
design of the lining can be carried out using
appropriate codes for the materials in question.
5.4.3 Shaft Design
Construction Method
Jacking and receiving shafts are generally vertical
excavations with shoring and bracing systems.
Several shoring systems are commonly used, such
as sheet-pile systems with internal bracing, or
precast concrete shafts.
An important factor in the design of jacking and
receiving pits is groundwater control. Dewatering
systems using deep wells or well points are
frequently employed. However, in urban areas this
could lead to consolidation settlements resulting in
damage to structures and utility services in the zone
of influence. Groundwater cut-off arrangements can
be used if relatively impermeable soils are present
below water bearing soils. Sheet piles could be
driven into the impervious soils to cut off
groundwater inflows or water seals could be used
between caisson shaft units.
Grouting or similar methods of groundwater control
are normally required when launching the pipe and
advancing out of the jacking pit, or advancing into
the receiving pit.
Wet caisson sinking methods are frequently used to
construct shafts where dewatering or grouting
methods would be difficult or uneconomical. This
approach involves constructing the shaft by stacking
up circular precast concrete sections while
excavating inside the caisson below the
groundwater level with a cutting edge. The units are
bolted together vertically, complete with seals to
stop water entering the shaft. After the caisson is
sunk to the design elevation, a concrete slab is
poured to form the base of the shaft.
Structural Design of Shaft
The base of the shaft is designed to transfer uplift
and hydrostatic forces to the shaft walls. The weight
of the slab and the shaft walls counteract the up-
thrust forces. To some extent, the shaft also resists
uplift through ground adhesion, depending on the
effectiveness of the bonds at shaft external
face/grout/ground. This adhesion or bond has to be
assessed carefully with suitable factors of safety
allowing for the quality and long-term durability of
void grouting.
Shaft Base
The base can be constructed using mass, or
reinforced concrete.
Mass concrete is used for small circular shafts and
acts in compression by arching. The design is
based on the principle of dome action to radial
loading (refer to Reynolds et. al
lxii
.

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Reinforced base slabs are used in large diameter
shafts. Slab design is two-directional, simply
supported along the edges and of sufficient
thickness to ensure that shear reinforcement is not
required (refer to Reynolds et. al).
Shaft Lining
Circular caisson units are designed to withstand
ground and water pressures. The circular caisson
lining can be designed based on the method
described for pipe lining.
5.4.4 Ground Movements
Tunnelling-induced soil settlement is estimated
based on the methods proposed by Peck (1969)
(refer to Peck
lxvii
) and Mair et al. (1993) (refer to
Taylor et.al.
lxviii
). According to their methods, the
shape of settlement profiles at the ground surface
and subsurface can be characterised as a Gaussian
distribution.
Existing Structure Responses
The assessment of risk to buildings and utilities
should be carried out during planning stage.
Potential building damage and categorisation
commonly used for new installations using
trenchless techniques in urban areas is shown in
Table 5.4.1. It should be noted that the assessment
of soil structure interaction is a highly complex and
variable issue, which cannot be covered in the
scope of this manual.

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Table 5.4.1 - Damage to Buildings and Suggested Actions
Risk
Category
Maximum
slope
Maximum
settlement
Description of risk Action required
1 Less than
1/500
Less than
10mm
Negligible: superficial damage
unlikely
No action except for particularly
sensitive buildings where
individual assessment should be
made
2 1/500 to
1/200
10 mm to
50mm
Slight: possible non-structural
superficial damage
Crack survey and schedule of
defects. Assess particularly
vulnerable buildings and pipelines
individually
3 1/200 to 1/50 50mm to
75mm
Moderate: possible structural
damage to buildings and rigid
pipelines
Crack survey, schedule of defects
and structural assessment.
Predict extent of possible damage
to buildings and decide whether
to repair damage, control
movements or demolish.

Identify vulnerable services,
decide whether to repair, divert or
replace with more tolerant
services.
4 >1/50 > 75mm High: expected structural damage
to buildings, rigid pipelines and
possible damage to flexible
pipelines

Drainage Affairs

Instrumentation and Monitoring
When tunnelling in urban areas and taking into
account the complexity and environmental factors,
carefully planned and executed instrumentation and
monitoring is essential.
It is imperative that lines of communication are open
in order to feed back the data obtained to the
machine operatives. This will allow them to adjust
and improve machine performance, as well as to
compare the data with the predicted levels of
settlement and strains obtained before the tunnelling
works commence.
Typical instrumentation normally used is as follows:
Surface markers (settlements and lateral
displacements);
Extensometers (vertical displacement profile);
Inclinometers (horizontal displacement profile);
Piezometers (pore water pressure profile);
Measuring relative rotation and angular strain
of buildings using electro-levels, biaxial tilt-
meters, and precise levelling studs;
Automated Total Stations can be set up and
programmed to monitor targets fixed at key
points, at regular intervals, and the data down
loaded remotely through the use of radio relay
transmission;
Monitoring existing defects (cracks) using tell-
tale indicators.
The Instrumentation & Monitoring Plan must be site
specific and should include the following as a
minimum:
Location and type of instrumentation;
Alarm, Alert and Action levels;
Lines of responsibility and communication;
Rapid response and emergency plan, including
contact names and telephone numbers with
relevant authorities.
5.5 Environmental
Assessment
The use of trenchless technologies requires that
several specific environmental impact issues be
evaluated in detail, along with appropriate
consultation with SCENR.
5.5.1 Vibration
Vibration from trenchless techniques very rarely give
rise to building damage, disturbance to people
through perceptible vibration, or by the generation of
ground-borne noise.
The nature, duration, and number of events that
occur in a specified period, and the location in which
the vibration is received, all influence the publics
tolerance. The vibration dose value (VDV),
described in BS 6472: 1992
lxix
is used to combine
the effects of all perceptible vibration events that
occur to establish probability that complaints will
arise.
Most activities related to trenchless techniques do
not give rise to vibration levels of a magnitude that
would be damaging. BS 7385: Part 2: 1993 gives
guidance on vibration levels that can cause
damage
lxx
.
When required, monitoring devices can be installed
to determine levels of vibration.
As a guide, key typical guidance criteria for vibration
are 5mm/s peak particle velocity for construction
works, and 3mm/s near schools and hospitals.
5.5.2 Noise
Noise levels from trenchless construction depend on
the technique adopted. The level should be
assessed in order to determine whether noise
exposure is likely to reach the action levels stated
below.
BS 5228-1 gives guidance on how noise arising
from worksites affects site personnel and others
living and working in the neighbourhood. BS 5228-2
gives guidance on legislation covering the control of
noise and vibration
lxxi
.
Action Levels

Drainage Affairs
Where noise levels are likely to be at or above levels
defined below, then action is required to reduce
noise or provide noise protection.
Action levels 1 and 2 are values of daily personal
exposure to noise, defined as LEP, d. These depend
on the noise level in the working areas, and how
long people spend in them during the day.
Action level 1: is a LEP, d of 85dB (A). At this level
the employer has a general duty to provide ear
protection.
Action level 2: is a LEP, d 90dB (A). At this level in
addition to the action required above, the employer
has a duty to ensure all personnel wear ear
protectors at all times and mark ear protection zones
with notices.
Action level 3: This is a peak action level,
corresponding to of 140dB. The peak action level is
most likely to be important for loud impulsive
sources, such as blasting. At this level, the
employer must again ensure all personnel wear ear
protectors at all times and mark ear protection zones
with notices.
In Qatar, SCENR has published guidance on noise
15 minute weighted average dB (A) at property line
standards as follows:
Residential and Institutional 55dB (A) (day) and
45dB (A) (night);
Commercial 65dB (A) (day) and 55dB (A) (night);
Industrial 75dB (A) (day) and 75dB (A) (night).
5.5.3 Dust
Generally, trenchless techniques for installation of
pipes produce far less dust than traditional open
excavation. Also, dust is limited to the working site
and during removal of excavated materials.
Sprinkling water on excavated material and covering
spoil in the removal trucks can control dust on site.
Also, the spoil haul route within and outside the site
should be maintained in a clean condition, if
necessary by spraying water.
Deposited dust limits are generally regarded to be
an increase of 200mg/m
2
over the baseline level.
General airborne dust above 10mg/m
3
is an
approximate trigger level (although not an
occupational health level). Further guidance detail
is provided in BS 1747
lxxii
.
In Qatar, SCENR has issued guidance on ambient
air quality particulate matter. Over a 24-hour
averaging period 99.7% of data levels should meet
the standard of 150mg/m
3
.
5.6 Approvals
Procedures and
Formats
Trenchless design will be by specialist contractor
according to techniques, machinery and materials
being considered.
Design will require approval by the consultant in line
with the following guidance.
5.6.1 Guidance for Design
Check
The consultant who is approving design and
construction methods proposed by the specialist
contractor shall ensure design and construction
processes, safety and environmental requirements
are in line with relevant sections of Volume 1. In
addition, the consultant shall check the following:
Adequate working area, and the size of drive
and reception shafts are proposed as per Table
5.1.1;
Shaft and pipes are designed in-line with
section 5.4;
The shaft lining is watertight;
Settlement analysis and effects on utility
services, highway and other structures in the
zone of influence are assessed;
Monitoring regime and settlement limits are
established for above structures.
5.7 Risk Assessment
Risks associated with trenchless technologies
should be assessed before work starts so that the
necessary preventative measures can be identified
and action taken. The process of risk assessment

Drainage Affairs

starts at the design stage of a project and continues
during the construction phase.
Risks can be categorised as contractual,
construction, operational, financial, environmental,
health and safety. Contractual risks can arise from
inadequate contract preparation and management.
Generally, the risk increases with decreasing clarity
of contract and can be dealt with through improving
contract clarity and management practices.
Construction risks are associated with site
conditions and construction methods. These risks
can be minimised by careful planning but are
seldom eliminated.
The risk associated with trenchless techniques can
be summarised as follows:
Mechanical failure of machinery;
Material failure pipes or linings;
Ground loss leading to high settlement or
ground collapse;
Risk of damage to utilities, road and
surrounding structures;
Unforeseen ground conditions;
Loss of directional control.
These risks can be mitigated by the following
measures:
Choosing suitable techniques/equipment and
construction material;
Appropriate level of site investigation and
interpretation of results;
Trained operatives and choosing experienced
Designers and Contractors;
Monitoring ground, services and buildings in
the settlement influence zone;
Adequate level of supervision;
Preparation of emergency procedures.
A typical Risk Assessment Matrix is presented in
Table 5.7.1 and Risk Classification is indicated in
Table 5.7.2.

Drainage Affairs
Table 5.7.1 - RISK ASSESSMENT MATRIX A typical risk assessment for trenchless techniques
Project Title: Prepared by: Date
L=Likelihood, S=Severity, RR=Risk Checked by: Page
Ref Activity / Hazard Risk Rating Design and/or Construction
input to eliminate / reduce
hazard
Residual Risk Rating
L x S= RR L x S= RR Risk level
Damage to utilities, roads,
surrounding structures /
Substantial cost for
Damage, Delay
3 3 9 Establish location of utilities
before construction/ obtain
Utilities Drawings/carry out Trial
trenches/ Geophysical survey/
Monitoring
2 3 6 Medium
Failure of materials (e.g. pipes or
lining) / Substantial cost for
Damage, delay
2 3 6 Experience designers/
Comprehensive quality control/
reputable supplier
1 3 3 Low
Failure of machinery 2 3 6 Select most suitable technique/
experience contractor/reputable
manufacturer of machinery
1 3 3 Low
Mix ground conditions / Ground
failure, Delay, Cost
2 3 6 Select most suitable technique
including trenching / experience
contractor / reputable
manufacturer of machinery
1 3 3 Low
Buried structures, e.g.
basements, piles, Historical
Mining voids, cavities /
Impedes pipe drive, delay, cost
2 3 6 Comprehensive Desk Study to
identify historical structures
Testing equipment
1 3 3 Low
Encounter major inflow of water /
Ground failure, slow progress
3 3 9 Ground treatment / Dewatering /
Close mode technique
2 3 6 Low
Noise, dust, pollution, vibrations /
Adverse Public relations
Restricted working hours
Compensation claims
Health and Safety Claims
4 3 12 Establish necessary restrictions
beforehand
Reduce by choosing
appropriate method
2 2 4 Low
Contaminated
Ground/Groundwater / Adverse
working conditions for Workforce,
Specialist requirements for waste
and Groundwater disposal
2 3 6 Comprehensive Desk Study &
Intrusive Ground Investigation
to identify problem areas
PPE / testing equipment
2 1 2 Low
Guidance on HARAs is given in CIRIA Report 166 (CDM Regulations Work Sector Guidance For Designers)
lxxiii

Drainage Affairs

Table 5.7.2 - Risk Classification to enable each risk to be assessed in terms of probability and severity
SEVERITY / CONSEQUENCE (Hazard)
LIKELIHOOD Minor
1
Slight
2
Moderate
3
High
4
Very High
5
Extremely
Unlikely
1
1 2 3 4 5
Unlikely
2

2 4 6 8 10
Likely
3

3 6 9 12 15
Very Likely
4

4 8 12 16 20
Certain
5

5 10 15 20 25
PRIORITY OF ACTION

Score

1-5

6-10

Above 10
Rating Low Risk Medium Risk High Risk
Action PPE, Best Working Practice,
Signs
Isolate, control Eliminate, Reduce by
substitution

Drainage Affairs
5.8 Trenchless
Construction
References
The following documents are helpful in design and
use of Trenchless Technologies.

British Standards Institution, 1990, BS 5930:
1981- Code of practice for site investigation,
London, BSI.
British Standards Institution, 1990, BS1377:
1990 - Methods of test for soils for civil
engineering purposes. London, BSI.
2001 - Code of practice for safety in tunnelling
in the construction industry, London, BSI.
British Standards Institution, 1981, BS 5911-
1:1981 Precast concrete pipes and fittings for
drainage and sewerage. Specification for pipes
and fittings with flexible joints and manholes
(No longer current but cited in the Building
Regulations), London, BSI.
2:1997 - Noise and vibration control on
construction and open sites Part 2: Guide to
noise and vibration control legislation for
construction and demolition including road
construction and maintenance. London, BSI.
British Standards Institution, 1990, BS 7385 -
1:1990, Evaluation and measurement for
vibration in buildings. Guide for measurement
of vibrations and evaluation of their effects on
buildings, London, BSI.
1:1990, Evaluation and measurement for
vibration in buildings. Guide for measurement
of vibrations and evaluation of their effects on
buildings, London, BSI.
8 British Standards Institution, 1992, BS
6472:1992: Evaluation of human exposure to
vibration in buildings (1Hz to 80Hz), London,
BSI.
Building Research Establishment, Digest 250:
Concrete in sulphate-bearing soils and ground
water. UK, BRE.
Reynolds, C.E. and Steedman, J.C, 1988,
Reinforced Concrete Designers Handbook. 10
th

ed. London, Spon Press.
British Tunnelling Society and Association of
British Insurers, 2003, Joint Code of Practice
for the Risk Management of Tunnelling Projects
in the UK, UK.

SETTLEMENT AND DAMAGE TO BUILDINGS
Burland J.B., and Wroth C.P, 1975, Settlement
of Buildings and Associated Damage, Building
Research Establishment Current Paper,
Watford, Building Research Establishment.
Burland J.B., 1997, Assessment of risk of
damage to buildings due to tunnelling and
excavation, Earthquake Geotechnical
Engineering, Ishihara (ed.), Balkema,
Rotterdam, pp. 1189-1201.
Boone S.J., 1996, Ground Movement Related
Building Damage, Journal of Geotechnical
Engineering, ASCE, 122(11), pp. 886-896.
E.J. Cording, T.D. ORourke, and
M.D.Boscardin, 1978, Ground Movements and
Damage to Structures, Proc., Int. Conf. On
Evaluation and Prediction of Subsidence,
Florida, pp 516-537.
Peck, R. B., 1969, Deep excavations and
tunnelling in soft ground. Proc. of 7th Int. Conf.
Soil Mech., Mexico, State of the Art 3, pp. 225-
290.
Taylor, R. N., and Bracegirdle, A., 1993,
Subsurface settlement profiles above tunnels in
clay, Geotechnique, 43(2), pp.315-320.

DESIGN
Milligan G., Norris, P. Pipe jacking: Research
results and recommendations, Pipe Jacking
Association.

Drainage Affairs

B Maidl, M. Herrenknecht, L. Anheuser,
Mechanised Shield Tunnelling, Ernst & Sohn
Publications.

TRENCHLESS TECHNOLOGIES
Pipe Jacking Association, 1987, A guide to pipe
jacking and Microtunnelling design, Pipe
Jacking Association.
International Society for Trenchless
Technology, 1992, Introduction to trenchless
technology, 2nd edition, ISTT.
5.9 Trenchless
Construction Glossary
The following terms used in Section 5 - Trenchless
Technology, are defined below.
AUGUR BORING
A technique for forming a bore from a drive shaft to
a reception shaft, by means of a rotating cutting
head. Spoil is removed back to the drive shaft by
helically wound auger flights rotating in a steel
casing. The equipment may have limited steering
capability.
AUGUR TBM
A type of tunnel boring machine in which the
excavated soil is removed to the drive shaft by
auger flights passing through the product pipeline
pushed in behind the TBM.
CUTTER HEAD
Any tool or system of tools on a common support
which excavates at the face of a bore. Usually
applies to mechanical methods of excavation.
DIRECTIONAL DRILLING
A steerable system for the installation of pipes and
cables in a shallow arc using a surface launched
drilling rig.
DRILLING FLUID / MUD
A mixture of water and bentonite or polymer
continuously pumped to the cutting head to facilitate
the removal of cuttings, stabilise the borehole, cool
the head and lubricate the installation of the product
pipe. In suitable ground conditions water alone may
be used.
DRIVE/ENTRY SHAFT OR PIT
Excavation from which trenchless technology
equipment is launched for the installation or
renovation of a pipeline, conduit or cable. May
incorporate a thrust wall to spread reaction loads to
the ground.
EARTH PRESSURE BALANCE (EPB) MACHINE
Type of Microtunnelling or tunnelling machine in
which mechanical pressure is applied to the material
at the face and controlled to provide the correct
counter-balance to earth pressures in order to
prevent heave or subsidence.
ENTRY/EXIT ANGLE
In a horizontal directional drilling/guided boring
system, the angle to the ground surface at which
the drill string enters and exits in forming the pilot
bore.
FLUID-ASSISTED BORING/DRILLING
A type of guided boring technique using a
combination of mechanical drilling and pressurised
fluid jets to provide the soil cutting action.
GROUTING
Filling of the annular space between the carrier
pipe and the new product pipe. Grouting is also
used to fill the space around laterals and between
the new pipe and manholes. Other uses of
grouting are for localised repairs of defective pipes,
ground improvements prior to excavation during
new installations and the filling of voids around
existing carrier pipe.
INTERJACK PIPES
Pipes specially designed for use with an
intermediate jacking station.
INTERMEDIATE JACKING STATION (IJS)
A fabricated steel shield incorporating hydraulic
jacks designed to operate between interjack pipes to
provide incremental thrust on long drives.

Drainage Affairs
JACKING PIPES
Pipes designed to be installed using pipe jacking
techniques.
JACKING SHIELD
A fabricated steel cylinder from within which the
excavation is carried out either by hand or machine.
Incorporated within the shield are facilities to allow it
to be adjusted to control line and level.
JET CUTTING
A type of guided boring technique using pressurised
fluid jets to provide the soil cutting action.
LAUNCH PIT
As for drive shaft but more usually associated with
launching an impact moling tool.
LEAD PIPE
The leading pipe manufactured to fit the rear of the
jacking shield and over which the trailing end of the
shield is fitted.
MEASUREMENT WHILE DRILLING (MWD)
Borehole survey instrumentation that provides
continuous information simultaneously with drilling
operations, usually transmitting to a display at or
near the drilling rig.
MICROTUNNELLING
Steerable remote control pipe jacking to install pipes
of internal diameter less than that permissible for
man-entry (i.e. <1000mm).
MIDI-RIG
Steerable surface-launched drilling equipment for
the installation of pipes, conduits and cables.
Applied to intermediate sized drilling rigs used as
either a small directional drilling machine, or a large
guided boring machine. Tracking of the drill string
may be achieved by either a downhole survey tool
or a locator.
MAN-ENTRY
Description of any tunnelling technology process,
which requires an operative to enter a pipe, duct or
bore. The minimum size for which this is
permissible is generally defined by national health
and safety legislation (e.g. larger than 1000mm
diameter in the UK).
NEW INSTALLATION
Methods by which a new pipeline is constructed.
PIPE JACKING
A technique by which the pipes are pushed through
the ground behind a tunnelling shield using hydraulic
jacks reacting against a thrust wall in a
jacking/launch pit.
RECEPTION/EXIT/TARGET SHAFT OR PIT
Excavation into which trenchless technology
equipment is driven and recovered following the
installation or renovation of the product pipe, conduit
or cable.
SLEEVE PIPE
A pipe installed as external protection to a product
pipe.
SLURRY TBM
A type of Microtunnelling machine in which soil is
turned to slurry and is used to counterbalance
ground water pressure to stabilise the face, before
being pumped to the surface.
SURVEY TOOLS
Downhole equipment and instruments used to
determine the position of a bore in directional drilling
or site investigation.
TUNNEL BORING MACHINE
A full-face circular mechanical shield machine,
usually of man-entry diameter, steerable, and with a
rotary cutting head. For pipe installation, it leads a
string of jacked pipes. It may be controlled from
within the shield or remotely.

Drainage Affairs

6 References

i
British Standards Institution, various years of
publication, BS EN 752 - Drain and sewer systems
outside buildings, BSI UK.
ii
BS 8005 superseded by BS EN 752 - Drain and
sewer systems outside buildings.
iii
British Standards Institution, 1997, BS 8301: Code
of practice for building drainage, London, BSI. ISBN
0-89116-067-1.
iv
British Standards Institution, 1995, BS EN 598:
1995 Ductile iron pipes, fittings, accessories and
their joints for sewerage applications
Requirements and test methods. London, BSI.
v
British Standards Institution, 1998, BS EN 1610:
1998 Construction and testing of drains and
sewers, London, BSI.
vi
Water UK/WRc plc, 2001, Sewers for Adoption 5
th

Edition, a design and construction guide for
developers, 5
th
edition, UK, Water UK/WRc.
vii
British Standards Institution, 1994, BS EN
124:1994 Gully tops and manhole tops for
vehicular and pedestrian areas design
requirements, type testing, marking, quality control
(AMD 8587), London, BSI.
viii
British Standards Institution, 1998, BS EN 752-
4:1988 - Drain and Sewer Systems Outside
Buildings. Hydraulic Design and Environmental
Considerations, London, BSI. Appendix B, Table B2.
ix
David Butler and John W Davies, 2000, Urban
Drainage, ISBN 0-419-22340-1, Suffolk, UK, E&FN
Spon, Table 4.2.
x
Spon, Table 10.3.
xi
Eckenfelder W.W. Industrial Water
Pollution Control, 2
nd
Edition 1989
xii
Technical Digest, Tannery Wastes,
Central Public Health Engineering Institute,
Nagpur, India, No 28, April 1972

xiii
Figures from Original DD Developers
Guide, provided by Sheik Abdul Azeez of
DA
xiv
Metcalf and Eddy, Wastewater
Treatment , Reuse and Disposal, 4
th

Edition
xv
Spon, Table 10.2.
xvi
Spon, Table 10.2.
xvii
Spon, Table 10.2.
xviii
Spon, Table 10.2.
xix
Spon, Table 10.2.
xx
Spon, Table 10.2.
xxi
Hyder Consulting project data for Welsh
Water
xxii
Figures from Original DD Developers
Guide, provided by Sheik Abdul Azeez of
DA
xxiii
Spon, Table 10.2.
xxiv
Spon, Table 10.2.
xxv
Construction Industry Research and Information
Association, 1997, Report 175, Control of Infiltration
to Sewers, London, CIRIA.

Drainage Affairs

xxvi
Association, 1998, Report 177, Dry Weather Flows
in Sewers, London, CIRIA.
xxvii
HR Wallingford and DIH Barr, 2000, Tables for
the Hydraulic Design of Pipes, Sewers and
Channels, 7
th
Edition, Trowbridge, Wiltshire, UK
Redwood Books.
xxviii
Association, 1996, Design of sewers to control
sediment problems, Report 141, London CIRIA.
xxix
Vincent A.J., 2001, Sources of odours in
wastewater treatment, ed Stuetz R. and Frechen
F.B., Odours in Wastewater Treatment, IWA
Publishing.
xxx
World Health Organisation, 1987, Air Quality
guidelines for Europe, WHO Regional Publications
Series No. 23, Regional Office for Europe
Copenhagen, World Health Organisation.
xxxi
UK Health and Safety Executive, 2002,
Occupational Exposure Limits, EH40/2002, UK,
Health and Safety Executive.
xxxii
Foundation for Water Research, 1993, Enclosed
wastewater treatment plants - health and safety
considerations, FR/W 0001, UK, FRW.
xxxiii
Bowker D. G., Smith J. M., and Webster N. A.,
1989, Odour and Corrosion Control in Sanitary
Sewerage Systems and Treatment Plants, United
States, Hemisphere Publishing Corporation.
xxxiv
Code of practice for building drainage, London, BSI.
ISBN 0-89116-067-1.
xxxv
US Environmental Protection Agency, 1974, US
EPA Report 625/1-74-005 - Process Design Manual
for Sulphide Control in Sanitary Sewerage Systems,
USA, EPA.
xxxvi
Boon, A.G., 1992, Septicity in sewers: Causes,
Consequences and Containment. JIWEM, Vol 6
No.1, February 1992, pp.79-90.
xxxvii
Detention Tanks A Design Guide, UK, WRC.

xxxviii
Association, 1994, Guide to the Design of thrust
blocks for buried pressure pipelines, Report 128,
London CIRIA, page 18.
xxxix
British Standards Institution, 1991, BS EN ISO
6817: 1997: Measurement of conductive liquid flow
in closed conduits. London, BSI.
xl
British Standards Institution, 2001, BS 6164: 2001
- Code of practice for safety in tunnelling in the
construction industry, London, BSI.
xli
CIRIA & BHRA (Construction Industry Research
and Information Association, British
Hydromechanics Research Association). 1977. The
hydraulic design of pump sumps and intakes. CIRIA
& BHRA. ISBN: 0-86017-027-6.
xlii
ITT Flygt The Design of Pumping
Stations with Large Submersible
Centrifugal Pumps
xliii
1: Low Voltage Switchgear and Controlgear
Assemblies. Type-tested and PartiallyType-Tested
Assemblies, London, BSI.
xliv
IEC, 1999, IEC 6-947-1, ed.3.2; Low Voltage
Switchgear and Controlgear General Rules, IEC.
xlv
Electrical Research Association Report No. 69-30.
xlvi
Chartered Institution of Building Services
Engineers, 1989-2001, CIBSE Lighting Guides (1-7),
London, CIBSE.
xlvii
1: 1998 Explosive Atmospheres Explosion
Prevention and Protection. Basic Concepts and
Methodology, London, BSI.
xlviii
British Standards Institution, 1981-1999, BS
5266- (1-7):1981-1999 Emergency Lighting,
London, BSI.
xlix
British Standards Institution, 2003, BS 5489-1:
2003 Code of Practice for The Design of Road
Lighting. Lighting of Roads and Public Amenity
Areas, London, BSI.

Drainage Affairs


l
UK Health and Safety Executive, 2002,
Occupational Exposure Limits, EH40/2002, UK,
Health and Safety Executive.
li
BSI. 1997. BS8110-1: 1997. Structural Use of
Concrete Part 1: Code of practice for design and
construction. London. British Standards Institution.
lii
BSI. 1987. BS8007: 1987. Design of concrete
structures for retaining aqueous liquids. London.
British Standards Institution
liii
CIRIA. 1992. Report N
o
. 91 Early-age thermal
crack control in concrete. London. Construction
Industry Research and Information Association.
liv
CIRIA. 1995. Report N
o
. 135 Concreting deep
lifts and large volume pours. London. Construction
Industry Research and Information Association.
lv
BSI. 1978. BS5400-2: 1978. Steel, concrete and
composite bridges Part 2: Specification for loads.
London. British Standards Institution.
lvi
BSI. 1996. BS6399-1: 1996. Loading for buildings
Part 1: Code of practice for dead and imposed
loads. London. British Standards Institution.
lvii
Institution of Structural Engineers. 1989. Soil-
structure interaction. The real behaviour of
structures. London. The Institution of Structural
Engineers.
lviii
BSI. 2002. BS8500-1: 2002. Concrete
Complementary British Standard to BS EN 206-1
Part 1: Method of specifying and guidance for the
specifier. London. British Standards Institution.
lix
BRE. 2001. Concrete in aggressive ground Part
1, 2, 3 & 4. London. BRE Bookshop.
lx
BSI. 1997. BS6399-2: 1997. Loading for buildings
Part 2: Code of practice for wind loads. London.
British Standards Institution.
lxi
BSI. 1983. BS2573-1: 1983. Rules for the design
of cranes Part 1: Specification for classification,
stress calculations and design criteria for structures.
London. British Standards Institution.
lxii
Reynolds, C.E. and Steedman, J.C, 1988,
Reinforced Concrete Designers Handbook. 10
th
ed.
London, Spon Press.

lxiii
Rehabilitation Manual, 4
th
Edition, Swindon, UK
Water Research Council.
lxiv
Water Research Council, 1999, Review of
Trenchless Techniques, Swindon UK Water
Research Council.
lxv
Building Research Establishment, Digest 250:
Concrete in sulphate-bearing soils and ground
water. UK, BRE.
lxvi
Milligan G., Norris, P., Pipe jacking: Research
results and recommendations, Pipe Jacking
Association.
lxvii
Peck, R. B., 1969, Deep excavations and
tunnelling in soft ground. Proc. of 7th Int. Conf. Soil
Mech., Mexico, State of the Art 3, pp. 225-290.
lxviii
Taylor, R. N., and Bracegirdle, A., 1993,
Subsurface settlement profiles above tunnels in
clay, Geotechnique, 43(2), pp.315-320.
lxix
British Standards Institution, 1992, BS
6472:1992: Evaluation of human exposure to
vibration in buildings (1Hz to 80Hz), London, BSI.
lxx
1:1990, Evaluation and measurement for vibration in
buildings. Guide for measurement of vibrations and
evaluation of their effects on buildings, London, BSI.
lxxi
2:1997 - Noise and vibration control on construction
and open sites Part 2: Guide to noise and
vibration control legislation for construction and
demolition including road construction and
maintenance. London, BSI.
lxxii
BS 1747.
lxxiii
CIRIA Report 166 (CDM Regulations Work
Sector Guidance For Designers).

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