NERVOUS & HORMONAL COMMUNICATION

Chapter 6

Learning objectives
i. ii. iii. Identify four different types of hormone classes Compare the mechanism of action of hormones Identify the endocrine glands and describe the actions of their hormones iv. Describe the processes involved in neural signaling v. Describe the structure of neuron vi. Explain how a neuron transmit impulse vii. Describe several types of nervous system in animals viii. Identify the organization of a human nervous system ix. Compare endocrine with nervous system function

Hormone classes
i. Fatty acid derivatives Prostaglandins and juvenile hormones of insects Prostaglandins are synthesized from arachidonic acid a 20 carbon fatty acid

Hormone classes
ii) Steroids The natural steroid hormones are generally synthesized from cholesterol in the gonads and adrenal glands. These forms of hormones are lipids.

Hormone classes
iii) Amino acid derivatives Synthesized from amino acids Adrenaline and noradrenalline are derived from the amino acid thyrosine

Hormone classes
iv) Peptides and protein Peptide hormones are a class of peptides that are secreted into the blood stream and have endocrine functions in living animals

Mechanism of action
Hormones are released by endocrine glands into blood Transported by blood, they will arrive at the target cells where they shows different mechanism of action The mechanism can be divided into steroid and peptide hormones Steroid hormones are lipid soluble Peptide hormones are water soluble

Mechanism of action - Steroid

Lipid soluble hormones are able to enter cells. This is because the lipid portion of the plasma membrane does not act as a barrier to entry of lipophilic regulators. Steroid hormones are lipid themselves and thus they are lipophilic.

Mechanism of action - Steroid

Because these hormones are not watersoluble, they are not able to dissolve in the plasma portion of the blood. Therefore, they are carried in the blood attached to a protein carrier. When the hormones arrive at their target cells, they dissociate from their carriers and pass through the plasma membrane of the cell.

Mechanism of action - Steroid

Some steroid hormones will combine with receptors within the target cell cytoplasm and then move as a hormone receptor complex to the nucleus. Others travel into the nucleus to encounter their receptor protein.

Mechanism of action - Steroid

The hormone-receptor complex that is activated may able to bind to specific regions in the DNA. This may activate or repress transcription of gene regions into messenger RNA. Translation of the mRNA transcripts that happens outside the cell results in enzymes and other proteins that are able to carry out a response to the hormonal signal.

Mechanism of action - Steroid

Mechanism of action - Peptide

Peptide hormones are hydrophilic. Therefore, a peptide hormone cannot cross the target cell's plasma membrane that is lipid soluble (consist of dwilayer lipid membrane) The hormones include all the peptide and glycoprotein hormones.

Mechanism of action - Peptide

Because these hormones are not able to enter cells, they will bind to receptor proteins located on the surface of the plasma membrane. Once the hormone has bound to its receptor, a cascade of events will occur producing secondary messenger molecules that will allow the cell to properly respond to the hormones message.

Mechanism of action - Peptide

Binding of a peptide hormone (first messenger) caused formation of a second messenger, the cyclic AMP (cAMP). These cascade of reactions are enzymemediated and results in a response of the cell to the hormonal action.

Mechanism of action - Peptide

Glands in the endocrine system

Vertebrate hormones regulate growth and development, reproduction, salt and fluid balance, many aspects of metabolism and fluid behavior. Homeostasis depends on normal concentrations of hormones. Over or under-secrection of hormones will result in endocrine disorders.

Glands in the endocrine system

Pituitary gland
Most endocrine activity is controlled either directly or indirectly by the hypothalamus. The pituitary glands hang by a stalk from the hypothalamus.

Pituitary gland
The pituitary gland activity is regulated by the integration of the nervous and endocrine system. Because it controls the activity of several other endocrine glands, pituitary gland is said to be the master gland of the body.

Pituitary gland
The pituitary gland can be divided into two parts, the anterior and posterior lobes. The posterior lobe of the pituitary gland develops from brain tissue; therefore it contains axons that originate in cell bodies within the hypothalamus.

Pituitary gland
This neuroendocrine gland secretes two peptide hormones, oxytoxin and antidiuretic hormone (ADH). These hormones are enclosed within vesicles. They are transported down the axons into the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland. The vesicles are stored in the axon terminals until the neuron is stimulated. Once it is stimulated, the axon content will diffuse into the surrounding capillaries.

Pituitary gland
Oxytoxin stimulates contraction of the uterus and stimulates ejection of milk by the mammary glands. ADH stimulates reabsorption of water by the kidney tubules.

Pituitary gland
Compared to the posterior lobe, the anterior lobe develops from epithelial cell rather than neural cell. The anterior lobe receives signal and releases its hormone into the blood vessels.

Pituitary gland
The anterior lobe of the pituitary gland secretes growth hormone, prolactin and several tropic hormones (hormones produced at the anterior gland but stimulates other endocrine glands). The other tropic hormones are ACTH, TSH, FSH and LH.

Pituitary gland
Prolactin stimulates the mammary glands to produce milk. Growth hormone (GH/somatotropin) is a hormone that promotes tissue growth. This hormone stimulates body growth by promoting protein synthesis. GH stimulates the liver to produce insulin-like growth factors (IGFs), which promotes skeletal and tissue growth.

Pituitary gland
ACTH and TSH control the secretions from the adrenal glands and thyroid glands respectively. FSH and LH have essential roles in gamete formation and hormonal secretions required in sexual reproduction of animals.

Pituitary gland

Thyroid gland
The thyroid gland is located in the neck region, in front of the trachea and below the larynx (Adams apple). The thyroid gland secretes thyroid hormones, thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3). In vertebrates, thyroid hormones are essential for normal growth and development because they stimulate the rate of metabolism.

Thyroid gland

Thyroid gland
Regulation of thyroid secretion depends mainly on the secretion of the thyroid secreting hormone (TSH) from the anterior lobe of the pituitary hormone. When the concentration of the thyroid hormones in the blood rises above normal, the anterior pituitary secretes less thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH).

Thyroid gland
The thyroid gland also secretes calcitonin, a peptide hormone that maintains a proper level of calcium in the blood. When blood calcium levels rises, calcitonin is released to cause calcium to be deposited in the bones.

Thyroid gland
The parathyroid gland is located on the surface of the thyroid gland. It secretes parathyroid hormone (PTH), which regulates the calcium concentration by stimulating calcium release from bones and increasing calcium reabsorption in the intestine.

Calcitonin vs PTH

Adrenal gland
The paired adrenal glands are small, yellow masses of tissue that lie in contact with the upper ends of the kidneys. Each gland consists of a central portion, the adrenal medulla, and the outer section, the adrenal cortex.

Adrenal gland
Adrenal medulla is a neuroendocrine gland that is controlled by the sympathetic nervous system.
The adrenal medulla secretes epinephrine and norepinephrine, the hormones help the body cope with stress. Epinephrine and norepinephrine help the body to respond to danger by increasing the heart rate, metabolic rate and the strength of muscle contraction. These hormones reroute blood to organs needed for fight or flight.

Adrenal gland

Adrenal gland
Adrenal cortex The hypothalamus controls the activity in the adrenal cortex by means of the ACTH (from the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland).
Two other hormones secreted by the adrenal cortex are i. sex hormones precursors(covered in the reproductive system) ii. mineralcortisoids such as aldosterone iii. glucocortisoids such as cortisol

Adrenal gland
Aldosterone maintains a proper balance of sodium and potassium ions in the kidney tubules. Cortisol promotes gluconeogenesis in liver cells resulting in the conversion of amino acids increasing level of glucose in the blood. Thus during stress, the adrenal cortex ensures adequate fuel supplies for the cells.

Pancreas-An endocrine organ

In addition to secreting digestive enzymes, the pancreas is an important endocrine gland. Its hormones, insulin and glucagon, are secreted by cells that occur in little clusters called the islets of Langerhans. The islets consist mainly of beta cells, which secrete insulin, and alpha cells, which secrete glucagon.

Pancreas-An endocrine organ

Glucagon raises blood glucose (glycogenolysis) while insulin lowers the concentration of glucose in the blood.

Testes and ovaries

Testes produce testosterone and ovaries produce estrogen and progesterone. Hypothalamus controls the secretion of these hormones by means of the LH and FSH hormone. Testosterone allows secondary growth in male during puberty. Estrogen is necessary for egg development and maturation and together with progesterone they are responsible for the menstruation cycle.

Thymus
Thymus gland is located beneath the sternum. It secretes thymosin that is responsible for lymphocyte (white blood cells) maturation.

Pineal gland
Melatonin secreted by the pineal gland, which is located in the brain influence our biological clock and the onset of sexual maturity. We feel sleepy at night and awake in the day time. This 24 hour cycle is called the circadian rhythm that is controlled by melatonin. It also helps regulate sexual development.

Hormones from other tissue

Atrial natriuretic factor (ANF), which is secreted by the atrium of the heart, promotes sodium reabsorption thus lowering blood pressure. Gastrin is secreted by the stomach that stimulates release of gastric juice and somastostatin inhibits secretion of gastric juice. Secretin and cholecystokinin increase output of pancreatic juice. The latter also stimulates ejection of bile salts from the gallbladder.

Molting and metamorphosis in insects

i. ii. iii. iv. v. In invertebrates, hormones are secreted by neuron rather than the endocrine glands. These hormones regulate Regeneration in hydras, flatworms and annelids Color changes in crustaceans Growth and development Metabolic rate Gamete production and reproduction

Molting and metamorphosis in insects

As insects grow, their hardened exoskeleton cannot fit them anymore. Therefore, insects undergo a series of molting process where they shed their old exoskeleton in a process called molting. In an immature insect, paired endocrine glands called the corpora allata secrete juvenile hormone (JH). This hormone suppresses metamorphosis at each larval molt in order to ensure the larvae increase in size but remains in the larval (immature) state.

Molting and metamorphosis in insects

When the concentration of JH decreases, metamorphosis occurs and the larvae transformed into pupae. Prior to molting, neuroendocrine cells in the insect brain secrete brain hormone (BH). BH stimulates the production of the ecdysone from the prothoracic glands, which stimulates growth and molting. Therefore, metamorphosis in adult form occurs when molting hormone acts in the absence of juvenile hormone.

Neural signaling
Sensors Sensory receptors at the end of peripheral nerves pick up information about the body's internal and external environment. These receptors also detect changes that occur. For example, when you feel pain when touching a hot object, a sensory receptor is picking up that information. All sensory information is picked up in the peripheral nervous system and sent to the central nervous system.

Neural signaling
Integration The integrative function takes place in the brain or spinal cord. These organs receive sensory information and make decisions regarding the information. The decision making is the integrative function. For example, if you feel pain your brain might decide you need to move away from the painful stimulus.

Neural signaling
Effectors Once the CNS makes a decision, it then carries out a motor function. The motor function is the stimulation of a muscle (skeletal, smooth or cardiac muscle) or a gland. When a motor function is carried out, neurons in the CNS carry an impulse along a peripheral nerve to either a muscle or a gland; these are called effectors.

Neural signaling

Neuron
Nervous tissue consists of nerve cells or neurons. Neurons are functional units of the nervous system which are specialized to receive and send information in a form of electrical signals called nerve impulses.

Neuron
The largest/enlarged portion of the neuron is the cell body. It contains the nucleus, the bulk of cytoplasm and most of the organelles.

Neuron
There are two types of cytoplasmic extensions which project from the cell body i. Dendrites Typically short and highly branched. Numerous of them extend from the cell body. They functions in receiving stimuli and sending signals to the cell body. Can be found at one end of the cell body. ii. Axon Conducts nerve impulses away from the cell body to another neuron, a muscle or a gland. Each neuron has a single axon leaving its cell body.

Neuron
In vertebrates, the axons of many neurons are surrounded by a myelin sheath that is made of Schwann cells. The nucleus of the Schwann cells can clearly be seen at the myelin sheath. The gap between Schwann cells is known as the node of Ranvier. At this point, the axon is not insulated by myelin. They serve as points along the neuron for generating a signal.

Neuron
There are three types of neurons i. Sensory neurons typically have a long dendrite and short axon, and carry messages from sensory receptors to the central nervous system. ii. Motor neurons have a long axon and short dendrites and transmit messages from the central nervous system to the muscles (or to glands). iii. Interneurons are found only in the central nervous system where they connect neuron to neuron.

Neuron
Neurons are supported structurally and functionally by supporting cells called neuroglia. The neuroglia supplies the neurons with nutrients; removes waste and also provide immune function.

Neuron
Two of the most important kinds of neuroglia in invertebrates are Schwann cells and oligodendrocytes that produce myelin sheath. Schwann cells produce myelin sheath in the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) whereas the oligodendrocytes produce myelin sheath for the Central Nervous System (CNS).

Neuron transmission of impulse

A neuron that is not transmitting impulse is said to be in the resting membrane potential state The plasma membrane of neurons always had an unequal distribution of electrical charges between the two sides of the membrane. (Electrical Gradient). This electrical gradient is called potential difference that exists at every cells plasma membrane.

Neuron transmission of impulse

Biologists can measure the potential across the membrane by placing one electrode inside the cell and a second electrode outside the cell, and connecting through a very sensitive voltmeter or oscilloscope.

Neuron transmission of impulse

The fluid outside of the membrane has a positive charge while the cytoplasm inside has a negative charge. Opposite charges are usually attracted to each other, the membrane stores energy by holding opposite charges apart.

Neuron transmission of impulse

There are three factors that results in differences of charges between the extracelullar fluid and inside the neurons. i) These differences are due to ionic concentrations. Molecules such as proteins, carbohydrates, and nucleic acids that carry net negative charge are more abundant inside the cell. This is because they are too large to diffuse out. These molecules are called fixed anions.

Neuron transmission of impulse

ii) The sodium-potassium pumps (Na+ / K+) actively pumps in two K+ ions for every three Na+ ions that it pumps out. These helps in maintaining a concentration gradient where there is high K+ ion and low Na+ ion inside the cell whereas high Na+ ion and low K+ ion outside the cell.

Neuron transmission of impulse

iii) Ion leak channels are membrane proteins that are more numerous for K+ than Na+. This channels functions in allowing little (Na+) to diffuse in but allows more (K+) to diffuse out, leaving an excess of negative charge (from ions like Cl-) inside the membrane.

Neuron transmission of impulse

This charge difference is called a resting potential and is measured in millivolts. The voltage potential is 65 to -70mV (millivolts) of a cell at rest (resting membrane potential). The negative sign indicates that the inside of the cell is negative compared to the outside.

Neuron transmission of impulse

The cell membrane of a neuron will respond to stimuli such as heat, pressure, and chemicals by changing the amount of polarization across its membrane. As a stimulus is applied, within 2-3 msec, the voltage will rise to a voltage at about -50mV, which is called the threshold potential.

Neuron transmission of impulse

The stimulus triggers the opening of the Na+ channel. Once the threshold is reached, the increasing positive charge inside the membrane triggers the opening of more and more of Na+ channels.

Neuron transmission of impulse

As more and more Na+ moves in, the voltage will soar to its peak to at about +35mV. The peak voltage triggers the closing of the Na+ channels while the K+ channels opens to allow rapid diffusion of K+ ions out of the membrane.

Neuron transmission of impulse

The action potentials regenerate itself along the neuron. The three parts shown in the figure below show movements of stimulus along the neuron The first region shows the flow of Na+ into the neurons membrane creating the action potential.

Neuron transmission of impulse

As the action potential moves to the next region, K+ will diffuse out of the neuron. At this time Na+ channels are closed (Almost like domino effect). Action potential are propagated in only one direction along the axon due to the fact that action potential cannot be regenerated in the regions where K+ leaving the axon. The regeneration of action potential will carry the stimulus to our central nervous system (spinal cord and the brain).

Neuron transmission of impulse

Neuron transmission of impulse

Action potentials are conducted without decrement, thus, the last action potential at the end of the axon is just as large as the first action potential. Myelinated axons conduct impulses more rapidly than nonmyelinated axons because the action potentials in nonmyelinated axons are only produced at the nodes of Ranvier.

Neuron transmission of impulse

The process that impulses jump from node to node in myelinated axons is called salutatory conduction. An action potential is all or none event, each threshold depolarization produces either a full action potential due to the complete opening of gated channels or none at all.

Neuron transmission of impulse

Hyperpolarization Some stimuli causes the inside of the membrane became more negative by the opening of gated K+ channels. Usually did not generate an action potential

Neuron transmission of impulse

Depolarization a stimulation that causes the inside of the membrane to become less negative If it reached threshold it might cause an action potential

Neuron transmission of impulse

Neuron transmission of impulse

Whenever action potentials arrive at the end of a neurons axon, the information will be passed to a receiving cell across the synapse.

Neuron transmission of impulse

The neuron whose axon transmits action potentials to the synapse is the presynaptic cell, while the cell receiving the signal on the other cell is the postsynaptic neuron.

Neuron transmission of impulse

Synapses can be either electrical or chemical. In an electrical synapse, action potentials possibly passed from one neuron to the other where the receiving neuron is stimulated quickly and at the same level. This is because it involves cytoplasmic connections formed by the pre and postsynaptic neuron. In human, electrical synapses are common in the heart and the digestive system because the nerve signals need to maintain steady and rhythmic muscle contractions.

Neuron transmission of impulse

Chemical synapses have a narrow gap called the synaptic cleft that separates the sending neuron (presynaptic) from the receiving neuron (postsynaptic). The end of a presynaptic neuron is swollen and filled with numerous synaptic vesicles that are packed with neurotransmitters.

Neuron transmission of impulse

Arriving at a synaptic cleft, the action potential (an electrical signal) will stimulate the opening of gated Ca++ channels. These will lead to rapid entrance of Ca++ via diffusion. This serves as a stimulus for the fusion of presynaptic neurons vesicle with its own outer membrane cell.

Neuron transmission of impulse

Therefore, the contents of the vesicles which are in a form of neurotransmitter will be released by exocytosis to the synaptic cleft. The released neurotransmitter molecules will diffuse across the cleft and bind to receptors protein on the receiving postsynaptic neurons plasma membrane.

Neuron transmission of impulse

The binding opens chemical sensitive ion channels causing ions to diffuse to the receiving cells membrane and trigger new action potentials.

Neuron transmission of impulse

Neurotransmitters are very important in homeostasis because their precise signaling among neurons enables the nervous system to coordinate the activities at all part of the body.

Neuron transmission of impulse

i. Neurotransmitters can be divided into two, Excitatory-They open Na+ channels, thus triggering the action potentials in the receiving cells. Excitatory neurotransmitters promote depolarization. ii. Inhibitory-Open membrane channels for ions like Cl- that decreases the receiving cells tendency to develop action potentials. This promotes hyperpolarization because the membrane inside the receiving neuron becomes more negatively charged.

Neuron transmission of impulse

Neurotransmitters tend to be small molecules, some are even hormones. The time for neurotransmitter action is between 0.5 and 1 millisecond. Neurotransmitters are either destroyed by specific enzymes in the synaptic cleft, diffuse out of the cleft, or are reabsorbed by the cell. More than 30 organic molecules are thought to act as neurotransmitters.

Neuron transmission of impulse

Acetylcholine is an example of a neurotransmitter. AcH crosses the synapse between a motor neuron and a skeletal muscle. AcH causes Na+ to diffuse inside the cell causing the postsynaptic membrane to become depolarized. Because the postsynaptic cell is a skeletal muscle cell, the action potential stimulates muscle contraction. To stop muscle contraction, an enzyme in the postsynaptic membrane called acetylcholinesterase cleaves AcH into an inactive fragment. Glycine and GABA are inhibitory neurotransmitters that produce hyperpolarization at the postsynaptic membrane.

Nervous system in animals

Some animals lack a nervous system; such as the sponges that do not have any cell specialized for generating and transmitting nervous signals. Hydra is an animal that has the simplest type of nervous system. Their nervous system is what we referred as a nerve net. The nerve net is a web-like system of neurons that extends throughout the body.

Nervous system in animals

This adaptation is adequate for the hydra because they are headless and have a radial symmetry. Besides, their activity is limited where they are usually stationary, attached to submerged plant stems or rocks. Their nerve net is responsive to signals about food or danger.

Nervous system in animals

Another animal with radial symmetry, the echinoderms have radial nerves that extend through each arm from a central nerve ring.

Nervous system in animals

Radially symmetrical nervous systems are uncentralized unlike the bilaterally symmetrical animals. These animals have a head and a tail and have a tendency to move head-first through the environment.

Nervous system in animals

Two evolutionary hallmarks of bilateral symmetrical i. Cephalization Concentration of the nervous system at the head end. ii. Centralization The presence of a central nervous system (CNS) distinct from the peripheral nervous system (PNS)

Nervous system in animals

The flatworm has a small brain composed of ganglia (masses of nerve cell bodies) and two parallel nerve cords (bundles of axons and dendrites). These elements are the worms CNS while the smaller nerves are the PNS. The high degree of cephalization and centralization in the squids nervous system give them a degree of intelligence.

Nervous system in animals

Organization of the nervous system

The human nervous system can be divided into the Central Nervous System and the Peripheral Nervous System

Organization of the nervous system

The central nervous system (CNS) consists of the brain and the spinal cord The peripheral nervous system is the part outside the central nervous system (PNS).

Organization of the nervous system

The PNS can be divided into two subdivision, sensory (afferent) and motor (efferent) pathways. Sensory divisions are nerve fibers that carry information from sensory receptors all over the body to the CNS. Sensory division keeps the CNS constantly informed of events going on both inside and outside the body.

Organization of the nervous system

The motor (efferent) division carries impulses from the CNS to effector organs, the muscles and the glands that responses to the stimulus sensed by the sensory division. The motor division can be further subdivided into two subdivisions, the autonomic and somatic systems.

Organization of the nervous system

The somatic nervous system primarily allows us to control and coordinate, usually voluntarily the skeletal muscles, so it is most involved with physical activity. The autonomic nervous system control events involuntarily the blood vessels, glands and internal organs.

Organization of the nervous system

It is divided into two parts - the parasympathetic nervous system which slows body functions, thus conserving energy and the sympathetic nervous system which speeds body functions, thus increasing energy use. These two divisions has opposing effect, when one stimulate, the other inhibits.

Organization of the nervous system

Organization of the nervous system

Endocrine vs Nervous
Both are systems of internal communication and also regulation However the nature of the messages in the endocrine system are in a form of chemical signal whereas the messages in the nervous system are electrical signal. The speed of message in the endocrine system is quite slow because it needs to be transported by blood to specific target sites whereas in the nervous system the speed is really past due to salutatory conduction

Endocrine vs Nervous
Eventhough message can arrive really fast to target sites in the nervous system, the duration of effect is very short and prompt as compared to the duration of effect in the endocrine system The speed of response in the nervous system is rapid whereas the speed of response in the endocrine system is slower

Endocrine vs Nervous
The accuracy of message in the nervous system is precise but the accuracy of message in the endocrine system is more diffused