Bessel Function of the First Kind

The Bessel functions of the first kind

are defined as the solutions to the Bessel differential equation (1)

which are nonsingular at the origin. They are sometimes also called cylinder functions or cylindrical harmonics. The above plot shows for , 1, 2, ..., 5. The notation was first used by Hansen (1843) and subsequently by Schlmilch (1857) to denote what is now written (Watson 1966, p. 14). However, Hansen's definition of the function itself in terms of the generating function (2)

is the same as the modern one (Watson 1966, p. 14). Bessel used the notation Bessel function of the first kind (Cajori 1993, vol. 2, p. 279). The Bessel function can also be defined by the contour integral

to denote what is now called the

(3)

where the contour encloses the origin and is traversed in a counterclockwise direction (Arfken 1985, p. 416). The Bessel function of the first kind is implemented in Mathematica as BesselJ[nu, z]. To solve the differential equation, apply Frobenius method using a series solution of the form (4)

Plugging into (1) yields (5)

(6)

The indicial equation, obtained by setting

, is (7)

Since

is defined as the first nonzero term,

, so

. Now, if

, (8)

(9)

(10)

(11)

First, look at the special case

, then (11) becomes (12)

so (13)

Now let

, where

, 2, .... (14) (15)

(16)

which, using the identity

, gives (17)

Similarly, letting

, (18)

which, using the identity

, gives (19)

Plugging back into () with

gives (20)

(21)

(22)

(23)

(24) The Bessel functions of order are therefore defined as (25)

(26)

so the general solution for

is (27)

Now, consider a general

. Equation () requires

(28) (29) for , 3, ..., so (30) (31)

for

, 3, .... Let

, where

, 2, ..., then (32) (33)

where where

is the function of and , 2, ..., so

obtained by iterating the recursion relationship down to

. Now let

(34) (35) (36)

Plugging back into (), (37)

(38)

(39)

(40)

(41)

Now define (42)

where the factorials can be generalized to gamma functions for nonintegral

. The above equation then becomes

(43) Returning to equation () and examining the case , (44)

However, the sign of is arbitrary, so the solutions must be the same for replace with , so

and

. We are therefore free to

(45)

and we obtain the same solutions as before, but with

replaced by

. (46)

We can relate

and

(when

is an integer) by writing (47)

Now let

. Then (48)

(49)

But

for

, so the denominator is infinite and the terms on the left are zero. We therefore have (50)

(51)

Note that the Bessel differential equation is second-order, so there must be two linearly independent solutions. We have found both only for . For a general nonintegral order, the independent solutions are and . When is an integer, the general (real) solution is of the form (52) where is a Bessel function of the first kind, (a.k.a. ) is the Bessel function of the second kind (a.k.a. Neumann function or Weber function), and and are constants. Complex solutions are given by the Hankel functions (a.k.a. Bessel functions of the third kind). The Bessel functions are orthogonal in according to (53)

where

is the

th zero of

and

is the Kronecker delta (Arfken 1985, p. 592).

Except when

is a negative integer, (54)

where

is the gamma function and

is a Whittaker function.

In terms of a confluent hypergeometric function of the first kind, the Bessel function is written (55)

A derivative identity for expressing higher order Bessel functions in terms of

is (56)

where

is a Chebyshev polynomial of the first kind. Asymptotic forms for the Bessel functions are (57)

for

and (58)

for

(correcting the condition of Abramowitz and Stegun 1972, p. 364).

A derivative identity is

(59)

An integral identity is (60)

Some sum identities are (61)

(which follows from the generating function () with

), (62)

(Abramowitz and Stegun 1972, p. 363), (63)

(Abramowitz and Stegun 1972, p. 361), (64)

for

(Abramowitz and Stegun 1972, p. 361), (65)

(Abramowitz and Stegun 1972, p. 361), and the Jacobi-Anger expansion (66)

which can also be written (67)

The Bessel function addition theorem states

(68)

Various integrals can be expressed in terms of Bessel functions (69)

which is Bessel's first integral, (70) (71)

for

, 2, ..., (72)

for

, 2, ..., (73)

for

. The Bessel functions are normalized so that (74)

for positive integral (and real)

. Integrals involving

include (75) (76)

Ratios of Bessel functions of the first kind have continued fraction (77)

(Wall 1948, p. 349).

The special case of

gives

as the series (78)

(Abramowitz and Stegun 1972, p. 360), or the integral (79)

SEE ALSO: Bessel Function of the Second Kind, Bessel Function Zeros, Debye's Asymptotic Representation, Dixon-

Ferrar Formula, Hansen-Bessel Formula, Kapteyn Series, Kneser-Sommerfeld Formula, Mehler's Bessel Function Formula, Modified Bessel Function of the First Kind, Modified Bessel Function of the Second Kind, Nicholson's Formula, Poisson's Bessel Function Formula, Rayleigh Function, Schlfli's Formula, Schlmilch's Series, Sommerfeld's Formula, Sonine-Schafheitlin Formula, Watson's Formula, Watson-Nicholson Formula, Weber's Discontinuous Integrals, Weber's Formula, Weber-Sonine Formula, Weyrich's Formula
RELATED WOLFRAM SITES: http://functions.wolfram.com/Bessel-TypeFunctions/BesselJ/ REFERENCES: Abramowitz, M. and Stegun, I. A. (Eds.). "Bessel Functions and ." 9.1 in Handbook of Mathematical Functions with Formulas, Graphs, and Mathematical Tables, 9th printing. New York: Dover, pp. 358-364, 1972. Arfken, G. "Bessel Functions of the First Kind, " and "Orthogonality." 11.1 and 11.2 in Mathematical Methods for Physicists, 3rd ed. Orlando, FL: Academic Press, pp. 573-591 and 591-596, 1985. Cajori, F. A History of Mathematical Notations, Vols. 1-2. New York: Dover, 1993. Hansen, P. A. "Ermittelung der absoluten Strungen in Ellipsen von beliebiger Excentricitt und Neigung, I." Schriften der Sternwarte Seeberg. Gotha, 1843. Lehmer, D. H. "Arithmetical Periodicities of Bessel Functions." Ann. Math. 33, 143-150, 1932. Le Lionnais, F. Les nombres remarquables. Paris: Hermann, 1983. Morse, P. M. and Feshbach, H. Methods of Theoretical Physics, Part I. New York: McGraw-Hill, pp. 619-622, 1953. Schlmilch, O. X. "Ueber die Bessel'schen Function." Z. fr Math. u. Phys. 2, 137-165, 1857.

Spanier, J. and Oldham, K. B. "The Bessel Coefficients An Atlas

and

" and "The Bessel Function

." Chs. 52-53 in

Bessel Differential Equation

The Bessel differential equation is the linear second-order ordinary differential equation given by (1)

Equivalently, dividing through by

, (2)

The solutions to this equation define the Bessel functions 0 and an irregular singularity at .

and

. The equation has a regular singularity at

A transformed version of the Bessel differential equation given by Bowman (1958) is (3)

The solution is (4)

where (5)

and are the Bessel functions of the first and second kinds, and and are constants. Another form is given by letting , , and (Bowman 1958, p. 117), then (6)

The solution is (7)

SEE ALSO: Airy Functions, Anger Function, Bei, Ber, Bessel Function, Bessel Function Neumann Series, Bourget's

Hypothesis, Catalan Integrals, Cylindrical Function, Dini Expansion, Hankel Function, Hankel's Integral, Hemispherical Function, Kapteyn Series, Lipschitz's Integral, Lommel Differential Equation, Lommel Function, Lommel's Integrals, Parseval's Integral, Poisson Integral, Ramanujan's Integral, Riccati Differential Equation, Sonine's Integral, Struve Function, Weber Functions, Weber's Discontinuous Integrals
REFERENCES:

Abramowitz, M. and Stegun, I. A. (Eds.). 9.1.1 in Handbook of Mathematical Functions with Formulas, Graphs, and Mathematical Tables, 9th printing. New York: Dover, 1972. Bowman, F. Introduction to Bessel Functions. New York: Dover, 1958. Morse, P. M. and Feshbach, H. Methods of Theoretical Physics, Part I. New York: McGraw-Hill, p. 550, 1953. Zwillinger, D. (Ed.). CRC Standard Mathematical Tables and Formulae. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, p. 413, 1995. Zwillinger, D. Handbook of Differential Equations, 3rd ed. Boston, MA: Academic Press, p. 121, 1997.

Referenced on Wolfram|Alpha: Bessel Differential Equation

CITE THIS AS: Weisstein, Eric W. "Bessel Differential Equation." From MathWorld--A Wolfram Web Resource. http://mathworld.wolfram.com/BesselDifferentialEquation.html

Euler angles
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search This article is about the Euler angles used in mathematics. For the use of the term in aerospace engineering, see flight dynamics.

The Euler angles are three angles introduced by Leonhard Euler to describe the orientation of a rigid body.[1] To describe such an orientation in 3-dimensional Euclidean space three parameters are required. They can be given in several ways, Euler angles being one of them; see charts on SO(3) for others. Euler angles also represent three composed rotations that move a reference frame to a given referred frame. This is equivalent to saying that any orientation can be achieved by composing three elemental rotations (rotations around a single axis), and also equivalent to saying that any rotation matrix can be decomposed as a product of three elemental rotation matrices. Without considering the possibilities of different signs for the angles or moving the reference frame, there are twelve different conventions divided in two groups. One of them is called "proper" Euler angles and the other TaitBryan angles. Sometimes "Euler angles" is used for all of them.

Contents
[hide]

1 Proper Euler Angles o 1.1 Classic definition o 1.2 Angles signs and ranges o 1.3 Angles of a given frame. Geometric derivation. o 1.4 Conventions for proper Euler angles 2 TaitBryan angles o 2.1 Double naming problem

3 Relationship with physical motions o 3.1 Euler angles as composition of intrinsic rotations o 3.2 Euler angles as composition of extrinsic rotations o 3.3 Euler rotations 3.3.1 Gimbal analogy 3.3.2 Intermediate frames 4 Relationship to other representations o 4.1 Matrix orientation o 4.2 Quaternions o 4.3 Geometric algebra 5 Properties 6 Higher dimensions 7 Applications o 7.1 Vehicles and moving frames o 7.2 Others 8 See also 9 References 10 Bibliography 11 External links

[edit] Proper Euler Angles

Euler angles The xyz (fixed) system is shown in blue, the XYZ (rotated) system is shown in red. The line of nodes, labeled N, is shown in green.

Sometimes Tait-Bryan angles are called Euler angles. When this is done, it is necessary to specify when classic Euler angles are referred, using an adjective like "proper" or similar.
[edit] Classic definition

Euler angles are a means of representing the spatial orientation of any frame (coordinate system) as a composition of rotations from a frame of reference (coordinate system). In the following, the fixed system is denoted in lower case (x,y,z) and the rotated system is denoted in upper case letters (X,Y,Z). The definition is static. Given a reference frame and the one whose orientation we want to describe, first we define the line of nodes (N) as the intersection of the xy and the XY coordinate planes (in other words, line of nodes is the line perpendicular to both z and Z axis). Then we define its Euler angles as:

(or ) is the angle between the x-axis and the line of nodes. (or ) is the angle between the z-axis and the Z-axis. (or ) is the angle between the line of nodes and the X-axis.

Euler angles between two frames are defined only if both frames have the same handedness. Euler angles are just one of the several ways of specifying the relative orientation of two such coordinate systems. Different authors may use different sets of angles to describe these orientations, or different names for the same angles, leading to different conventions. Therefore any discussion employing Euler angles should always be preceded by their definition.[2] Unless otherwise stated, this article will use the convention described in the adjacent drawing, usually named Z-X-Z.
[edit] Angles signs and ranges

Normally, angles are defined in such a way that they are positive when they rotate counterclockwise (how they rotate depends on which side of the rotation plane we observe them from. The positive side will be the one of the positive axis of rotation) About the ranges:

and range are defined modulo 2 radians. A valid range could be (, +. range covers radians (but can't be said to be modulo ). For example could be *0, + or */2, /2+.

The angles , and are uniquely determined except for the singular case that the xy and the XY planes are identical, the z axis and the Z axis having the same or opposite directions. Indeed, if the z-axis and the Z-axis are the same, = 0 and only ( + ) is uniquely defined (not the individual values), and, similarly, if the z-axis and the Z-axis are opposite, = and only ( ) is uniquely defined (not the individual values). These ambiguities are known as gimbal lock in applications.

[edit] Angles of a given frame. Geometric derivation.

Projections of Z vector.

Projections of Y vector.

The fastest way to get the Euler Angles of a given frame is to write the three given vectors as columns of a matrix and compare it with the expression of the theoretical matrix (see later table of matrices). Hence the three Euler Angles can be calculated. Nevertheless, the same result can be reached avoiding matrix algebra, which is more geometrical. Assuming a frame with unitary vectors (X, Y, Z) as in the main diagram, it can be seen that:

and since

as

is a double projection of an unitary vector:

There is a similar construction for

, projecting it first over the plane defined by the axis Z and and ,

the line of nodes. As the angle between the planes is this leads to:

and finally, using the cosine inverse function arc cos:

It is interesting to note that the cosine inverse function yields two possible values for the argument. In this geometrical description only one of the solutions is valid. When Euler angles are defined as a sequence of rotations all the solutions can be valid, but there will be only one inside the angles ranges. This is because the sequence of rotations to reach the target frame is not unique if the ranges are not previously defined.[3] For computational purposes, it may be useful to represent the angles using atan2(y,x):

[edit] Conventions for proper Euler angles

The geometric definition for Euler angles is based in the line of nodes, which must be the intersection of two homologous planes (planes overlapping when the angles are zero). There are

six possibilities of choosing the proper Euler angles. Using the static definition they correspond to the three possible homogeneous combinations of planes (XY, XZ and YZ) with the two possible options to measure the angles from (given the line of nodes by the XY planes for example, it can be taken X-N or Y-N as first angle). Hence the six possibilities. Though is possible to define the angles by geometry, normally the intrinsic rotations equivalence or the extrinsic rotations equivalence are used instead. According with these equivalences, proper Euler angles are equivalent to three combined rotations repeating exactly one axis. The six possible conventions are named after their equivalent rotation composition. When the intrinsic rotations equivalence is used to name the possible conventions of Euler Angles the names are like Z-X-Z. This means that they are equivalent to three concatenated intrinsic rotations around some moving axes Z, X and Z in that order. This composition is noncommutative. It has to be applied in such a way that in the beginning one of the intrinsic axis moves together with the line of nodes. The above diagram convention is usually named this way. When the extrinsic rotations equivalence is used the given angles are inverted respect the former, meaning that the first angle is the intrinsic rotation and the last one the precession. If a loose naming convention, like Z-X-Z is used, the name of both conventions would be indistinguishable, even if the angles' order is the opposite. To specify that the given order means intrinsic composition, sometimes a similar notation is used, but stating explicitly which rotation axis are different for each step, as in Z-X-Z. Using this notation, Z-X-Z would mean extrinsic composition. It is also possible to use alternative names like x-y-x or X-Y-X to clarify. No geometrical information is lost when using the rotation equivalence because the static parameters can be calculated from the name of the convention. For example, given the convention X-Y-Z, the first rotation is perpendicular to "x" and the third one to "Z". Therefore the planes are the yz and the XY, and the line of nodes is the intersection of these two.

[edit] TaitBryan angles

See also: Axes conventions

TaitBryan angles. ZYX (intrinsic composition) convention

The second type of conventions is called TaitBryan angles, after Peter Guthrie Tait and George H. Bryan, also known as Nautical or Cardan angles, after Cardan. Their static difference is the definition for the line of nodes. In the first case two homologous planes were used. In the second one, they are replaced by non-homologous planes (perpendicular when angles are zero). While proper Euler angles are equivalent to three combined rotations repeating exactly one axis, TaitBryan angles are equivalent to three composed rotations in different axes.

TaitBryan angles statically defined. ZXY convention

There are also six TaitBryan combinations. They come from the two possible nonhomogeneous planes that exist when one is given (given XY, there are two non-homogeneous, XZ and YZ). The three possible planes at the reference frame multiplied by the two options for each one yield the six possible conventions. There are six possible combinations of this kind, and all of them behave in an identical way. Using the intrinsic rotations equivalence, TaitBryan angles correspond with the three rotations with a different axis. ZXY for example. There are also six possibilities of this kind. The enclosed image shows the ZXY convention. The other five proper conventions are obtained by selecting different axes of rotation. These three angles are normally called "Heading, Elevation and Bank", or "Yaw, Pitch and Roll". The second terms have to be used carefully because they are also the names for the three aircraft principal axes.
[edit] Double naming problem

For either Euler or Tait-Bryan angles, it is very simple to convert from an intrinsic (rotating axes) to an extrinsic (static axes) convention, and vice-versa: just swap the order of the

operations. An (, , ) rotation using X-Y-Z intrinsic convention is equivalent to a (, , ) rotation using Z-Y-X extrinsic convention; this is true for all Euler or Tait-Bryan axis combinations. For TaitBryan angles, also intrinsic and extrinsic conventions can be used, giving therefore two meanings for every convention name. For example, XYZ, using intrinsic convention, means that a X-rotation is performed, composing intrinsic rotations Y and Z later, but using extrinsic convention means that after the X rotation, extrinsic rotations Y and Z are performed. The meaning is different in both cases. Alternative naming schemas like z-x-y versus ZXY could be used to prevent confusion.

[edit] Relationship with physical motions

See also Givens rotations

Euler angles can be considered as the result of three composed rotations and these conventions are named according to this composition. Since intrinsic rotations produce the same result as extrinsic rotations inverted, there are two possible names for any static convention. For example the intrinsic ZXY and the extrinsic yxz have the same static parameters.
[edit] Euler angles as composition of intrinsic rotations

Any target frame can be reached using a specific sequence of intrinsic rotations (mobile frame rotations), whose values are exactly the Euler Angles of the target frame. This example uses the Z-X'-Z" convention.

Starting with an initial set of mobile axes, say XYZ overlapping the reference axes xyz, a composition of three intrinsic rotations (rotations only about the mobile frame axes, assuming active composition) can be used to reach any target frame with an origin coincident with that of XYZ from the reference frame. The value of the rotations are the Euler Angles. The position of the mobile axes can be reached using three rotations with angles , , in three ways equivalent to the former definition, as follows: The XYZ system rotates while the xyz is fixed. Starting with the XYZ system overlapping the reference frame xyz, the same rotations as before can be performed using only rotations around the mobile axes XYZ.

Rotate the XYZ-system about the Z-axis by . The X-axis now lies on the line of nodes. Rotate the XYZ-system again about the now rotated X-axis by . The Z-axis is now in its final orientation, and the x-axis remains on the line of nodes. Rotate the XYZ-system a third time about the new Z-axis by .

Any convention for proper Euler angles is equivalent to three such rotations, with one axis being repeated (ZXZ for example). Tait-Bryan angles are also equivalent to three composed rotations, but in this case, all three rotations are around different axes (ZXY). Usually conventions are named according with this equivalence.
[edit] Euler angles as composition of extrinsic rotations

A rotation represented by Euler angles with (,,)=(60, 30, 45) using the 3-1-3 (Z-X-Z) co-moving axes rotations

The same rotation alternatively expressed by (,,)=(45, 30, 60) using the 3-1-3 (Z-X-Z) fixed axes rotations

Also composition of extrinsic rotations (rotations about the reference frame axes, assuming active composition) can be used to reach any target frame. Let xyz system be fixed while the XYZ system rotates. Start with the rotating XYZ system coinciding with the fixed xyz system.

Rotate the XYZ-system about the z-axis by . The X-axis is now at angle with respect to the xaxis. Rotate the XYZ-system again about the x-axis by . The Z-axis is now at angle with respect to the z-axis. Rotate the XYZ-system a third time about the z-axis by . The first and third axes are identical.

This can be shown to be equivalent to the previous statement: Let us call (e), (f), (g), (h), the successive frames deduced from the initial (e) reference frame by the successive intrinsic rotations described above. We call u, v, w, t, the successive vectors obtained with that rotation. We write for the column matrix representing a vector x in the frame (e). If necessary we add also a lower index to any matrix we wish to operate in a specific frame. We call , , the successive rotations of our example. Thus we can write when describing the intrinsic operations :

When describing the intrinsic rotations in the (e) reference frame we must of course transform the matrices used to represent the rotations. Then by the rules of matrix algebra we get :

The relation (5) can then of course be interpreted in extrinsic manner as a succession of rotations around the (e) axes. Again, proper Euler angles repeat an axis and TaitBryan angles do not. As before, this kind of composition is non-commutative.
[edit] Euler rotations

Euler rotations of the Earth. Intrinsic (green), Precession (blue) and Nutation (red)

Euler rotations are defined as the movement obtained by changing one of the Euler angles while leaving the other two constant. Euler rotations are never expressed in terms of the external frame, or in terms of the co-moving rotated body frame, but in a mixture. They constitute a mixed axes of rotation system, where the first angle moves the line of nodes around the external axis z, the second rotates around the line of nodes and the third one is an intrinsic rotation around an axis fixed in the body that moves. These rotations are called Precession, Nutation, and intrinsic rotation. While they are rotations when they are applied over individual frames, only precession is valid as a rotation operator, and only precession can be expressed in general as a matrix in the basis of the space.
[edit] Gimbal analogy

Left: A three axes z-x-z-gimbal where the external frame and external axis 'x' are not shown and axes 'Y' are perpendicular to each gimbal ring. Right: A simple diagram showing the Euler angles and where the axes 'Y' of intermediate frames are located.

If we suppose a set of frames, able to move each with respect to the former according to just one angle, like a gimbal, there will exist an external fixed frame, one final frame and two frames in the middle, which are called "intermediate frames". The two in the middle work as two gimbal rings that allow the last frame to reach any orientation in space.
[edit] Intermediate frames

The gimbal rings indicate some intermediate frames. They can be defined statically too. Taking some vectors i, j and k over the axes x, y and z, and vectors I, J, K over X, Y and Z, and a vector N over the line of nodes, some intermediate frames can be defined using the vector cross product, as following:

origin: [i,j,k] (where k = i j) first: [N,k N,k] second: [N,K N,K] final: [I,J,K]

These intermediate frames are equivalent to those of the gimbal. They are such that they differ from the previous one in just a single elemental rotation. This proves that:

Any target frame can be reached from the reference frame just composing three rotations. The values of these three rotations are exactly the Euler angles of the target frame.

[edit] Relationship to other representations

Main article: Rotation formalisms in three dimensions#Conversion formulae between formalisms

Euler angles are one way to represent orientations. There are others, and it is possible to change to and from other conventions.
[edit] Matrix orientation

Using the equivalence between Euler angles and rotation composition, it is possible to change to and from matrix convention. First, active rotations and the right handed rule for the positive sign of the angles are assumed. As explained above each global rotation matrix can be interpreted as a composition of intrinsic rotations, that is around the axes of the moving body (the moving reference system), or as a composition of extrinsic rotations around the fixed world axes. We choose to name the different conventions by privileging the latter, for a simple and obvious reason : in a matrix composition like

the composing matrices are elemental, and thus pick out automatically successively different fixed world axes in the order C,B,A. We, of course, do not use the complicated intrinsic expression C"B'A to calculate . To suppress all existing ambiguities and facilitate the understanding between different professional users we introduce a specific denomination principle more detailed than the existing ones. We introduce following rules : 1/ When naming a global rotation we employ the same names in the same order than the matrix formula used to calculate the global matrix. If we name it . The consequence of that is that the name illustrates automatically the extrinsic interpretation. 2/ For each matrix we designate explicitly the axis, which we index with the angles (we abbreviate with . That may seem redundant but in fact is not, because there is no valid reason to associate an alphabetic or numeric order to the angles, when the order of rotations is already fixed by rule 1 . 3/ We recall something that should be obvious, that is the composing and composed matrices are supposed to act on the coordinates of vectors defined in the initial fixed world axis and give as a result the coordinates in the same system of a rotated vector, rotation primarily interpreted extrinsicly, but to which we can give globally an equivalent intrinsic interpretation. Here a table for the right-handed convention (used for example in dynamics) convention are presented. Right-hand convention refers to the Right hand rule. There exists nothing called "left hand rule", but this expression is used sometimes to refer to the opposite sign convention. Several online tools to perform symbolic rotation composition are available and these kind of tables are not necessary. They are only an example.

For left-hand conventions (positive sign convention against the Right hand rule) it is enough to change the signs of the sinus funcions. When we substitute passive rotations to the active ones we have only to transpose the matrix table. Then each matrix transforms the initial coordinates of a vector remaining fixed to the coordinates of the same vector measured in the globally rotated reference system (same rotation axis, same angles). When we want to establish a matrix table for left-handed sign convention, we need only change the sign of all the sinusoids in the tables.
[edit] Quaternions

Unit quaternions, also known as EulerRodrigues parameters, provide another mechanism for representing 3D rotations. This is equivalent to the special unitary group description. Expressing rotations in 3D as unit quaternions instead of matrices has some advantages:

Concatenating rotations is computationally faster and numerically more stable. Extracting the angle and axis of rotation is simpler. Interpolation is more straightforward. See for example slerp.

[edit] Geometric algebra

Other representation comes from the Geometric algebra(GA). GA is a higher level abstraction, in which the quaternions are an even subalgebra. The principal tool in GA is the rotor where vector) and pseudoscalar (trivector in angle of rotation, rotation axis (unitary

[edit] Properties
See also: Charts on SO(3) and Quaternions and spatial rotation

The Euler angles form a chart on all of SO(3), the special orthogonal group of rotations in 3D space. The chart is smooth except for a polar coordinate style singularity along =0. See charts on SO(3) for a more complete treatment. The space of rotations is called in general "The Hypersphere of rotations", though this is a misnomer: the group Spin(3) is isometric to the hypersphere S3, but the rotation space SO(3) is instead isometric to the real projective space RP3 which is a 2-fold quotient space of the hypersphere. This 2-to-1 ambiguity is the mathematical origin of spin in physics. A similar three angle decomposition applies to SU(2), the special unitary group of rotations in complex 2D space, with the difference that ranges from 0 to 2. These are also called Euler angles. The Haar measure for Euler angles has the simple form sin().d.d.d, usually normalized by a factor of 1/8. For example, to generate uniformly randomized orientations, let and be uniform from 0 to 2, let z be uniform from 1 to 1, and let = arccos(z).

[edit] Higher dimensions

It is possible to define parameters analogous to the Euler angles in dimensions higher than three[4]. The number of degrees of freedom of a rotation matrix is always less than the dimension of the matrix squared. That is, the elements of a rotation matrix are not all completely independent. For example, the rotation matrix in dimension 2 has only one degree of freedom, since all four of its elements depend on a single angle of rotation. A rotation matrix in dimension 3 (which has nine elements) has three degrees of freedom, corresponding to each independent rotation, for example by its three Euler angles or a magnitude one (unit) quaternion. In SO(4) the rotation matrix is defined by two quaternions, and is therefore 6-parametric (three degrees of freedom for every quaternion). The 4x4 rotation matrices have therefore 6 out of 16 independent components.

Any set of 6 parameters that define the rotation matrix could be considered an extension of Euler angles to dimension 4. In general, the number of euler angles in dimension D is quadratic in D; since any one rotation consists of choosing two dimensions to rotate between, the total number of rotations available in dimension D is . , which for D=2,3,4 yields

[edit] Applications

A gyroscope keeps its rotation axis constant. Therefore, angles measured in this frame are equivalent to angles measured in the lab frame
[edit] Vehicles and moving frames

Main article: rigid body See also: axes conventions

Their main advantage over other orientation descriptions is that they are directly measurable from a gimbal mounted in a vehicle. As gyroscopes keep their rotation axis constant, angles measured in a gyro frame are equivalent to angles measured in the lab frame. Therefore gyros are used to know the actual orientation of moving spacecrafts, and Euler angles are directly measurable. Intrinsic rotation angle cannot be read from a single gimbal, so there has to be more than one gimbal in a spacecraft. Normally there are at least three for redundancy. There is also a relation to the well-known gimbal lock problem of Mechanical Engineering [5] .

Heading, elevation and bank for an aircraft with axes DIN 9300

The most popular application is to describe aircraft attitudes, normally using a TaitBryan convention so that zero degrees elevation represents the horizontal attitude. TaitBryan angles represent the orientation of the aircraft respect a reference axis system (world frame) with three angles which in the context of an aircraft are normally called Heading, Elevation and Bank. When dealing with vehicles, different axes conventions are possible. When studying rigid bodies in general, one calls the xyz system space coordinates, and the XYZ system body coordinates. The space coordinates are treated as unmoving, while the body coordinates are considered embedded in the moving body. Calculations involving acceleration, angular acceleration, angular velocity, angular momentum, and kinetic energy are often easiest in body coordinates, because then the moment of inertia tensor does not change in time. If one also diagonalizes the rigid body's moment of inertia tensor (with nine components, six of which are independent), then one has a set of coordinates (called the principal axes) in which the moment of inertia tensor has only three components. The angular velocity of a rigid body takes a simple form using Euler angles in the moving frame. Also the Euler's rigid body equations are simpler because the inertia tensor is constant in that frame.

Industrial robot operating in a foundry.

[edit] Others

Euler angles, normally in the TaitBryan convention, are also used in robotics for speaking about the degrees of freedom of a wrist. They are also used in Electronic stability control in a similar way. Gun fire control systems require corrections to gun-order angles (bearing and elevation) to compensate for deck tilt (pitch and roll). In traditional systems, a stabilizing gyroscope with a vertical spin axis corrects for deck tilt, and stabilizes the optical sights and radar antenna. However, gun barrels point in a direction different from the line of sight to the target, to anticipate target movement and fall of the projectile due to gravity, among other factors. Gun mounts roll and pitch with the deck plane, but also require stabilization. Gun orders include angles computed from the vertical gyro data, and those computations involve Euler angles. Euler angles are also used extensively in the quantum mechanics of angular momentum. In quantum mechanics, explicit descriptions of the representations of SO(3) are very important for calculations, and almost all the work has been done using Euler angles. In the early history of quantum mechanics, when physicists and chemists had a sharply negative reaction towards abstract group theoretic methods (called the Gruppenpest), reliance on Euler angles was also essential for basic theoretical work. In materials science, crystallographic texture (or preferred orientation) can be described using Euler angles. In texture analysis, the Euler angles provide the necessary mathematical depiction of the orientation of individual crystallites within a polycrystalline material, allowing for the quantitative description of the macroscopic material. [6] The most common definition of the angles is due to Bunge and corresponds to the ZXZ convention. It is important to note, however, that the application generally involves axis transformations of tensor quantities, i.e. passive rotations. Thus the matrix that corresponds to the Bunge Euler angles is the transpose of that shown in the table above. [7]

Many mobile computing devices contain accelerometers which can determine these devices' Euler angles with respect to the earth's gravitational attraction. These are used in applications such as games, bubble level simulations, and kaleidoscopes.[citation needed]

[edit] See also

Rotation formalisms in three dimensions Euler's rotation theorem Quaternions Axis angle Simultaneous orthogonal rotations angle Conversion between quaternions and Euler angles Quaternions and spatial rotation Spherical coordinate system Camera transform

[edit] References
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. ^ Novi Commentarii academiae scientiarum Petropolitanae 20, 1776, pp. 189207 (E478) pdf ^ Mathworld does a good job describing this issue ^ Gregory G. Slabaugh, Computing Euler angles from a rotation matrix ^ (Italian) A generalization of Euler Angles to n-dimensional real spaces ^ The relation between the Euler angles and the Cardan suspension is explained in chap. 11.7 of the following textbook: U. Krey, A. Owen, Basic Theoretical Physics A Concise Overview, New York, London, Berlin, Heidelberg, Springer (2007) . 6. ^ Kocks, U.F.; Tom, C.N.; Wenk, H.-R. (2000), Texture and Anisotropy: Preferred Orientations in Polycrystals and their effect on Materials Properties, Cambridge, ISBN 9780521794206 7. ^ Bunge, H. (1993), Texture Analysis in Materials Science: Mathematical Methods, CUVILLIER VERLAG, ASIN B0014XV9HU

[edit] Bibliography

Biedenharn, L. C.; Louck, J. D. (1981), Angular Momentum in Quantum Physics, Reading, MA: AddisonWesley, ISBN 978-0-201-13507-7 Goldstein, Herbert (1980), Classical Mechanics (2nd ed.), Reading, MA: AddisonWesley, ISBN 978-0-201-02918-5 Gray, Andrew (1918), A Treatise on Gyrostatics and Rotational Motion, London: Macmillan (published 2007), ISBN 978-1-4212-5592-7 Rose, M. E. (1957), Elementary Theory of Angular Momentum, New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons (published 1995), ISBN 978-0-486-68480-2 Symon, Keith (1971), Mechanics, Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, ISBN 978-0-201-07392-8 Landau, L.D.; Lifshitz, E. M. (1996), Mechanics (3rd ed.), Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann, ISBN 978-0-7506-2896-9

Yaw (rotation)

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search For other uses, see Yaw.

Yaw motion in an aircraft

A yaw rotation is a movement around the yaw axis of a vehicle that changes the direction the vehicle is facing, to the left or right of its direction of motion. The yaw rate or yaw velocity of a car or other rigid body is the angular velocity of this rotation, or rate of change of the heading angle when the aircraft is horizontal. It is commonly measured in degrees per second or radians per second. Another important concept is the yaw moment, or yawing moment, which is the projection of a given torque over the yaw axis. It is specially important in road vehicles because pitch and roll moments are limited by the floor reaction.

Contents
[hide]

1 Measurement 2 Yaw rate control 3 Road vehicles 4 Relationship with other rotation systems 5 History 6 See also 7 References

[edit] Measurement

Yaw velocity can be measured by measuring the ground velocity at two geometrically separated points on the body, or by a gyroscope, or it can be synthesized from accelerometers and the like. It is the primary measure of how drivers sense a car's turning visually.

Axes of a ship and rotations around them

It is important in Electronic stabilized vehicles. The Yaw rate is directly related to the lateral acceleration of the vehicle turning at constant speed around a constant radius, by the relationship
tangential speed*yaw velocity = lateral acceleration = tangential speed^2/radius of turn, in appropriate units

The sign convention can be established by rigorous attention to coordinate systems. In a more general manoeuvre where the radius is varying, and/or the speed is varying, the above relationship no longer holds. The yaw rate anyway can still be measured with accelerometers in the vertical axis. Any device intended to measure the Yaw rate is called a Yaw rate sensor.

[edit] Yaw rate control

Yaw rate control is a system that maintains the yaw rate of a vehicle, for example a car, according to the values requested by the driver. It differs from simple Yaw control because is not the heading angle the controlled variable, but its variation rate instead. It is one of the main targets of the Electronic stability control systems. Arrows, darts, rockets and airships have tail surfaces to achieve stability. A road vehicle does not have elements specifically designed to maintain stability, but relies primarily on the distribution of mass.

[edit] Road vehicles

While studying the stability of a road vehicle is required a reasonable approximation to the equations of motion.

Dynamics of a road vehicle

The diagram illustrates a four wheel vehicle, in which the front axle is located a metres ahead of the centre of gravity and the rear axle is b metres aft of the cg. The body of the car is pointing in a direction (theta) whilst it is travelling in a direction (psi). In general, these are not the same. The tyre treads at the region of contact point in the direction of travel, but the hubs are aligned with the vehicle body, with the steering held central. The tyres distort as they rotate to accommodate this mis-alignment, and generate side forces as a consequence. From Directional stability study, denoting the angular velocity , the equations of motion are:

The coefficient of will be called the 'damping' by analogy with a mass-spring-damper which has a similar equation of motion. By the same analogy, the coefficient of will be called the 'stiffness', as its function is to return the system to zero deflection, in the same manner as a spring. The form of the solution depends only on the signs of the damping and stiffness terms. The four possible solution types are presented in the figure.

The only satisfactory solution requires both stiffness and damping to be positive. If the centre of gravity is ahead of the centre of the wheelbase ( , this will always be positive, and the vehicle will be stable at all speeds. However, if it lies further aft, the term has the potential of becoming negative above a speed given by:

Above this speed, the vehicle will be directionally (Yaw) unstable. Corrections for Relative Effect of Front and Rear Tyres and Steering Forces are available in the main article.

[edit] Relationship with other rotation systems

These rotations are intrinsic rotations and the calculus behind them is similar to the Frenet-Serret formulas. Performing a rotation in an intrinsic reference frame is equivalent to right-multiply its characteristic matrix (the matrix that has the vector of the reference frame as columns) by the matrix of the rotation.

[edit] History
The first aircraft to demonstrate active control about all three axes was the Wright brothers' 1902 glider.[1]

[edit] See also

Aircraft principal axes Coriolis acceleration Flight dynamics Yaw rate sensor Adverse yaw Directional stability Vehicle dynamics Six degrees of freedom

[edit] References
1. ^ "Aircraft rotations". http://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/K-12/airplane/rotations.html. Retrieved 2008-08-04

2. Modified Bessel Function of the First Kind

3. 4.

5.

A function which is one of the solutions to the modified Bessel differential equation and is closely related to the Bessel function of the first kind . The above plot shows for , 2, ..., 5. The modified Bessel function of the first kind is implemented in Mathematica as BesselI[nu, z]. The modified Bessel function of the first kind can be defined by the contour integral (1)

6. 7.

where the contour encloses the origin and is traversed in a counterclockwise direction (Arfken 1985, p. 416). In terms of , (2)

8.

For a real number

, the function can be computed using

(3)

9.

where

is the gamma function. An integral formula is (4)

10. which simplifies for

an integer

to (5)

11. (Abramowitz and Stegun 1972, p. 376). 12. A derivative identity for expressing higher order modified Bessel functions in terms of

is (6)

13. where

is a Chebyshev polynomial of the first kind.

14.

15. The special case of

gives

as the series (7)

16. SEE ALSO: Bessel Function of the First Kind, Continued Fraction Constant, Modified Bessel Function of the Second Kind, Weber's Formula

17. RELATED WOLFRAM SITES: http://functions.wolfram.com/Bessel-TypeFunctions/BesselI/ 18. REFERENCES:

19. Abramowitz, M. and Stegun, I. A. (Eds.). "Modified Bessel Functions and ." 9.6 in Handbook of Mathematical Functions with Formulas, Graphs, and Mathematical Tables, 9th printing. New York: Dover, pp. 374-377, 1972. 20. Arfken, G. "Modified Bessel Functions, and ." 11.5 in Mathematical Methods for Physicists, 3rd ed. Orlando, FL: Academic Press, pp. 610-616, 1985. 21. Finch, S. R. Mathematical Constants. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 2003. 22. Press, W. H.; Flannery, B. P.; Teukolsky, S. A.; and Vetterling, W. T. "Bessel Functions of Fractional Order, Airy Functions, Spherical Bessel Functions." 6.7 in Numerical Recipes in FORTRAN: The Art of Scientific Computing, 2nd ed. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, pp. 234-245, 1992. 23. Spanier, J. and Oldham, K. B. "The Hyperbolic Bessel Functions and " and "The General Hyperbolic Bessel Function ." Chs. 49-50 in An Atlas of Functions. Washington, DC: Hemisphere, pp. 479-487 and 489497, 1987.

24. Referenced on Wolfram|Alpha: Modified Bessel Function of the First Kind 25. CITE THIS AS:
26. Weisstein, Eric W. "Modified Bessel Function of the First Kind." From MathWorld--A Wolfram Web Resource. http://mathworld.wolfram.com/ModifiedBesselFunctionoftheFirstKind.html

Degrees of freedom (mechanics)

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search

In mechanics, degrees of freedom (DOF) is the number of parameters that define the configuration of a mechanical system. The degrees of freedom of a body is the number of independent parameters that define the displacement and deformation of the body. This is a fundamental concept relating to systems of moving bodies in mechanical engineering, aeronautical engineering, robotics, and structural engineering. The position of a single car (engine) moving along a track has one degree of freedom, because the position of the car is defined by the distance along the track. A train of rigid cars connected by hinges to an engine still has only one degree of freedom because the positions of the cars behind the engine are constrained by the shape of the track. An automobile can be considered to be a rigid body traveling on a plane (a flat, two-dimensional space). This body has three independent degrees of freedom consisting of two components of translation and one angle of rotation. Skidding or drifting is a good example of an automobile's three independent degrees of freedom. The position of a rigid body in space is defined by three components of translation and three components of rotation, which means that it has six degrees of freedom. The Exact constraint mechanical design method manages the degrees of freedom to neither underconstrain nor overconstrain a device.[1]

Contents

[hide]

1 Motions and dimensions 2 Mobility formula o 2.1 Planar and spherical movement o 2.2 Systems of bodies 3 Electrical engineering 4 References 5 See also

[edit] Motions and dimensions

The position of a n-dimensional rigid body is defined by the rigid transformation, [T]=[A, d], where d is an n-dimensional translation and A is an nxn rotation matrix, which has n translational degrees of freedom and n(n - 1)/2 rotational degrees of freedom. The number of rotational degrees of freedom comes from the dimension of the rotation group SO(n). A non-rigid or deformable body may be thought of as a collection of many minute particles (infinite number of DOFs); this is often approximated by a finite DOF system. When motion involving large displacements is the main objective of study (e.g. for analyzing the motion of satellites), a deformable body may be approximated as a rigid body (or even a particle) in order to simplify the analysis. The motion of a ship at sea has the six degrees of freedom of a rigid body, which described as:[2] Translation:
1. Moving up and down (heaving); 2. Moving left and right (swaying); 3. Moving forward and backward (surging);

Rotation

1. Tilting forward and backward (pitching); 2. Turning left and right (yawing); 3. Tilting side to side (rolling). See also: Euler angles

As defined above one can also get degree of freedom using minimum number of coordinates required to specify a position.Applying it: 1.For a single particle we need 2 coordinates in 2-D plane to specify its position and 3 coordinates in 3-D plane.Thus it's degree of freedom in 3-D plane is 3. 2.For a body consisting of 2 particles(ex.diatomic molecule) in 3-D plane with constant distance between them(let's say d) we can show it's degree of freedom to be 5. Let's say a particle in this body has coordinate (x1,y1,z1) along with x-coordinate(x2) and ycoordinate(y2)of second particle.Then using distance formula of distance between two coordinates we have distance d=sqrt(((x1-x2)2+(y1-y2)2+(z1-z2)2)) We have one equation with one unknown where we can solve for z2. Note:Here any one of x1,x2,y1,y2,z1,z2 can be unknown.

[edit] Mobility formula

The mobility formula counts the number of parameters that define the configuration of a set of rigid bodies that are constrained by joints connecting these bodies.[3][4] Consider a system of n rigid bodies moving in space has 6n degrees of freedom measured relative to a fixed frame. In order to count the degrees of freedom of this system, include the ground frame in the count of bodies, so that mobility is independent of the choice of the body that forms the fixed frame. Then the degree-of-freedom of the unconstrained system of N=n+1 is

because the fixed body has zero degrees of freedom relative to itself. Joints that connect bodies in this system remove degrees of freedom and reduce mobility. Specifically, hinges and sliders each impose five constraints and therefore remove five degrees of freedom. It is convenient to define the number of constraints c that a joint imposes in terms of the joint's freedom f, where c=6-f. In the case of a hinge or slider, which are one degree of freedom joints, have f=1 and therefore c=6-1=5. The result is that the mobility of a system formed from n moving links and j joints each with freedom fi, i=1, ..., j, is given by

Recall that N includes the fixed link. There are two important special cases: (i) a simple open chain, and (ii) a simple closed chain. A single open chain consists of n moving links connected end to end by j joints, with one end connected to a ground link. Thus, in this case N=j+1 and the mobility of the chain is

For a simple closed chain, n moving links are connected end-to-end by n+1 joints such that the two ends are connected to the ground link forming a loop. In this case, we have N=j and the mobility of the chain is

An example of a simple open chain is a serial robot manipulator. These robotic systems are constructed from a series of links connected by six one degree-of-freedom revolute or prismatic joints, so the system has six degrees of freedom. An example of a simple closed chain is the RSSR spatial four-bar linkage. The sum of the freedom of these joints is eight, so the mobility of the linkage is two, where one of the degrees of freedom is the rotation of the coupler around the line joining the two S joints.
[edit] Planar and spherical movement

It is common practice to design the linkage system so that the movement of all of the bodies are constrained to lie on parallel planes, to form what is known as a planar linkage. It is also possible to construct the linkage system so that all of the bodies move on concentric spheres, forming a spherical linkage. In both cases, the degrees of freedom of the links in each system is now three rather than six, and the constraints imposed by joints are now c=3-f. In this case, the mobility formula is given by

and the special cases become

planar or spherical simple open chain,

planar or spherical simple closed chain,

An example of a planar simple closed chain is the planar four-bar linkage, which is a four-bar loop with four one degree-of-freedom joints and therefore has mobility M=1.
[edit] Systems of bodies

An articulated robot with six DOF in a kinematic chain.

A system with several bodies would have a combined DOF that is the sum of the DOFs of the bodies, less the internal constraints they may have on relative motion. A mechanism or linkage containing a number of connected rigid bodies may have more than the degrees of freedom for a single rigid body. Here the term degrees of freedom is used to describe the number of parameters needed to specify the spatial pose of a linkage. A specific type of linkage is the open kinematic chain, where a set of rigid links are connected at joints; a joint may provide one DOF (hinge/sliding), or two (cylindrical). Such chains occur commonly in robotics, biomechanics, and for satellites and other space structures. A human arm is considered to have seven DOFs. A shoulder gives pitch, yaw, and roll, an elbow allows for pitch and roll, and a wrist allows for pitch and yaw. Only 3 of those movements would be necessary to move the hand to any point in space, but people would lack the ability to grasp things from different angles or directions. A robot (or object) that has mechanisms to control all 6 physical DOF is said to be holonomic. An object with fewer controllable DOFs than total DOFs is said to be non-holonomic, and an object with more controllable DOFs than total DOFs (such as the human arm) is said to be redundant. In mobile robotics, a car-like robot can reach any position and orientation in 2-D space, so it needs 3 DOFs to describe its pose, but at any point, you can move it only by a forward motion

and a steering angle. So it has two control DOFs and three representational DOFs; i.e. it is nonholonomic. A fixed-wing aircraft, with 34 control DOFs (forward motion, roll, pitch, and to a limited extent, yaw) in a 3-D space, is also non-holonomic, as it cannot move directly up/down or left/right. A summary of formulas and methods for computing the degrees-of-freedom in mechanical systems has been given by Pennestri, Cavacece, and Vita.[5]

[edit] Electrical engineering

In electrical engineering degrees of freedom is often used to describe the number of directions in which a phased array antenna can form either beams or nulls. It is equal to one less than the number of elements contained in the array, as one element is used as a reference against which either constructive or destructive interference may be applied using each of the remaining antenna elements. Applications exist for the concept in both radar practice and communication link practice, with beam steering being more prevalent for radar applications and null steering being more prevalent for interference suppression in communication links.

[edit] References
1. ^ http://ocw.mit.edu/courses/mechanical-engineering/2-76-multi-scale-system-design-fall2004/readings/reading_l3.pdf 2. ^ Summary of ship movement 3. ^ J. J. Uicker, G. R. Pennock, and J. E. Shigley, 2003, Theory of Machines and Mechanisms, Oxford University Press, New York. 4. ^ J. M. McCarthy and G. S. Soh, Geometric Design of Linkages, 2nd Edition, Springer 2010 5. ^ Pennestri E, Cavacece M, Vita L, On the computation of degrees-of-freedom: A didactic perspective, ASME Paper DETC2005-84109