THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY IN ROMANIA

I. Antonic, A. Stoica and Gh. Pacoste, Republican Committee for Geological Reserves, Romania
Abstract. The existence of hydrocarbons in Romania was attested many centuries ago, but 1857 marked the beginning of the Romanian oil industry; in that year the first official crude oil production, 275 tons, was registered and the first oil refinery put into operation at Ploie.$. During the last 15 years drilling has developed rapidly and diversified; over 1.5 million m were drilled yearly. Geological investigations, drilling down to over 4000 m, started in 1960, the deepest drilling reaching 6504 m. Crude oil production in Romania involves all the systems provided with continuousIy improved technologies, clearing up problems related to lifting depth, presence of sand in the extracted fluids, paraffin and corrosives. Conventional and improved methods were Iargely applied to expand the recavery factor and new methods were experimented with, applied and extended, e.g. in Situ combustion, steam injection, polymer-water and rnicellar solution injection, etc. Natural gas production in Romania has improved continuously, reaching 29 x lo9 Nm3 in 1978. After 1970, processing capacity grew by building new refineries and integrated petrochemical complexes. As a result of the growing importance of sour crude oil, the application of hydrogenation processing intensified and in 1980 will reach 48% more than the primary distillation. Catalytic cracking as well as catalytic gasoline reforming has also recorded a high rate of growth in Romania. The retarded coking project has greatly improved, favoured by the quality of Romanian crude oil. The dramatic progress of the oil- and gas-producing industry, of crude oil processing and of the petrochemical industry in Romania was rendered possible by the development of the domestic industry manufacturing oil equipment, placing our country second in the world as regards the export of such products and making possible the assertion of Romania on the world market through various forms of cooperation, works and services.

1. INTRODUCTION

The existence of hydrocarbons in Romania is attested from ancient times. During the Roman Empire there were unextinguished fires at Loptari and some 16thcentury documents attest the use of crude oil in drug preparation, wheel greasing or lighting. 1857 marks the beginning of the oil industry in Romania, when the first official oil production was recorded-275 tons-and the first kerosene refinery put into operation at Ploie+. Bucharest, the capital of the country, was among the first towns in the world to be lit with kerosene. From the pioneering era of the oil industry in Romania we mention the hand digging of some wells at Luccegti, Bicoi and Matita, 240-270 m deep, for oil exploitation. Using wooden rods ending in a borer, the first well was drilled down to 150 m in 1861 and the first wire percussion type well was drilled in 1863. In 1906 the first rotary system well was drilled and in 1911 this system reached 1170 m. Early this century, studies carried out by the Romanian geologists Gr. Coblcescu and Gr. Stefnescu on the age of the productive formatiuns and position of the reservoirs resulted in certain clarifications of the subsoil geology in our country and the drawing-up of some geological maps. During 1900-03 L. Mrazek, one of the great personalities of Romanian geology, identified a new type of fold, diapir folds, which played a major part in the develop59

ment of our oil industry. These folds were located in the Sub-Carpathian Mountains, between Buzu Valley and Dmbovija Valley, in the so-called diapir folds zone comprising one of the major crude oil deposits in Romania. A remarkable step in oil geology was achieved in 1906 when the Geological Institute of Romania was established; the development of geological mapping all over the country contributed to such a step. As a result of this activity and the development of mechanical hydraulic percussion drilling, especially hydraulic rotary drilling, the volume of drilling reached 172 O00 m in 1920, 376 900 m in 1934 and 395 O00 m in 1937, the highest drilling volume of this period. As regards crude oil production, from 275 tons in 1857 it reached 247 500 tons in 1900, 1 847 O00 tons in 1913 and 8 704 O00 tons in 1936, when the highest production level was recorded in our country before World War II. Although gas emanations from erosion-contaminated Transylvanian structures had been known since ancient times, the systematic exploitation of natural gas started in our country during the first decade of the 20th century. In 1908 the Srmgel 2 well, drilled to find potassium salts, showed evidence of an important gas reservoir. In 1913 the first industrial gas production was recorded, 113 O00 Nm3; in 1938 gas production was 311 million Nm3 and in 1944, 457.7 million Nm3. We must point out that Romania was the first country in Europe to use natural gas as a raw material in the

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chemical industry, namely to produce carbon black at Copsa Mica in 1935 and formaldehyde at Copsa Mica in 1940. Since 1948 methane gas has been used to produce ammonia. At the same time as the development of crude oil production the refining process developed too, almost the whole production being processed in this country, especially by primary distillation. In 1897 a refinery was put into operation at Cmpina to process 1200 tons of crude oil per day, provided with plants for steam distillation, crude oil refining, oils and paraffin. Later, refining plants were constructed in other places as weil. Thorough investigations have been carried out on hydrocarbon resources in our country. Lazar Edeleanu thought out the method of selective refining of kerosene by sulphur dioxide, a method continuously improved and now extended all over the world, in 1908. In 1933 C. D. Nenitescu and A. Drgan discovered the method of nalkane isomerization which was the basis of the isomerization process to obtain high octane number gasoline. Among the eminent scientists devoted to hydrocarbon investigation we must mention N. Dnil who, before World War II, carried out research, stili valuable today, concerning ethylene production from the pyrolysis of petroleum fractions. Part of the equipment and machinery used in the drilling, extraction and processing of crude oil (drawworks, steam pumps to drive drilling rigs, pumping units, steam boilers, distillation columns, etc.) was made in Romania even at the beginning of the oil industry. To train specialists, in 1904 the chief drillers school was set up at Cmpina, and in 1919 the refining foremens school, and in 1914 a mines and oil department was established to prepare engineers, sponsored by the Bridge and Roads High School in Bucharest. As a result of war damage during World War II and of the cut-back in drilling volume, especially geological drilling, crude oil production was only 3 525 000 tons in 1944 and 3 838 850 tons in 1947. In 1948, following the nationalization of the means of production, the oil and gas industry was reorganized and re-equipped, making it possible to apply a rational exploitation and to grant important funds to improve it. As part of the economic development programme of Romania, crude oil and gas became not only the basis of fuels, carburants and lubricants but also the basis of raw materials for chemical processing. The investments assigned to the oil industry aimed at the improvement of hydrocarbon reserves, and the placing of greater emphasis on the oil and gas industry, as well as the development of the oil equipment industry.
2. GEOLOGY OF THE ROMANIAN TERRITORY

territory. The programme aimed at the discovery of new reservoirs both in known and in scarcely known areas. As a result of carrying out an important volume of geological operations, the sedimentary structure compiying with favourable geological conditions for hydrocarbon accumulation (Fig. 1) shows the following characteristics : Carpathian Orogene, with the East Carpathian Depression and the Getic Depression; - Inter-Carpathian, with the Transylvanian Depression, the Pannonian Depression and the Maramure5 Depression ; - Carpathian Foreland, separating the Moesic Platform, the Northern Dobrudja Orogene, the PreDobrudja Depression, the Moldavian Platform and the Continental Platform of the Black Sea.
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Considering the insufficient knowledge of hydrocarbon reserves, during the last 30 years a vast programme of geological investigation was applied ail over the countrys

Investigation of the above sedimentary structure, comprising various deposits ranging in age from Paleozoic to Neozoic, was carried out by complex geological operations : geological mapping, geophysical prospecting (gravimetry, magnetometry, electrometry, seismometry) and drilling jobs. Gravimetric and magnetometric prospecting was carried out over almost the whole of the countrys territory, contributing to a better deep delimitation of large structural units and to the identification of some of the major survey zones. Electrometric prospecting was carried out over a limited area in the first stages of geological investigation. Since its efficiency was very low compared with the seismic survey, this method was not extended. Seismic investigations-the most efficient methodwere carried out over the entire territory of the country using every means created by gradual technical progress, namely oscillographic stations, analogical seismic stations with magnetic recording and advanced technology, and numerical seismic stations with magnetic recording and automatic data processing. The average density of measurements varied according to the degree of relief, accessibility and method of resolution. The seismic survey produced good results, providing practically the entire knowledge of Pliocene and Sarmatic-Tortonian young deposit structure as well as the Cretaceous and Jurassic structures in the Carpathian Foreland, at a depth of under 3500 m. Less promising results were obtained as a result of stratigraphic and lithological traps of very complicated structures and of the Low Miocene and Paleogene overthrust nappes deposits of the East Carpathian Depression and the Getic Depression, at a depth of over 3500 m, as well as the deep Triassic and Paleozoic of the Eastern Carpathian Foreland. Geological prospecting and exploration drilling has developed extensively, new deposits being discovered in the old Moldavian and Valea Prahovey oil areas, at the same time proving the oil and gas Potentials of the Getic Depression, the Moesic Platform, the Northern Dobrudja

RP I (b)

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THE
UNION

61

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Fig. 1. The main structural units of the Socialist Republic of Romania.

Orogene, the Moldavian Platform and the Pannonian Depression. Over 300 structures are now producing gas or oil. Most of the traps controlling the accumulations are of the structural type, in spite of their various forms, from simple fold closed monoclines (Northern Danube plain) and domes (Transylvanian Depression) to the entire range of salt diapir folds and scale folds making up the overthrust nappes of the Carpathian flysch. Controlled accumulations of non-structural and combined traps were also identified. The Neogene sedimentary structure is amply developed both inside and outside the Carpathian massifs, comprising almost two-thirds of the oil reserves and practically all the gas reserves discovered to date in the entire country. The Paleogene, especially the Oligocene, is productive in the Carpathians and the Mesozoic and Paleozoic in the Romanian Plain. The crystalline schist basement from the Neozoic substratum is productive as well over some structures in the Pannonian Depression. Most of the reservoirs are comprised within the classic sand and sandstone deposits, and in the Mesozoic and

Paleozoic the reservoirs are represented by limes and fractured or hollow dolomite. For geological prospecting of boreholes, the method of investigating the content of the collectors crossed during drilling with improved testers has been extended, the pressure and temperature being determined at the same time. For well geophysics the industry has been provided with modem equipment used to carry out complex logs allowing the quantitative determination of collector geological and physical parameters. Henceforth geological surveys will be carried out intensively, priority being given to the development of scientific research, seismic prospecting and geological drilling. The scientific research will focus on the determination of the geological conditions of hydrocarbon accumulations, especially in the areas comprising complicated tectonics and litho-stratigraphic traps, as well as the improvement of the complex evaluation of data obtained from geological and geophysical investigation of collectors during drilling operations. The seismic prospecting will comprise the identifica-

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tion of structures placed in tectonically complicated areas and those difficult of access, of new tectonic blocks in the producing areas and litho-stratigraphic traps, situated especially at the border of depressions and platforms, evidencing the ultra-deep geological structures, and completion of works on the Continental Platform of the Black Sea. Moreover, a large volume of geological drilling will be carried out to speed up the gathering of the geological data in the areas compriiing complex traps of ultra-deep projects as well as for the investigation of the great number of structures of reduced size.
3. OIL DRILLING AND PRODUCTION

As regards well drilling, the continuous improvement of the working speed and cutting of execution costs is nowadays aimed at as well as the extension of the works into new, more difficult and deeper areas. As shown in Fig. 2, drilling has rapidly developed and diversified, reaching 657 O00 m in 1950, of which 44% was exploration drilling, and 1 100 O00 m in 1960, of which 58% was exploration. During the last 15 years over 1.5 million m were drilled yearly. Since 1960 geological surveys have started drilling down to over 4000 m; over 150 wells were drilled, averaging 800 O00 m. The deepest level reached was 6504 m. This important improvement in the works was achieved as a result of sophistication of drilling equipment, assimilation of new technologies and training of personnel. The sophistication of drilling technologies, especially with very deep wells, consisted of improvement in bit power, in pressures and rotations, and in hydraulic power, respectively, and their optimum correlation, using the entire working capabilities of the bits (teeth and bearings); improvement in the efficiency of power transmitted from the bit to the rock using the optimum types of bits and drilling fluids, having low density and viscosity, i.e. with low solids content; improvement and diversification of the technological methods of preventing and controlling difficult drilling operations specific to Romania (instability of clays, abnormal pressure formations, marked tendency of natural deviation, mud losses); and the preparation of new types of drilling fluidselectrolyte-inhibitive fluids, oil-base fluids of the reverse emulsion and oil fluid types, low solids content nondispersed fluids and sea-water base fluids. Higher power transmission to the bit during displacement with deeper drilling was achieved by optimization of drilling technology for each ultra-deep well; modernization of measurement and control apparatus for drilling ; diversification of bottom-hole equipment to ensure high pressure (2-4 tonslin) bits, drill collars and stabilizers; improvement of control procedures for the tubular goods at the tubular bases and wells in order to prevent accidents with growing momentum of the rotary table;

and the introduction of computers to the data flow of the drilling process. In order to improve the efficiency of power transmission from the bit to the rock, i.e. to improve the rock drilling, continuous control of the pressure and fracturing gradients was introduced during the drilling process. The optimum characteristics of the drilling fluids were settled in this way and the equipment to improve the drilling fluids-modern screens, de-sanders, de-sillers, de-gasers-was perfected. The new technologies implied the development of an ample programme of technological research and a continuous training of the technical and engineering personnel working in drilling activity. As a result of the discovery of new deposits and largescale application of methods for improving recovery, crude oil production has been continuously improved from 1948 to the present (Fig. 3). Oil production in Romania comprises all production systems, natural flow, gas-lift and pumping. The geological and physical characteristics of the reservoirs and the contained fluids have always raised technological problems related to the lifting depth, the existence of sand in the extracted fluids, paraffin and corrosion agents. Consequently, the production systems by natural flow, gas-lift and pumping have continuously developed. The gas-lift systems use starting and operating valves and accumulation chambers. Sucker rod pumping is used for wells down to 3500 m, using Romanian-made equipment. Hydraulic pumping is also extended for deep high-flow producing wells. Depending on the geological and physical conditions of the reservoirs the wells are continuously controlled and the technological working conditions are determined to provide their production at potential outputs. Methods for stimulation of the well output have been greatly developed using Romanian products, equipment and technologies. Romanian oil specialists have proficiently and responsibly undertaken the supply of the power required for the growth of the national economy and of raw materials for the chemical industry mainly from our own resourcesan important problem which during the last decade the whole world, and consequently our country as well, has been faced with. The task of improving the recovery factor of crude oil deposits is considered as one of major national importance. With this aim in view, a complex programme was drawn up to carry on the large-scale use of the conventional and improved approaches aiming at enhancing the recovery factor (Figs. 4 and 5). At the same time the experimentation, utilization and extension of new methods was carried out-underground (in situ) combustion, steam injection, polymer-water injection, micellar solution injection, etc.4epending on the condition of our deposits. Water injection into the crude oil deposits, introduced in 1952, has been extended annually and by the end of 1978 was being used withover 100 projects. The quantity

20-

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Fig. 3. Romanias oil production during the period 1857-1978.

of water injected reached a volume of 36.75 million m3 in 1978. As a result of such processes, conditions for obtaining final recovery factors of 4040% were created and the excess production including the effect of new methods has improved each year, amounting to more than 2 million tons in 1978 (Figs. 6 and 7).

Particular efforts were made to start the field application and industrial development of the new recovery methods at the same time as laboratory research. Thus, polymer-water injection was tested in the Drgeqti Meotian and Southern Moreni Meotian III in 1977. The results were favourable.

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PROGRAM
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Regarding in situ combustion, the Pliocene reservoir at Sublacul de Barcu has been the research laboratory due to the favourable geological and geophysical conditions : shallow depth, good permeability, viscous oil. Nowadays this method is applied on a large scale. 1.8-2.0 million Nm3 of air is injected daily through 42 wells and 156 reaction wells are under combustion influence. The process has been continuously improved and good results were obtained by wet combustion. In this way the 9% recovery factor estimated by primary recovery could reach 45-50%. Right now another in situ combustion industrial process is under way in the Dacian of Gura Ocnifei, and two new experiments have been evaluated for extension industrially. Another 14 combustion experiments are being developed between 500 and 850 m. The method is also being successfully used with less viscous oil deposits. Steam injection, as cyclic injection resulting in production improvement, is applied with heavy and viscous crude oil recovery at the Moreni Levantine high-sloped strata deposit containing viscous oil. From a practically non-operable deposit we managed to make 290 tons of

1
T I M E ,
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Fig. 4. Enhanced oil recovery: active projects, including conventional methods.

T I M E ,

YEARS

Fig. 5. Volumes of water, gas (+CO,), air and steam injected annually.

Fig. 6. Oil production from enhanced recovery activity, including conventional methods.

RP 1 (b)

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OIL PRODUCTION, io6 TONS

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1956-1960

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Fig. 7. Steps in enhanced oil production.

crude oil per day by steam cyclic injection, providing the conditions to achieve a recovery factor of 35% as compared to 5% obtained by primary recovery over a long period. Laboratory researches have resulted in micellar systems at favourable costs having a satisfactory monophase domain. Researches were carried out and experimentation of the method was prepared for eight geological projects. Carbon dioxide injection was studied and designed for two reservoirs. Water injection is now being carried out with the first reservoir for pressure recovery and to provide the conditions for mixing the carbon dioxide. With the second reservoir carbon dioxide is being injected into the production shut-off wells; pressure improvement, solubility effect and minimization of viscosity are aimed at. Besides these methods, researches are under way to test and apply the injection of surface-active and alkaline chemicals and to apply mining methods to shallow oilproducing sands and tar sands. At the same time the conventional processes are being improved by changing the flow courses and water injection up the structure; the activity of increasing the drilled density and the completion of well spacing on the depleted deposits are also being intensified. Further to the application of the methods comprised

by the programme for crude oil recovery, the final average recovery factor is estimated to reach about 42% in 1990 for the whole country. As regards well drilling and crude oil production, new technologies and products are to be worked out, especially for very deep and offshore wells. Since the potential of the conventional methods for crude oil recovery has been progressively turned to account, special attention will be given to improvement of secondary and tertiary recovery methods and much effort will be made to developing new methods based on entirely different principles. 99% of the associated gas produced with crude oil is used. The gasoline quantity increased from 153 408 tons in 1950 to 345 035 tons in 1978. For a better turning into account of the associated gas, the first ethane separation plant was put into operation at Pite@ and in 1979 a second plant of the same type is being put into operation in Oltenia. For the last 30 years our Government has granted important funds for geological investigation and the turning into account of new gas-producing structures. Consequently, methane gas production reached 28 973 x lo9 Nm3 in 1978. The development of natural gas production was accompanied by the improvement of the main pipeline network, 8255 km long at the end of 1978, ensuring gas supply all over the country. The overall power of the diesel motor assemblies and turbocompres-

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sors making up the national transport system is 72 O00 hp. Two underground gas storage processes are carried out to satisfy peak demands. Romanian methane gas contains no sulphur and the methane content is up to 99.8%. This has resulted in the development of a powerful chemical processing and synthesis industry. However, extensive measures have been taken in the last few years to restrict gas utilization in the combustion process, on the basis that gas is being designed more and more for chemical processing.
4. CRUDE OIL PROCESSING

By World War II, crude oil was being processed in more than 30 refineries, most of them of under 150 O00 tons crude oil/year processing capacity. The development and modernization of the crude oil processing industry has followed a lively course, specificto our whole industry during the past 30 years. The period extending to 1960 is characterized by reconstruction of the refineries destroyed during the war, extension of the processing capacities of the existing refineries and building of new refineries; the main object was to provide the processing capabilities for our entire crude oil industry under continuous development. During 1960-70 an intense improvement of the performances of old equipment and the introduction of modern processes operating at the international technical level took place ; such processes provided both highquality carburants and fuels and increased quantities of raw materials for the petrochemical industry. After 1970 a substantial increase in processing capacities was recorded by building new refineries and integrated petrochemical complexes, plus extension and modernization of existing plants, aiming at meeting higher demands for oil products for domestic use and export. Nowadays the quantity of Cnide oil processed in our country is 1.5 times higher as compared with 1970; in 1985 the quantity of processed crude oil will be 1.7 times higher (Fig. 8) through new capacities being put into operation. The structure of the oil products obtained by crude oil processing is determined, on one hand, by the energy demands of the country and on the other hand by the demands required by the rapid development of the entire industry. In Romania, as in the rest of the world, the major part of the products resulting from crude oil processing is designed for energy purposes. Considering the continuous increase in the price of crude oil, processing had to be directed to a structure ensuring a higher taking into account of non-energy products. Consequently, the development of crude oil processing is marked by a substantial increase in the quantities of raw materials for the petrochemical industry. Thus, expressed in percentages against the quality of processed crude oil, in 1975 raw materials for the petrochemical industry represented about 8.3%, in 1978 about lo%, amounting to 16% in 1980 and 19.7% in 1985 (Fig. 9). Considering

7-

1 7o 9

1979 TIME, YEARS

1985

Fig. 8. Increase in the processing capacity of crude oil in Romania (1970= 100%).

the increase in the volume of processed crude oil, the quantity of raw materials for the petrochemical industry will be 4 times larger in 1980 than the quantity achieved in 1970. With this end in view, new chemical refineries have been built, integrated in petrochemical complexes, providing a large range of raw materials for the petrochemical industries.

Fig. 9. Increase in chemical processing degree of crude oil.

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As regards energy petroleum products, the increase in their quantity will be different, diesel oil undertaking the best increase as a result of developments in machine building towards a larger use of diesel oil in transport. Gasoline for cars recorded the lowest increase as the demands are not high and this was the basis for raw materials produced for the chemical industry (aromatic hydrocarbons, liquefied gas such as propylene, propane, CH fraction, etc). Among the non-energy products obtained by crude oil processing we can single out the raw materials for gas black, paraffin, road and industrial bitumen and a large range of lubricating oils including the additives needed for superior oil processing. According to the structure of the applied technological processes, crude oil processing in our country occupies an intermediate position between the USA and Western Europe. Generally, the technologies now in use and those to be introduced are the same as the technologies used throughout the world for mixed-type refineries (with carburants, fuels and petrochemical products). The increased share of the sulphur crude oils has resulted in an intensification of hydrogenation processes, reaching an overall capacity of more than 48% in 1980, as compared to primary distillation, and this will continue to grow (Fig. loa). From this point of view, Romania is at the same level as the USA, Japan and Western Europe. Hydrogenation processes are applied to gasoline (for raw
a
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1
1970 1979 TiME,YEARS 1985

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materials undergoing reformation and pyrolysis), petroleums (to obtain turboreactor fuels), diesel oil and lubricating oils. All the hydrogenation processes mentioned above developed as a result of our own researches. In future developments (1980-85) the hydrodesulphurization process will be applied to vacuum distillates as well ;this process was developed according to a Romanian licence. Catalytic cracking is one of the processes undergoing a rapid development in Romania, aiming at hydrocarbon production for the petrochemical industry as well as gasoline for cars. The processing capacity of catalytic cracking is now 18% of that of atmospheric distillation; this proportion will be maintained in the future (Fig. lob). The capacity of catalytic reforming of gasolines is over 11% as compared with primary distillation; this proportion will amount to 15.6% in 1985 (Fig. 1Oc). The units erected in our country by 1975 are operating at high and medium pressures. The newly-built units are prepared to operate under low pressure using promoter catalysts and with the possibility of switching to continuous regeneration. One of the processes greatly developed in Romania is the process of delayed coking, favoured by the quality of Romanian crude oils (sulphur content under 0.5%). Investigating the possibilities of turning into account the residues resulting from sulphur crude oils, conditions were started to use the coke coming from such crude oils as agglutinate and agglomerate fuel. This allowed the coking capacity to stay high as compared to the primary distillation, i.e. 8%; this proportion is to reach up to 13% by 1985 (Fig. 10d). All coking production is developed on the basis of a Romanian licence to obtain different coke qualities, including needle coke. A whole range of Romanian processes were drawn up, the installations being ready or under way, such as the production of high efficiency solvents aromatic hydrocarbons, the production of aromatic concentrates for gas black, and the separation of isoprene and cyclopentanide from pyrolysis gasoline, including a large range of catalysers for crude oil processing and the petrochemical industry. Such achievements are based on long practice in the research field, specialists with long practice in the production field working in refineries and chemical complexes and the Institutes for Research, Technological Engineering and Refinery Design.
5. MANUFACTURE OF OILFIELD EQUIPMENT

CATALYTIC REFORMATION

13

12
11

11%
1970

1979 TIME,YEARS

Ise5

1970

is79
TIME ,YEARS

isas

Fig. 10. Evolutionof the main processes in crude oil processing (as percentage of processed crude oil).

The dramatic development of the oil- and gas-producing industry and of crude oil processing and the petrochemical industry in Romania was made possible by the development of oilfield equipment construction as well. We can mention some of the drilling rigs: 3 DH-200 to drill down to 5000m; 4 DH-315 to drill down to 7000 m; F-500-DEWL, Ward Leonard system electric

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drive, provided with a 3000hp drilling winch and 1600 hp mud pumps to drill down to 10 O00 m; and the offshore drilling platform Gloria of self-lifting type, designed to drill wells down to 6000 m in 90 m water depth. Cementing units are also produced for drilling activities, and hydraulic fracturing for 700 and 1050 atm, blowout prevention units for 1400 atm, machinery for automation of drilling operation, measurement and control apparatus, a large range of types and sizes of drilling bits, tubular goods, etc. For oil production we produce pumps, pumping rods and ten types of pumping units, from 0.9 to 19.3 tons; strokes are from 0.2 and 5 m. The crude oil processing industry and the petrochemical industry are supplied with columns for atmospheric distillation, tubular hearths, gravitational separators, tanks with capacities to 10 O00 m3, spherical tanks, refrigeration sets, measurement and control apparatus, etc. For the future, the Romanian oilfield equipment industry aims at manufacturing equipment to satisfy the technological operations related to geological investigation, drilling and putting into operation of very deep and offshore wells, new technological processes related to gathering, separation and preparation of fluids, application of crude oil recovery methods and the new processing methods. As is already known, Romania ranks second in the world as regards the export of oilfield equipment. The working out of new products and installations and new or improved technologies was designed by our design and research institutes in cooperation with the production companies. Within the crude oil and gas industry, the Institute for Oil and Gas Design and Research functions in Cmpina. This institute is concerned in carrying out geological, geophysical and geotechnical studies and investigations, study of modem drilling methods, new or improved technologies for crude oil and gas production, reservoir engineering, complex designs for surface installations in the oil- and gas-producing fields, transport and storage of crude oil and gas, and port installations. The drawing up of new technologies specific for crude oil processing is carried out in the Institute for Research, Technological Engineering and Refinery Design at Ploiepi ;the Institute draws up original processes, designs for complex installations and refineries, and technical assistance in carrying out and putting into operation of the plants. The researches and designs for oil installations are carried out by the Institute for Petroleum and Mining Equipment at Ploiegti, which mainly draws up the designs for execution of complete installations required by drilling of wells and crude oil and gas production, including mechanization and automation devices. The undergraduate staff is trained in the special high schools and the graduate staff is trained in the institute for Oil and Gas at Ploiegti. The Institute comprises three

faculties, the Well Drilling and Oil and Gas Exploitation Faculty, the Technological Equipment Faculty and the Faculty for Oil and Gas Technology and Chemical Processing. Over 3400 students attend the lectures at this Institute yearly; there are 570 foreign students from 77 countries. The Institute periodically gives lectures sponsored by UNESCO. The experience in geological investigations, well drilling and crude oil and gas production gained by our oil specialists, and the quality of the equipment made in Romania, has made it possible for our country to be represented abroad, through a variety of forms of cooperation and works and services rendered. Aiming at improving cooperation, Rompetrol was established to carry out works and studies of concern to the crude oil producing industry as well as designing and delivering complete oilfield installations. The main projects this company carries out abroad are :
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preliminary geological studies to evaluate the general oil potential of some sedimentary basins or parts of them; -expertise in the oil prospects of certain areas of interest, evaluating the geological and recoverable reserves and drawing up programmes for prospecting and exploration works; - geological prospecting works by surface mapping and shallow well drilling, gravimetric, magnetometric, electrometric and seismic surveys carried out with complete teams; - drilling of wells down to 7000 m with modern Romanian-made equipment and highly skilled personnel; - feasibility studies and designs for construction of main pipelines carrying oil and gas, compressor stations, injection, degasolination, gas-drying units, etc. Rompetrol, the Romanian company for economic cooperation in the field of geological investigation, well drilling and crude oil and gas production, has relationships with partners from over 40 countries, thus, seismic surveys in Iraq and Syria, geological investigations and drilling works in Afghanistan, Benin, Burma, the Philippines, Ghana, Greece, Libya, Turkey and Venezuela have been carried out or are planned. Pipelines and various installations are under construction in oil fields in Bulgaria, Jordan, Yugoslavia, the Arab Republic of Yemen, etc. Such success in exporting installations and services specific to the oil- and gas-producing industry has been possible as a result of the multilateral development of Romania, intensifying commercial relations and technical, economic and scientificcooperation with all countries of the world-no matter what social and economic system they adopt-based on the principles of consideration of sovereignty and national independence, equality of rights, non-interference with domestic interests and mutual advantage. This cooperation activity has played a major part in

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crude oil processing and petrochemical activities. Technical values were created and exchanged with foreign partners making it possible to carry out modern installations, scientific researches in cooperation and changes of specialists for technical assistance in Romania, in third countries and in developing countries. We have carried out installations in cooperation with India, Pakistan, the Peoples Republic of China, the GDR, Syria, Jordan and other countries; other projects are currently under negotiation. The Romanian petroleum industry has mainly devel-

oped on the basis of an original concept concerning technologies, products and equipment. Financial and material efforts have permitted the industry to preserve a high technical level, close to the world level. New efforts will be made in the future to improve geological investigations all over the country, the discovery and turning into account of new crude oil and gas reserves, through examination and diversification of crude oil processing, and the drawing up and building of highly operational new equipment and machinery.