REVIEW OF GROUNDWATER POLLUTION AND PROTECTION IN KARST AREAS

FIKRET KAAROGLU
Cumhuriyet University, Department of Geological Eng., 58140 Sivas, Turkey (correspondence, e-mail: kacaroglu@cumhuriyet.edu.tr; fax: +90 346 2263618)

(Received 20 December 1996; accepted in revised form 1 September 1998)

Abstract. Karst groundwater (the water in a karst aquifer) is a major water resource in many regions of some countries. Water requirements for most of the settlements in the karstic regions are supplied from karst aquifers. Karst environments are also used for the disposal of liquid and solid domestic agricultural, and industrial wastes, which result in karst groundwater pollution. Karst aquifers have specic hydraulic and hydrogeologic characteristics that render them highly vulnerable to pollution from human activities. Karst groundwater becomes polluted more easily and in shorter time periods than water in non-karstic aquifers. Thus, protection measures are required to preserve the quality and quantity of karst groundwater that specically consider the vulnerability of the karst environment. In order to preserve karst groundwater, the geological, hydrological and hydrogeological characteristics of the karst area must be investigated and information on polluting activities and sources must be collected. Then, a comprehensive protection and control system must be developed consisting of the following six components: (1) develop and implement a groundwater monitoring system, (2) establish critical protection zones, (3) develop proper land use strategies, (4) determine the reasonable development capacity of the karst aquifer, (5) control and eliminate when necessary sources of pollution, (6) increase public awareness of the value and vulnerability of karst aquifers. Keywords: groundwater pollution, groundwater protection, karst, karst groundwater

1. Introduction The term karst is most often used in a geomorphologic sense to describe landscapes that result from dissolution and surface drainage of carbonate terranes. Karst may be dened as the terrane characterized by the specic surface and underground landforms and features (karens, dolines, ponors, channels, caves, closed depressions, dry valleys etc.) essentially developed in limestone and dolomite and also in other soluble rocks (e.g. gypsum, salt rock, quartzite), by a particular type of groundwater circulation and regime, and by the occurrence of springs that usually have large capacity. Karst areas have some distinctive features which distinguish them from ssured and porous aquifers (Bakalowicz et al., 1995): (1) a general lack of permanent surface streams, (2) the existence of swallow holes (ponors) into which surface streams sink, (3) the presence of underground channels (conduits or drains) in which rapid water ow occurs, (4) the occurrence of large springs.
Water, Air, and Soil Pollution 113: 337356, 1999. 1999 Kluwer Academic Publishers. Printed in the Netherlands.

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Circulation of groundwater in karst aquifers is quite different from water circulation in other types (non-karstic) aquifers. In karst aquifers water is being collected in networks of interconnected cracks, caverns, and channels. Hydraulic permeability of karst aquifers are essentially created by owing water and has anisotropic character (Huntoon, 1995). The pollutants that introduced in a karst aquifer do not behave like those in granular or in fractured aquifers. Transport of the pollutants in karst aquifers is extremely rapid and attenuation is greatly limited. Rapid transport and poor attennuation of pollutants in karst aquifers are a consequence of their hydrogeological properties. The pollutants reaching granular or fractured aquifers are transported relatively slow and greatly (or completely) retarded (removed) by chemical reactions and other attenuation mechanisms. Some karstic solutional and depression features are commonly used for waste disposal in some countries, including Turkey. Dolines and ponors (swallow holes) are utilized as injection points for waste water. Closed depressions such as uvala (elongated bowl-shaped basins in karst with broken ground), polje (large, closed all around, at oored depressions covered with sediments, with a oor area 1 to hundreds km2 ) are used for solid waste disposal (Figure 1). On the other hand, karstic aquifers are the main water resources for most of the settlements in karstic terrains. The danger for pollution of groundwater in karst areas is much greater than in regions which are protected by overlying impervious deposits. In general, the protective cover (deposits) is absent in karst regions. In addition, the groundwater velocity in karst aquifers is usually much greater (hundreds of times greater than those in alluvial aquifers) that do not allow a sufcient time for groundwater selfpurication. Thus, the groundwater in karst aquifers requires a better protection against pollution than in non-karst areas. This paper discusses hydrogeological characteristics of the karst aquifers, and groundwater pollution, groundwater monitoring and monitoring network design, and the determination of the protection zones in karst areas.

2. Hydrogeological Properties of the Karst Areas Huntoon (1995) denes a karst aquifer as an aquifer containing soluble rocks with a permeability structure dominated by interconnected conduits dissolved from the host rock which are organized to facilitate the circulation of uid in the downgradient direction wherein the permeability structure evolved as a consequence of dissolution by the uid. Karst aquifers comprise a very distinct class of aquifers and present a wide variety of characters due to their different geological and geomorphological context and history. They exhibit highly heterogenous, anisotrophic and complex structure.

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Figure 1. Karst features and utilization of the karst aquifer for water supply and waste disposal (after De irmenci and Kaaro lu, 1993). (1) boundary of g g underground watershed, (2) boundary of surface drainage area, (3) ponor (swallow hole), (4) disposal of industrial waste water into a ponor, (5) solid waste disposal into a karstic depression, (6) karst spring (with limited watershed area), (7) water well, (8) disposal of municipal waste water into karst aquifer, (9) karst spring, (10) submarine karst spring, (11) base of karstication (impervious basement).

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The most important distinguishing characteristic of a karst aquifer is its permeability structure which was essentially created by ow system. The permeable character of a karst aquifer is the consequence of the presence of integrated networks of dissolution conduits. There is an organizational hierarchy of the dissolution tubes within the network. Such tube networks in karst aquifers create extremely anisotropic permeability architecture. The permeability structure of a karst aquifer is: (1) consequence of the circulation system imposed on the aquifer, and (2) organized to facilitate the circulation of groundwater in the downgradient direction (Huntoon, 1995). Figure 2 illustrates surface drainage area and underground watershed in porous (non-karstic) and karstic areas. In non-karstic areas the boundaries of these areas almost coincide. On the other hand, in karst terranes the boundaries of the surface drainage area and underground watershed in general do not coincide. As seen in Figure 2 (b) the underground watershed of a karst spring may extend to the remote areas behind the hill where the spring is located. The surface area contributing to a given spring or segment of an aquifer of interest must include not only the upgradient karst area but also those surface areas upgradient from the karst that drain to it (Huntoon, 1997a). The denition of the boundaries and extention of the watershed area in karst is a difcult and complex task. In order to precisely dene it, it is necessary to conduct detailed geological and hydrogeological investigations (Bonacci, 1988). These investigations primarily include mapping karst geomorphology (karst features) of the area and determining the existence of the connections between individual points in the watershed area (ponor-spring, piezometers-piozometers, and piezometers-spring) applying tracing methods. Dye traces provide direct information on groundwater velocities and migration pathways in karst aquifers. Quantitave analyses of dye concentrations can reveal information on the storage characteristics of many karst systems (Huntoon, 1995). The determination of the watershed areas or groundwater recharge areas for karst springs is important for estimating groundwater supplies and for identifying possible sources, directions and velocities of the pollutant movement. The recharge conditions of the karst aquifer depends on (Bakalowicz et al., 1995): the type of the land use (agriculture, forestry, urban etc.); the type of cover overlying the karst (covered karst or bare karst); the type of rocks in the karst system (the presence of impermeable deposits); and the type of karstied rocks (carbonates or evaporites). The conditions of the groundwater recharge in karst aquifers are more favorable than for the aquifers of the other types. Inltration is direct through ponors (swallow holes), estavellas, and by diffusion inltration from the surface, temporary natural pondage, and by direct percolation of precipitation and snowmelt water through the networks of joints and ssures. The retention capacity of the karst aquifer depends on the relationship between dissolution karst porosity and joint porosity. If the channels are large, the retention capacity of the rocks is smaller.

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Figure 2. Surface drainage area and underground watershed in (a) a porous (non-karstic), and (b) a karstic area (after De irmenci and Kaaro lu, 1993). (1) surface drainage area, (2) underground g g watershed, (3) water well, (4) stream, (5) groundwater table, (6) ponor (swallow hole), (7) polje, (8) cave, (9) karst groundwater table, (10) karst spring, (11) base of karstication (impervious basement).

If the density of joint porosity increases, the retention capacity of the rocks also increases (Milanovic, 1981). Underground channel (conduit) ow is the most important type of water circulation in karst aquifers. In karst aquifers very rapid water circulation occurs. Milanovic (1981) states that the average groundwater velocity in Dinaric karst varies within a wide range from 0.002 to 55 cm sec1 . (1.70 to 47500 m day1 ), and

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most frequently has a value of about 5 cm sec1 . (4300 m day1 ). A dye-tracing test performed in Antalya travertine aquifer (Turkey) has given the minimum average groundwater velocity as 6.1 m sec1 . (5280 m day1 ) which indicate the rapid groundwater circulation in the aquifer (Gnay and Yayan, 1979; Gnay et al., 1995). In alluvial aquifers the groundwater velocities usually range from less than 1 m day1 up to a few meters/day (Matthess and Pekde er, 1985). g

3. Pollution of the Karst Groundwater Karst areas are susceptible to a greater range of environmental impact problems than any other terrain (Ford and Williams, 1989). Karst formations generally have large rock and soil permeabilities, so karst groundwater has the potential to be easily polluted. Non-karstic aquifers are more protected against pollution by overlying rocks and deposits. In karst areas these protective covers are generally absent. Karst groundwater, fed directly by surface water inows, is often polluted before they reach the springs. The propagation of pollutants in karst aquifers is much faster than in non-karstic aquifers. Large groundwater velocities in karst aquifers do not give sufcient time for the pollutants moving in the groundwater to be retarded by chemical reactions or other attenuation mechanisms (acid-base reactions, adsorption, ion exchange, complexation, precipitation, volatilization, bacteriological die-off etc.). Pollution of karst groundwater depends on the conditions in the catchment area and on the presence of the potential pollution sources. If these sources exist, the possibilities of groundwater pollution in the area are considerable due to the exposure and dimensions of karst channels and caverns. The possibilities in such karst areas are not only of pollution, but also of extremely fast transport of pollutants which may bring about dangerous consequences even before the causes have been discovered and undesirable effects prevented (Stevanovich, 1988). Hydrochemical bahavior of pollutants in groundwater system differs according to the type of pollutants and physical and chemical conditions within the aquifer (Freeze and Cherry, 1979). During the transport of the pollutants by groundwater, the reactions between dissolved species and the geological materials (adsorption, ion exchange or chemical precipitation) may cause a portion of the dissolved species to be transferred to the solids. Above the capillary fringe, reactions may cause some of the pollutants to be transported from the solution phase to the gas phase. The purication capacity of the aquifers consist of the natural physical, chemical and biological reactions which return polluted subsurface water to its original condition and extensively or completely remove the environmental chemicals which have penetrated underground (Golwer, 1983). This capacity is signicantly affected by transport processes, and hydrogeological properties and conditions. The natural attenuation of pollutants in karst aquifers is limited because of the

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(Ford and Williams, 1989): (1) signicant lack of available surface area for adsorption, ion exchange, or colonization by microorganisms, (2) rapid inltration of water and contaminants restricts the availability of highly volatile chemicals to evaporate, (3) typically thin soil cover and the relatively large secondary voids allow for rapid transport of contaminants, (4) turbulent ow regimes associated with the high ow rates enhances contaminant transport, and (5) lack of sufcient time for time-dependent elimination mechanisms (e.g. bioremediation) to act on contaminants because of the rapid ow-through. The possible contaminants that can be found in groundwater are limitless. The pollutants encountered in groundwater can be classied as organic and inorganic chemical, biological, physical, and radiological types. The principle sources and causes of the groundwater pollution can be summarized under four groups as municipal, industrial, agricultural and miscellaneous. Human activities have impacts on the quantity and quality of karst groundwater. The main human acivities having a high risk for karst groundwater are urbanization, industrial, agricultural and forestry activities. Solid and liquid wastes produced in the infrastructural development (settlement, urbanization, tourism, and commercial) areas can easily pollute karst groundwater. Raw municipal wastewater contains high concentrations of organic material, phosphorus, nitrogen, heavy metals, pathogenic bacteria and viruses. Solid wastes dumped in sinkholes or other karstic depressions are subjected to leaching by percolating water through them. The liquid derived from this process (leachate) contains large numbers of inorganic (e.g. Ca, Cl, Na) and organic compounds, heavy metals (e.g. Fe, Mn, Cd), total dissolved solids, and microbiological contaminants. Unfortunately, in all inhabited karst areas, dolines and other sinkpoints are perceived as being particularly suited for the dumping of solid or liquid wastes, because it disappears underground (Ford and Williams, 1989). Construction works destroy the covering layers of karst rocks and increase pollution risk. Use of the hazardous substances in industries and disposal of the waste products are potential threat to groundwater in karst areas. Industrial wastes contain a wide variety of pollutants (organic and inorganic compounds, heavy metals, cleaning solvents etc.) which differ depending on the type of industry (Tchobanoglous and Schroeder, 1985). Storage and movement of agricultural wastes, and the application of fertilizers and pesticides have negative impacts on karst groundwater. Agricultural activities introduce nitrogen compounds (NH3 , NO3 ), phosphorus, potassium, pesticides into groundwater beneath agricultural lands (Houzim et al., 1986). Forests on the karstied terranes act as reservoirs (green reservoirs) because they, and the organic mats that support them, temporarily retain large volumes of water which are released gradually to the underlying karstied rocks (Hontoon, 1997a, b). Deforestration causes shifting of the water balance with increasing runoff and resulting strong erosion and low retention capacity. Forestry construction (roads, buidings) causes lubrication oil and petrol leakage and seepage in karst areas.

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Physical and chemical nature (properties) of soil (rock) affect on the microorganism survival in the groundwater. Studies have shown the importance of the composition of soils (organic content; percent sand, silt and clay), pH, cation exchange capacity, permeability, texture, moisture, and nutrients. In general temperature, pH, moisture and nutrient supply seem to have the greatest impact on bacterial survival. Lower temperatures increase survival time. Temperature extremes seem to be most harmful to bacteria. Elevated temperatures will effectively increase die-off rates. Extremes in pH are detrimental to microorganism survival. Acid and basic conditions in aquifer greatly increases die-off rates. Generally a neutral pH environment favors extended bacterial survival (Crane and Moore, 1983). The most prominent processes in the soil that have an effect on microorganism removal and reduction are ltration, adsorption and die-off. The surface soil is of major importance in reducing concentrations of microorganisms in inltrating water. Adsorption of miroorganisms onto clay particles and organic materials effectively remove bacteria from water (Crane and Moore, 1983). Solids with a large specic surface have high adsorption capacity. The clay fraction solids have large specic surface. Adsorption capacity is linked to clay content, clay minerals, organic matter, and oxide or hydroxide content (Appelo and Postma, 1996; Langmuir, 1997). In general, sandy and organic soils are poor absorbers and clay soils are good adsorbers (Keswick and Gerba, 1980; Abu-Ashour et al., 1994). The larger diameters of the ow paths in ssures and solution channels in karst aquifer should allow a better transport of suspended microorganisms (bacteria and viruses). The maximum velocity is important for the assessment of the vulnerability of groundwater systems to pathogenic microorganisms, since it indicates the rst possible arrival of microbial pollutants. Depending on the aquifer conditions very different transport times and distances can occur. Coliform bacteria has been observed to be transported in ssured karstic aquifers for more than a few kilometers (Matthess and Pekde er, 1985). g In a mature carbonate (karst) aquifer runoff may proceed directly into the conduit system where it will ow with little impediment and minimal contact with the rock mass. A sinkhole at which a stream sinks rapidly into the ground is a common example of such direct input. Groundwater velocities in conduits may be as high as 2500 m hr1 (60 000 m day1 ) where the gradient is as steep as 1:4. With more typical potentiometric gradients of 0.10 to 20 m km1 , velocities range from 9.5 m hr1 (230 m day1 ) in base ow to 400 m hr1 (9600 m day1 ) in ood ow within the same conduit. Pollutants can travel rapidly and have catastrophic effects on water quality more than 15 km away in just a week during the base ow and even sooner during ood ow (Quinlan and Ewers, 1985). Nonaqueous phase liquids (NAPLs) are those liquids immissible with water and have very low solubility in water (Domenico and Schwartz, 1990; Hassan, 1996). Hydrocarbons usually are the common examples for NAPLs. NAPLs are subdivided into those that are denser than water (DNAPLs), and those that are less dense than water (LNAPLs). Chlorinated hydrocarbons (carbon tetrachloride,

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tichloroethene, etc.), anthracene, pyrene, phenols, coal tar are some examples of the DNAPLs that commonly found in polluted groundwater. LNAPLs consist mainly of petroleum products, such as acetone, diesel fuil, gasoline, heating oil, kerosene, jet fuil, and lubricants. Flow of these uids is controlled by factors different from those that control aqueous ow (Domenico and Schwartz, 1990; Hasan, 1996; Price, 1996). NAPLs are known to persist in the subsurface for a long time and are capable of polluting a relatively large volume of groundwater in comparison to their own volume (Hasan, 1996). When introduced in karst terranes NAPLs will travel downward through the unsaturated zone under the force of gravity, along enlarged fractures and conduits. On reaching the groundwater LNAPLs will spread along the water surface. DNAPLs continue to migrate below the water table, and tend to sink to the bottom of the aquifer, and act as a longterm source of groundwater pollution due to typically low aqueous solubilities (Field, 1990). If LNAPLs are present in a karst aquifer the sudden ooding of the aquifer may cause localized decreases in the groundwater velocity and force globules of organic chemicals to be driven into the rock matrix. These globules may be held onto the cave walls or in the tight fractures for long periods. Light volatile pollutants tend to rise up and ow through cave passages in gaseous form. These can then rise into basements creating hazards in the form of toxic vapors that may also be explosive (Field, 1990). DNAPLs tend to form sludges in deep pools and to be adsorbed to microparticles. Throughout the retention of these sludge, small portions of the pollutants slowly becomes miscible with the water and are transported through the system, thus providing a continious source of pollution to discharge points (Field, 1990; Chown et al., 1997). 3.1. C ASE
HISTORIES : KARST GROUNDWATER POLLUTION IN ANTALYA TRAVERTINE PLATEAU AND SKENDERUN K ARST BASIN , T URKEY I

There are some areas in Turkey (for example Antalya Travertine Plateau, Iskenderun Karst Basin) that karst groundwater pollution has occured (Gnay et al., 1995, Ekmeki and Gnay, 1997; Gnay and Ekmeki, 1997). The city of Antalya is located in a travertine area whose surface area is about 630 km2 reaching 250 m of thickness in some places (Figure 3). The travertine is highly porous, permeable and karstied, and forms the second major aquifer in the area. The water for the city of Antalya and some industries is supplied from the boreholes drilled within the travertine aquifer. Some karst springs (Arapsuyu and Ma ara) also are used g to meet water demand. On the other hand, there is no sewer system in Antalya city. Municipal and industrial waste waters are directly discharged into travertine aquifer. During tourism season, the population of the Antalya increases up to 2 million people. All the domestic wastes of this population are disposed directly into the travertine without any treatment. The main industrial activities over the Antalya area are in food and beverages (milk and meat products, cannery, soft drinks, fruits

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Figure 3. Groundwater sampling network in Antalya travertine area (after Gnay et al., 1995).

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and vegetables), textile, leather products, pulp and paper, organic chemicals, plastic and synthetic products, cement and lime products, metal products industries. Intensive use of fertilizers and pesticides in agricultural lands within travertine area also causes groundwater pollution. Commonly used fertilizers in the area are manure and inorganic fertilizers. The annual application rates of inorganic fertilizers and manure in the area are 220 and 600 kg ha1 , respectively (Gnay et al., 1995). The karst groundwater quality and pollution in Antalya travertine area, Turkey, were studied by International Research and Application Center for Karst Water Resources (UKAM), Hacettepe University, Ankara, researchers. Seasonal sampling frequency was selected. A total of 35 points, comprising major springs of travertine and limestone, deep boreholes, shallow boreholes were sampled. The water quality variables comprising temperature (T), electrical conductivity (EC), pH, dissolved oxygen (DO), CO2 , major cations and anions (Ca, Mg, Na, K, HCO3 , Cl, SO4 , and nitrogen compounds (NH3 , NO2 , NO3 ) were measured/analyzed. Some water quality parameters in the study area were as follows: T, 1220 C; EC, 500900 s cm1 ; Cl, 2070 mg L1 ; PO4 , 00.66 mg L1 ; NH3 , 0.032.90 mg L1 ; NO2 . 0.0012.24 mg L1 ; NO3 , 0.2042.0 mg L1 (Gnay et al., 1995). In Iskenderun area, domestic liquid wastes are injected into dolines and sinkholes which are located within the recharge area of the boreholes that supply water for the town ( Iskenderun). In addition a large polje in the recharge area is being utilized as a solid waste disposal site. The production boreholes are only a few kilometers away from the polje, sinkholes and dolines. The PO4 , NO3 , NO2 , and NH3 contents of the boreholes which supply water to the town range between 00.44 mg L1 , 11124 mg L1 , 00.060 mg L1 , and 0.012.20 mg L1 , respectively (Ekmeki and Gnay, 1997; Ekmeki et al., 1997). Studies on karst groundwater pollution and protection in Antalya travertine area and Iskenderun area were carried out by the researchers of UKAM, and reports were submitted to local administrators describing pollution problems and suggesting protection strategies. During some special experiments and tests (carried out by UKAM researchers) indicating the direct relations between the swallow holes and springs or boreholes local authorities were invited to the eld. The reports were submitted personally and detailed explanations given, using everyday language instead of technical language, emphasizing the serious problem that would affect human health in the area. The researchers decided that the technical side was adequate, but the problem was the lack of public awareness (Ekmeki and Gnay, 1997; Gnay and Ekmeki, 1997).

4. Protection of the Karst Groundwater Protecting the karst groundwater system against pollution requires understanding the occurrence and the circulation mechanism of the karst groundwater. Thus, the recharge, storage and ow characteristics of the aquifer, which are the major con-

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trolling factors of the occurrence and the circulation of the karst groundwater, must be characterized clearly. The type of the recharge (from concentrated to diffuse system), of the ow (from conduit to diffuse system) and the size of the storage system are the main factors affecting the distribution, behavior and the degree of the pollution (Gnay et al., 1995). The rst steps in planning a rationale, reliable and efcient program for karst groundwater protection is the description of the problem and identication of the geological, hydrological and hydrogeological characteristics of the problem area. In order to describe the problem and identify the characteristics of the karst area, data and information on the following subjects must be collected: (1) sources of pollution (municipal, industrial, agricultural, mining, etc.); (2) properties of the pollutants (solid, liquid; inorganic, organic, bacteriological, radioactive; toxicity, mobility, persistence, etc.); (3) attenuation mechanisms of the pollutants; (4) water sources (wells, springs, surface waters) and their locations; (5) waste disposal sites and disposal methods (landlling, land application, subsurface dischrge); (6) geology and karst geomorphology of the area; (7) groundwater recharge areas and watershed boundaries; (8) groundwater circulation in karst aquifer (groundwater ow routes, velocity and discharge); (9) rainfall, stream and spring discharges, and their uctuations; (10) groundwater level uctuations; (11) relations of surface waters and groundwater. Hoetzl et al. (1995) summarized the approaches used for groundwater source and resource ptotection in some European countries. In general, the approaches are not specically directed to protection of karst groundwater. The source protection measures applied in these countries generally involve the denition of the catchment area to the source. The regulations for most countries provide for subdivision of the recharge capture area into a number of zones within which different controls/restrictions are placed on activities which have the potential to pollute groundwater. Hoetzl et al. (1995) expressed that the achievement of the effective protection of groundwater sources and resources requires the understanding of the local conditions. Thus implementation of protective mesures must based on a regional or local scale, taking into account the experience of the hydrogeologists who have worked or are working in the area concerned. Protecting groundwater resources against pollution demands (Alfldi, 1986): (1) preventing pollution to the recharge areas, and (2) preventing direct disposal of pollutants into the aquifer. Measures for the protection of groundwater against pollution are designed to prevent pollution, to eliminate its consequences, and to preserve and improve the quality of the groundwater. The technical measures include the elimination of the pollution sources, groundwater quality monitoring, and establishing protection zones. Hoetzl et al. (1995) outlined the possible control measures that can be applied for urbanization, settlement, industrialization, tourism, agriculture, forestry, mining, and waste disposal activities which are particularly relevant for karst regions. These measures can be summarized as follows: (1) regulations for planning, location and construction of settlements,

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houses, buildings, roads, industrial plants etc., (2) treatment of waste waters and liquid wastes, (3) prohibition of the disposal of liquid wastes, waste waters and solid wastes into underground, (4) construction of proper sewage and waste water collecion systems, (5) prohibition or restriction the use of hazardous and toxic materials, (6) proper location, construction and operation of fertilizer and pesticide storage facilitis, (7) construction and operation of proper collection and storage systems for manure and animal slurry, and application of appropriate land spreading policy, (8) correct application of fertilizers and pesticides, (9) application of propoer collection, storage and treatment methods for solid wastes. Besides the technical measures, public awareness is very important in the improvement of effective karst groundwater protection. The protection of the water resources is primarily related to the consciousness of the local authorities without regard to the perfectness of the efciency of the technical work. The local authorities must either take the necessary measures to protect the water resources or to educate the public in this issue. The problem of the lack of the public awareness can be overcome, to a great extent, by an intensive public education (Ekmeki and Gnay, 1997; Gnay and Ekmeki, 1997). Educational campaigns explaining the value of water may increase public awareness. These campaigns may take the form of regular newspaper articles, regular television spots and public seminars. Campaigns organized at a national level must be complemented with activities at the local or community level (Eurepean Commission, 1995). 4.1. G ROUNDWATER
DESIGN QUALITY MONITORING AND MONITORING NETWORK

The rst stage of hydrogeological preventive measures is the organization of groundwater quality monitoring as well as monitoring of the sources of potential pollutants (UNESCO-UNEP, 1984). Groundwater quality monitoring can be dened as continuous, methodologically and technically standardized program of observations, eld and laboratory measurements of selected physical, chemical and biological parameters of a hydrogeological system. The objectives of the groundwater quality monitoring can be summarized as (Vrba, 1988): (1) to collect, process and analyze data on water quality as a basis for assessing the current state, changes and trends of the hydrogeological system due to the natural and human impacts in space and time; (2) to provide data and information for the planning, management and decision-making concerning groundwater resources development, protection and quality conservation; (3) to provide data and information for implementing control measures and groundwater protection regulations and statutes. A monitoring network comprise single-purpose and multi-purpose stations. A valid standard for the number of monitoring stations per unit area cannot be dened but depends on the signicnce and vulnerability of the aquifer system (Vrba, 1988). Conventional groundwater quality monitoring techniques are inappropriate for karst aquifers. Certain environmental conditions of the karst areas require special-

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ized investigative and monitoring techniques. In karst areas the common method of locating wells at the management boundary or in a suspected plume is unlikely to yield relevant results. As a consequence, decisions may be based on incorrect data (Fields, 1988). The design of a groundwater monitoring network in a karst region should include the following steps that maximize the probability of sensing the ow that comes from a particular surface site (Quinlan and Ewers, 1985): (1) all springs along river banks, cave stream resurgences at the bottom of sinkholes, and streams in accessible caves should be located; (2) dye-tracing should be carried out from the disposal site to be monitored and from nearby input sites in order to establish which springs, other resurgences, and cave streams do and do not drain the disposal site; (3) a water quality monitoring program should be initiated at any spring, resurgence or cave stream shown by dye-tracing to drain the disposal site; (4) at least one hydrogeologically similar spring, stream resurgence or cave stream that dye-tracing has shown does not drain the disposal site should be monitored for the purpose of determining background levels of potential pollutants. Springs are the skeleton of the monitoring network in lowland parts of the karst regions. Surface streams, swallow holes (sinkholes) and monitoring boreholes form a basis of the monitoring network in upland part of the karst regions (Vrba, 1988). A set of wells lacated in fractured rocks, preferably along fracture traces or at fracture trace intersections can be used for monitoring if tracer tests show a connection with the facility under base ow as well as ood ow conditions. Randomly located wells could also be used if tracing tests have proven a connection from the facility to each of the wells under various ow conditions (Quinlan, 1988). Sampling in karst regions must be conducted frequently. The reason is, in most cases, the short residence time of both groundwater and pollutants (Vrba, 1988). Conduit ow springs have large variations in concentrations, temperature and discharge over the year. Diffuse ow springs have more stable discharge and water quality regime (Appelo and Postma, 1996). Groundwater quality monitoring in karst terranes when studying the existing pollution or the possibility of pollution in future, must be carried out before, during, and after storms or snowmelt events, rather than with monthly, seasonal, semi-annual or annual samples. In order to reliably characterize the natural, storm related water quality variability of a spring in a conduit ow system, sampling must be done much more frequently than was customary in the past (Quinlan, 1988), because of the faster movement of the karst groundwater and sharp changes in discharge rate of the spring during and after storm periods. It is necessary to optimize the list of the water quality parameters to be determined and number and frequency of observation. This must be done because of the high cost of some types of water analyses, the long duration and large number of observations necessary to monitor the groundwater quality. Properly organized monitoring program will make it possible to detect the signs of water

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quality degradation and of negative effects of human activities (UNESCO-UNEP, 1984). 4.2. G ROUNDWATER
PROTECTION ZONES IN KARST AREAS

At sites where the groundwater pollution has already occurred, it is necessary to prevent its further spread. Measures for the elimination of the pollution sources and the restoration of the groundwater quality must be taken. The preventive measures also include the establishment of the protection zones for the groundwater in karst aquifer. Within the protection zones with decreasing distance to springs and wells, an increasing number of activities are forbidden or restricted. A systematic control of protection regulations (measures) in the protection zones and catchment area is necessary for a successful groundwater protection (Milde et al., 1983). The complex and specic characteristics of the karst groundwater requires a specic approach to their protection and establishing of protection zones. The basis of the optimum solution to the protection problem is an extensive preventive protection based on protection of whole hydrogeological structure or hydrogeological basins (Kullman, 1986). When the boundaries of groundwater protection zones in the terrain of porous and/or ssured aquifer to be determined, the duration of the survival of bacteria (50 days) (Price, 1996) or viruses (1 yr) in the subsurface is taken into consideration to calculate the distance that these microorganisms will travel after inltration subsurface to reach water sources (springs, boreholes). The boundaries are rarely situated more than several hundred meters from the pumping wells or several kilometers from the springs (Sarin, 1986). In karstic regions the rapid ow reduces the time of travel between the inltration site and springs. In many cases the travel time in karst regions is below 50 days. The self purication capacities along the karstic pathways are also smaller than those in the non-karstic formations. It follows from the above considerations that the primary level, or direct health protection zones cannot be established in karstic regions. Consequently the hazards of pollution and the level of protection should be more rigorously determined than in the case of non-karstic aquifers. The economical aspects must not be ignored when determining the protection zones. The protection zones should be as large as necessary, and as small as possible (Alfldi, 1986). Biondic and Goatti (1986), and Novak (1986) described three protection zones to protect the quality and capacity of the karst groundwater resources. These are: (1) The rst sanitary protection zone (The most narrow protection zone), (2) The second sanity protection zone, and (3) The inuential protection zone (The widest protection zone). The rst sanitary protection zone (The most narrow protection zone) comprises the spring area (spring, spring capture) and the facilities needed for operation, service and guarding. The extent of this zone must be such that it protects the

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spring area from the surface or nearsurface inow of pollutants. The same degree of protection must be applied to the sinkholes and the sinkhole area that directly inuence the spring (Biondic and Goatti, 1986). In this zone some activities are forbidden or restricted (Novak, 1986): (1) the application of the harmful chemicals and fertilizers; (2) the cisterns, the cess-pools or sinking holes, breeding animals; (3) camping or having picnics, quarrying the stone, or exploiting the sand; (4) the transit trafc is either limited or forbidden. The second sanitary protection zone comprises the immediate hinterland of the spring area, from where the surface water and groundwater gravitate directly towards the spring. In this zone a very fast transport of the wastes towards the spring is possible. The sinkholes with permanent and periodic sinking water, which are located on the determined main drainage directions, belong to the same protection zone (Biondic and Goatti, 1986). The forestry and agriculture is preferable in this zone without application of the harmful substances and exaggerated usage of fertilizers. The industrial structures and livestock farming are not allowed. It is also not allowed to start building new construction or it can be allowed only under special conditions. The rubbish must not be deposited. The warehouses for oil derivatives must be regulated (Novak, 1986). The inuential protection zone (The wider protection zone) comprises in principle all the catchment (drainage) area which keeps lling the groundwater source. On karst terranes this area could be very extensive, it could comprise a few tens or hundreds of km2 depending on geological and hydrogeological properties of the terrane. This region comprises less karstied ground, and territory which is less or not settled at all, and will not be threatened in future (Novak, 1986). Water source protection measures applied in a number of European countries generally involve the denition of the catchment area to source. In most of the countries the recharge area is subdivided into a number of zones, similar to ones proposed by Biondic and Goatti (1996) and Novak (1996), within which different controls/restrictions are placed on the activities which may pollute groundwater. These protection zones (areas) consist of (Hoetzl et al., 1995): (1) spring/well head protection area, (2) inner protection zone, (3) outer protection zone, and (4) catchment area. An alternative approach for the determination of the protection zones in karstic areas is subdividing the catchment area on the basis of the karst aquifer vulnerability. Vulnerability is an intrinsic property of a groundwater system, which depends on the geological and hydrogeological characteristics of an area, and on the sensitivity of groudwater system to human and natural impacts. The nature of the hydrological connection between karst groundwater and surface determines the degree of vulnerability to pollution (European Commission, 1995). Doeriger and Zwahlen (1997) proposed a method, EPIK, for the assessment of the vulnerability of karstic aquifers, and to produce maps of vulnerable zones of springs or wells watercatchment basins in karst areas. The method takes four criteria into consideration: Epikarst (E), protective cover (P), Inltration conditions

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(I), and Karstic network (K). The method was applied to watercatchment basin of spings used by a town in Switzerland, and the protection zones was delineated. In order to protect karst groundwater quality and quantity, proper land use planning is necessary. The recommended strategy for land use planning is the establishment of groundwater protection schemes (European Commission, 1995). Basically a groundwater protection scheme includes, a land surface zoning map and a code of practice. Proper measures to prevent or minimize the consequences and probability of pollution must be implemented after analyzing the pollution risk elements. Water source protection zones must be dened around individual groundwater sources of supply which ideally cover the entire catchment area. To protect groundwater resources a more extensive zoning that may cover the entire land surface of the aquifer must be carried out. As a result of the zoning a map which consists of a number of groundwater protection zones is obtained. A proposed approach for karst water sources is to have two main protection zones (the spring/source site and the catchment area). The catchment area can be subdivided on the basis of vulnerability. The number of vulnerability categories may vary, although normally it will be at least three. The area outside the source protection zones can be subdivided on the basis of aquifer vulnerability to pollution and on the value (the importance for public water supply) of the aquifer (European Commission, 1995). Delineation of the spring/well head protection area (zone) is essential when the catchment area and its subdivisions (protection zones) are dened. The purpose of the spring/well head protection area is to prevent the pollution of the water source at spring or well head or from the adjacent distrurbed ground. This area must be under the ownership and control of the groundwater abstracor. In this area the activities which are not related to water abstraction must not be permitted. The source itself must be protected from surface runoff by a surrounding wall or a building. Access to this area must be restricted (Hoetzl et al., 1995). Within the water source and resource protection zones, a code of practice has to be prepared. This code must list the degree of acceptability of potentially polluting activities for each zone and sub-zone and describe the recommended controls for both existing and new activities. Selected activities that can endanger karst groundwater quality and must be taken into account for the establishment of a code are as follows (European Commission, 1995): (1) construction works, (2) transport and storage of potentially polluting liquids, (3) construction of industrial plants which can pollute groundwater, (4) landll sites, (5) inltration of polluted waste water, (6) spreading of water treatment sludge, liquid fertilizer and manure, (7) spreading of efuent from waste water treatment plant, (8) agricultural practices, (9) forestry activities, (10) quarrying.

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5. Conclusions The danger for the pollution of the groundwater in karst areas is much greater than in non-karstic areas. Due to the hydrological and hydrogeological properties of the karst areas, the disposal of the solid and liquid wastes into them results in the karst groundwater pollution. Non-karstic aquifers are more protected against pollution by overlying rocks or deposits (soil). In karst terranes these protective covers are generally absent. Inltration of the surface runoff may proceed directly into the underground channel (conduit) system. Very rapid water circulation occures in the karst aquifers, as a consequence the propagation of the pollutants in the karst groundwater is much faster than in non-karstic aquifers, and do not leave sufcient time to be retarded by chemical reactions or other attenuation mechanisms. Signicant amount of pollutant storage may occur within the karst aquifer. Monitoring of the groundwater quality and pollution in karst terranes and monitoring network design differ from those for granular or other types of aquifers. Springs, cave streams, and stream resurgences are the easiest reliable sites to monitor the pollutants and background water quality of the karst groundwater (Quinlan and Ewers, 1985; Quinlan, 1988). Wells on cave stream and fructure traces can also be used for monitoring taking into account their connections with the pollution sources. The main measures to prevent the quality degradation and pollution of the karst groundwater are; restriction or prevention of the activities which endanger the groundwater quality, the prevention of the waste disposal in karst areas, the elimination of the pollution sources, and establishment of the protection zones based on protection of the entire aquifer or groundwater system. The measures must also include the educational campaigns for increasing of the public knowledge and awareness in properties and vulnerability of the karst environment.

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