Chapter 2 The Ecological Perspective Introduction Patches of natural vegetation, nature reserves, national parks, concentrations of animal life

and wilderness areas are the focus of, and increasingly important as, tourism resources. Some of theses areas are substantially natural as in the case of some deserts or arctic tundra. Other areas, such as many forests around the world, are more fragmented while some landscapes area almost entirely modified as in the case of the patch work of woodlands and agricultural land in the British Isles. Even in already altered and semi-natural landscapes that continuing presence of people has the potential to bring about unwanted change to any remaining natural components. The principal aim of these chapters, therefore, is to outline the important element of ecology that can be applied to understand, predict and mitigate any change that might be brought about by tourism. An Introduction to Ecosystem and Landscapes Ecology is concerned with the structure and functioning of ecosystems and thus how plants and animals interact together and with the physical environment. Although most ecosystems are very complex and difficult to study as entire systems, their essential structure and function are well established.

Levels of organisation within the science of ecology

SPECIES

Groups of organisms morphologically or reproductively isolated from all other groups. Collections of individuals and their interactions Collectionsof individuals and their interactions in a given geographical area in a given geographical area Assemblages of species populations and their interactions in a particular habitat.

POPULATION LANDSCAPE

LANDSCAPE

Relationships between different ecosystems. Expression of interrelationships between organisms and their environment. Essential processes involve the flows of energy and nutrients between inorganic and organic components.

ECOSYSTEM

Levels of organisation within the science of ecology

Biotic components (Biomass) Producers Herbivores Predators Top predators Decomposers Abiotic components Mineral Soil Light Temperature Water Oxygen/Carbon Dioxide Air currents

ECOSYSTEM

Population of plants and animals Communities of interacting species

Structure

Function

Flows of energy and materials in food chains and nutrients cycles Food chains Food webs Biogeochemical cycling

Major ecosystem types of the world

Aquatic ecosystem Ocean Seashore Coral reefs Mangroves Estuaries Streams and rivers Lakes Freshwater marshes Terrestrial Ecosystem Chaparral/Mediterranean Eucalypt forests and health land of south-west Western Australia Grassland/Savannah Deserts Arctic/alpine tundra Coniferous forest Deciduous forest Tropical forest Serengeti National Park, Tanzania Mojave Desert, California, USA Nordvest-Spitsbergen Nasjonal Park, Norway Rothiemurchus Forest, Scotland, UK Shenandoah National Park, Virginia, USA Reserva dela Biosfera del Manu, Peru Example of nature-based tourism destination Whale Shark tourism, Indian Ocean, Western Australia West coast National Park, South Africa Great Barrier Reef, Australia Bako National Park, Sarawak, Malaysia Mawddach Estruary, Wales, UK Igazu Falls Natinal Park, Argentina and Brazil Lake Naivasha, Kenya Parc Natural Regional de Camarge, France

Structure of ecosystems Ecology can be studied from perspective of populations or communities of plants and animals or whole ecosystems. A population refers to the number of organisms of the same species, while inhabit a defined area, while a community consists of group of populations of different species interacting with one another in a defined area. An ecosystem, on the other hand, represents a community of organisms interacting with the environment. Biotic components The biotic part of an ecosystem is its component plant and animal populations that make up the biotic community. In terrestrial ecosystems this comprises plants such as grasses, herbs and trees and associated populations of animals. The biotic composition of an ecosystem also exists in a state a constant interaction. Organisms are dependent on one another and also compete for abiotic and other biotic resources. Abiotic components The physical and chemical factors that affect the distribution and activity of plants and animals comprise the abiotic structure to ecosystems. At a fundamental level climate, geology and soils determine the different ecosystems around the world.

Interaction of the biotic component in ecosystems LIGHT HEAT WATER

NUTRIENTS

CO2

AUTOTROPHIC SYSTEM

TERRESTRIAL -grasses -herbs -trees PRIMARY PRODUCTION Which involves using, solar or chemical energy to produce food resources to build biomass

AQUATIC -macrophytes -pytoplankton

HETEROTHROPIC SYSTEM Organisms that rely on other organisms for their food resources

HERBIVORES CARNIVORES0OMNIVORES SECODARY CARNIVORES SAPROVORES Ecosystem function The necessary components for the ecosystem function are abiotic factors such as light, temperature, water, various minerals, oxygen and carbon dioxide, and biotic factors that comprise the living components. The sun, being the ultimate source of heat and light, is the driving force all ecosystem function on earth. Biogeochemical Cycles Nutrients are used to construct the bodies of living organisms and are the chemical elements and compounds essential to life. They occur in three categories as major, macro, and micronutrients depending on the extent to which they are incorporated into tissues of plants and animals.

Ecological Communities Community Ecology is concerned with how plant and animal species interact with one another. Features of ecological communities that can be impacted by tourism development and activity include: Competition Predator-Prey Relationships Symbiosis Niche Occupancy Keystone Species

Competition is basically concerned with how the availability of the resources, such as food and space which is utilized by various organisms, is reduced by other organisms. Predation in Ecological Communities Predator-Prey Relationship their importance relates to the potential impact of predators which are deliberately or accidentally introduced outside their normal environments. Predator an animal that kills and utilizes another animal for food. Symbiotic Relationships Symbiosis another essential feature of ecological communities and is defined as a close association between two different organisms. Symbiotic Relationships are wide spread and occur as a number of specific relationships. Examples: Parasitism one type of symbiotic relationship where one organism obtains its nutrition at the expense of a host. Commensalism where one organism benefits from association with another. Mutualism where both species benefit. Specialist and Generalist Species Specialist Species are particularly efficient in utilizing their resources but in doing so have become specialized and adapted to a particular way of life. Generalist Species - are more adaptable to such changes because they are not restricted to a particular food source. Niche and Habitat Habitat is the geographically located physical environment in which a species occurs. Niche refers to the role that species has in the community (the food it eats, its position in the food chain and the ways it competes for resources) in combination with how it interacts with its environment. Dominant and Keystone Species Dominant Species- helps to determine the nature of the ecological community and its removal would result in a change in the community. Keystone Species are plants and animals that exert an important controlling influence in the ecosystem. This is achieved by their presence determining the structure and/or composition of the community. Disturbance and Succession in Ecosystems Disturbance is the alteration of ecosystem structure and/or function arising from the loss of biotic components as might be caused by human activities such as clearing land, removing vegetation, and accelerated erosion. Succession the process of ecosystem recovery following such disturbances Disturbance: Change in Ecosystem Plant Cover is fundamental to the structure of most terrestrial ecosystems and when this is damaged or removed, the entire structure of the plant and dependent animal community can be changed. Edges of Patches are more prone to wind acceleration, erosion, trampling and grazing. Roads, Tracks and Hiking Trails are corridors that are usually maintained in an altered state by continuous or repeated disturbance. Recovery from Disturbance: Succession Ecological Succession is where plant and animal communities changed through time and comprise a recovery response following disturbance

Involves the replacement of species and changes in the availability of abiotic resource as the population structure of the community alters through time

Secondary Succession most succession involves the recovery of sites that previously supported vegetation Primary Succession are where vegetation gradually develops on a new land surface as in the case of resent glacial or volcanic deposits The capacity for total recovery The frequency at which disturbance where occur is also variable and has a bearing on how much time an ecosystem has to recover before the next disturbance occurs. An ecosystem that is subject to a high frequency of disturbance is likely to contain species that do not need a long time to mature and that are able to reproduce at a young age. Species which require a long time to develop mature and reproduce will not be able to maintain occupancy under high frequency disturbance regimes.

Ecological Characteristics and Tourism in Different Types of Ecosystem Island Ecosystem Islands are highly desired as recreation and tourism destination. The palm- clad beaches of the humid tropics attract visitors especially from north- Western Europe and USA. People who visit these sites are often in search for recreational beach life for a few weeks. As a consequence if this island around the world the world has become the focus of wildlife centred tourism. Island tourism also embraces desire to see usual endemic species. (ex. Butanding in donsol) ( BIOTA- are total collection of organism of a geographic region for a period of time., A plant or animal life of a region ) The vulnerability of island biota and the problem of invasive species 1. 2. 3. 4. The numbers of invasive species have been increasing much faster than native species. Competition in food between invasive and native species. Mass tourism may cause stress and habituated to the animals. Human visitation to island may cause significant disturbance as a result of walking and trampling.

Seabird Breeding Island Seabird breeding falls into following categories: 1. Variation in the abundance of prey. 2. Capacity of the bird to obtain food and adequately feed their chicks. 3. Nest disruption by other animal.( rat- egg predator) 4. Predator by gulls and raptor 5. Disease and parasitic infection and severe weather condition ( such as storm) 6. The alternation of island by commercial developments and human habitation often result in siltation and pollution of water ways or directly impact on seabird breeding habitat. CORAL REEF ECOSYSTEM Coral Reefs - have a wide distribution in clear, warm, shallow areas and extensive coral formations can be found along the coastlines of the Caribbean, East Africa, South East Asia, Western and Eastern Australia. - also occur in shallow waters that surround isolated island archipelagos in the tropical zone. - Needs light and a temperature range that lies between 20 and 28C in order to survive. - Tend to favour slightly warmer and more sheltered eastern coastlines. Three Main Types of Coral Formation 1). Fringing Reefs- coral reefs that occur close to the shoreline and become well developed where there is little or no sedimentation from local river systems. 2).Barrier Reefs- occurs some distance offshore, separated from the coastline by a zone of deeper water. Great Barrier Reef of Australia is an example of barrier reef development.

3). Coral Atoll- which is a ring of coral enclosing an inner lagoon. Can occur far out to sea in deep water and they form first as a fringing reef around an island but overtime the island gradually sinks. * The coral reef itself is composed of the calcium rich skeletons of coral polyps. When the coral polyp dies, these skeletons become the base for new living coral polyps which grow upwards towards the light. Coral Rock- the dead coral material that gradually becomes compacted. Diverse Animal Communities *Coral reefs are biologically rich and contain a significant proportion of the worlds marine biodiversity. *Moreover the most diverse reef systems in the world occur in the Indo-West Pacific Zone which ranges from the Australian Great Barrier Reef to the Philippines (Veron, 1986) *One fundamental characteristic of all coral reef systems is the symbiotic relationship between the coral polyp and single-celled organisms called zooanthellae which occur inside the coral tissue. **Zooanthellae utilizes carbon dioxide which s given off by he coral polyp is able to obtain some of the products of photosynthesis. Ecological Zones of Fringing Coral Reefs 1). Reef Flats- zone which lies under the influence of the highest and lowest tide levels and subject to drying every time the tide recedes. - is a zone of relatively shallow water and is also influenced by wave action and inputs of freshwater as a result of rainfall -rounded and flexible soft corals can be found here. 2). Sand Flats- also provide a different habitat for animals and burrowing echinoderms, crustaceans and molluscs can be found in the zone. 3). Reef Crest- is subject to wave action, which limits the presence of many species of coral. 4).Reef Slope- always covered with water. - occur corals such as the stag horn corals that are intolerant of wave action and desiccation. - The habitats of many species of invertebrate and fish can also be found here. Coral Reef Tourism *Coral reef tourism is increasing in popularity, with some parts of the world showing dramatic increases in visitation in recent years. *Tourism in coral reef environments includes pressure to develop tourist facilities and accommodations. *In more recent times certain species have been the focus of tourism interest. Ecological Consequences of Coral Reefs Tourism *Coral Reefs are susceptible to damage and become stressed when there is too much sedimentation, high nutrient levels, high water temperatures and massive inputs of freshwater that alters optimum salinity conditions. Siltration and Euthropication- common problems associated with tourism development Sediments- derived from runoff when adjacent land is cleared of vegetation. Euthropic Conditions- brought about by the addition of nutrients into the ecosystem from sewage out falls and/or fertilizer runoff. *The reason for coral being susceptible to damage is due to the occurrence of polyps in the outer layers of the structure. TROPICAL RAINFOREST Tropical Forest Biome- contains both wet and dry forests while an annual rainfall of >2500mm defines a tropical moist forest. Moist Forest Classification 1). Tropical rainforest- mostly distributed in the equatorial climatic zone and receive between 4000 and 10000mm of rainfall per annum. 2). Tropical Deciduous Forest-The trees here are typically not as close together as in the tropical rainforests, so more light can reach the forest floor, especially when the deciduous species have dropped their leaves. Five Zones of Vegetation 1). Forest floor- receives the least light and maximum temperatures are few degrees cooler (27-29C) - plants that occur here are much more shade tolerant than species which occur in the higher strata. 2). Lower layer3) Middle Layer 4). Sub canopy 5). Canopy with emergents

*Climbers and Epiphytes- reflect the struggle for light and typify tropical rainforest ecosystems. *Buttresses and Flanges-typify the basal structure of many trees providing additional support for their shallow roots. *Fig Trees- provide a source of food for many insects, mammals and birds. The fruits of strangler figs are mostly dispersed by frugivourous birds and germinate in notches and depressions in other rainforest trees. RAINFOREST TOURISM One of the most diverse biomes on earth and of great biological interest. Diminishing but important tourism resource. Despite its unique features, it is the animal life that still dominates the tourism interest in tropical rainforest which includes spectacular, enigmatic and highly sought-after species. Major problem is the widespread logging and conversion of primary or virgin forest to secondary or regrowth forest.

ECOLOGICAL CONSEQUENCES OF RAINFOREST TOURISM (ACCDG TO STEPHENSON) 1. Creating more paths/ Path Erosion Although established walkways are in place, visitors were still straying from established paths in order to maximize their opportunities to photograph wildlife. Littering Additional trails and trampling of native vegetation Caused the invasion of rats, weeds and herbs. Reduction on the number of small endemic mammals. Direct interference with wildlife It is often difficult to observe wildlife in forest environments due to visibility problems and the shy nocturnal habits of many species. Several species of reptile and small mammals are regularly caught so that tourist can directly observe them.

2. 3.

4.

AFRICAN SAVANNA Five Major Physical/Abiotic Determinants 1. Amount and seasonality of rainfall Usually 4-7 months Prolonged dry season that allows a fire risk to develop 2. Fire at the end of the dry season Prevents the growth of young plants and colonisation by woody invaders. 3. Adverse soil characteristics Prevent the growth of woodland and forest 4. Geomorphological Factors Well-drained and dry slopes support grasslands while wetter and water logging prone low lying areas enabled the development of woody vegetation. 5. Frost Savannas role is eliminating frost sensitive woody species Major Biotic Determinants 1. Grazing Pressure resulted in the co-evolution of vegetation and herbivores which means Grazing pressure is now essential for the maintenance of savanna ecosystem.

Tourist activity resulting in the avoidance of optimal resting and feeding areas Tourist activities Disturbance Stress/Density reduction of species Disturbance to feeding and the problem of opportunistic predation Tourist activities Disturbance to hunting strategies Starvation Decrease in number of species

(Night driving, vehicle noise, spotlighting)

Tourist activities Disturbance to breeding grounds Risk to predation Disturbance to reproduction and maternal care Tourist activities Stress/Poor body condition Decline in reproduction Decrease in no. of species Tourist activities Stress Disruption of parent-offspring relationship Offspring mortality The Philosophy of Ecosystem Tourism Recreation and tourism can alter the composition of biotic communities through habitat loss, the introduction of exotic species, and pollution. Trampling and erosion Can reduce plant productivity and biomass at a particular site

The focus of this chapter has been on the importance of understanding ecology in terms of maintaining naturebased tourism resources. Understanding ecology also deepens our appreciation of nature by helping us to understand how plants and animals solve their own problems of survival in various ecosystems. Graham and Hopkins (1993) Highlight the need for knowledge of ecology in understanding recreational activity in tropical rainforests, especially in terms of forests capacity to absorb various impacts

Tyler and Dangerfield (1999) In understanding how a natural area might respond to tourism and recreational activities, the emergent properties of ecosystems need to be taken into account Stability the capacity of an ecosystem to remain unchanged Resistance the capability of an ecosystem to absorb impacts Propose that effective ecological management of tourism depends on an understanding of key ecological processes along with some assessment of ecosystem resistance to change. -

The effective management of the ever increasing interest in natural area tourism will depend on an understanding of ecosystem structure and function, measurements of resistance to change, the effective use of key indicators of impact and the development of suitable monitoring systems. (KHAY CONTINUATION after ng regal and putz) DISTURBANC EOF NORMAL FEEDING PATTERNS AS A RESULT OF FOOD PROVISIONING There is a real danger of wildlife becoming accustomed to and dependent on humans for food in tourism areas. Health (obesity, loss of condition, and tooth decay) Behavioural implications (particularly for rare species or species with a restricted population) Predictable sources of food might reduce the home range of an animal and result in reduced learning behaviour in searching for food and thus a reduced capacity to find food in t wild. Potential risk of visitors being bitten, food provisioning may lead to aggression between members of the same species and social gouping. BRENNAN ET AL (1985) Reported that Vervet monkeys (ercopithecus aethops) that had access to human food and more evidence of physical injury (scars, torn ears, hair loss). The reason for this is that food provisioning leads to abnormal concentrations of animals competing for the same resource, resulting in aggression.