2008

UNIT 1
A. WRITING
The Narrative Essay

Read the following essay. Find the topic sentence in each paragraph, underline the linking
words and consider the role of each paragraph.

The Stranger on the Bridge

P1 The big Town Hall clock was striking midnight when Frank began to cross the bridge.
The night air was cold and damp. A low mist hung over the river and the street-lamps gave little
light.
P2 Frank was anxious to get home and his footsteps rang loudly on the pavement. When he
reached the middle of the bridge he thought he could hear someone approaching behind him. He
looked back but could see no one. However, the sound continued and Frank began walking more
quickly. Then he slowed down again, ashamed of himself for acting so foolishly. There was
nothing to fear in a town as quiet as this.
P3 The short, quick steps grew louder until they seemed very near. Frank found it impossible
not to turn round. As he did so, he caught sight of a figure coming towards him.
P4 After reaching the other side of the bridge, Frank stopped and pretended to look down at
the water. From the corner of his eye he could now make out the form of a man dressed in a large
overcoat. A hat was pulled over his eyes and very little of his face could be seen.
P5 As the man came near, Frank turned towards him and said something about the weather
in an effort to be friendly. The man did not answer but asked gruffly where Oakfield House was.
Frank pointed to a big house in the distance and the stranger continued his way.
P6 The inquiry made Frank suspicious because he knew that the inhabitants of Oakfield
House were very wealthy. Almost without realizing what he was doing, he began following the
stranger quietly. The man was soon outside the house and Frank saw him look up at the
windows. A light was still on and the man waited until it went out. When about half an hour had
passed, Frank saw him climb noiselessly over the wall and heard him drop on to the ground at
the other side.

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P7 Now Frank’s worst suspicions were confirmed. He walked quickly and silently across the
street towards a telephone-box on the corner.

○ Structure
The general outline for stories should be as follows:
- Before the event
- The event
- After the event
Introduction
Paragraph 1
Catching the attention - setting the scene, supplying any necessary background information,
arousing the reader’s interest.
Development
Paragraphs 2, 3, 4, 5
Develop the theme/central idea - relate the main events of the story in the order in which they
happened.
Conclusion
Paragraph 6
Summarises and gives a “catchy” end including an element of surprise. The reader should feel
that the writer has given a total account of the story he/she set out to tell.
○ Before working on your plan try to decide what the main event will be so that you can build
your story around it. Note a few ideas under each heading so that you have a fairly clean picture
of what you are going to say before you begin writing.
○ You must do all you can to make your essays interesting so that they will hold the reader’s
attention to the very end. Include incidents and details which are drawn from everyday life or
which you have imagined. Select those events that help you tell the story, that help you to move
the action forward, that add interest to the story by making it exciting, suspenseful, or
humorous.
○ Maintain the reader’s attention up to the end.
○ Connect your sentences by using linkers.
adding an idea or fact: also, another, besides, furthermore, moreover, in addition,
next, too, similarly

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 establishing the order: first, second, third, then, next, meanwhile, before, after,
finally, eventually, later
cause and effect relationship: as a result, consequently, hence, therefore, thus,
accordingly
examples: such as, for example, for instance
contrast, contradiction: however, nevertheless, on the contrary, on the other hand,
yet, otherwise
comparison: similarly, likewise
location: above, below, here, there, inside, outside, nearby, beyond, between,
over, under
sequence of events
Firstly, The first step is
First of all, The first stage is
To begin with, ... begins with
Initially ... commences with
Beforehand, Before this,
Previously, Prior to this,
Earlier,
At the same time, During
Simultaneously, When this happens
While
Secondly, Thirdly etc After this,
Next, The next step is
Then, In the next stage,
Subsequently, In the following stage,
Later, Following this,
As soon as the committee has finished
its work, ...
Eventually, ... until ...
Lastly, ... finishes with ...
Finally, concludes with
In the last stage, The last step is ...

○ Balance your essay

At the seaside - unbalanced essay - if you were to spend a whole page describing how you got to
the seaside and then one or two paragraphs more to say what you did there, your essay would be
unbalanced. Keep to the point.

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At the seaside - unbalanced paragraphs in a composition - 1 paragraph (25 lines) how you played
with sand, 1 paragraph (10 lines) an entire succession of events constituting in fact the climax of
the story. Never attempt to write an essay in a single paragraph.
○ Especially expository paragraphs often develop a topic sentence that expresses the main idea.
It is mainly placed at the beginning of the paragraph, but it can be placed in the middle, or even
at the end (tension, suspense for the reader).
○ The function of the other sentences is to support or develop the main idea with specific details
(examples, incidents, reasons).
○ Use the chronological order of the events.
○ Use Past Tense and Past Perfect as the story’s main narrative tenses.

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 B. GRAMMAR
The Modal Verbs
Introduction:
 Modal verbs express the speaker’s attitude towards what he says; the action expressed can be
seen as POSSIBLE, PROBABLE, NECESSARY, OBLIGATORY, WISHFUL etc.
Characteristics of modal verbs:
 do not add –s at the 3rd person, singular
e.g. He should do it.
 form the interrogative by inversion; the negative by adding not
e.g. You must do it.
Must you do it?
You must not do it.
 followed by the infinitive without to
 lack certain verbal forms- in this case they are substituted by verbal paraphrases: be able to,
be allowed to, be permitted to, be to, have to
 if you want to use tag questions with the modals, then use the modal verb expressed in the
sentence
e.g. He talked a lot, didn’t he?
You can sing well, can’t you?
You have to come early, don’t you?

CAN/COULD
Mainly express ABILITY, POSSIBILITY, PERMISSION
I ABILITY
1. can + inf = to be able to (natural ability)→present reference
e.g. Can you run 1500 metres in 5 minutes?
= Are you able to run 1500 metres in 5 minutes?
2. can + inf (learned ability) →present reference
e.g. Can you drive a car?
3. could+ inf (natural or learned ability) →past reference
e.g. Jim could/couldn’t run very fast when he was a boy.

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4. can/could versus be able to
4.1 past ability: could/be able to
e.g. Jim could run fast as a young boy.
= Jim was able to run fast as a young boy.
4.2 specific achievement in the past: be able to
e.g. A man drowned in the Mures river yesterday. Although he could swim (learned ability in the past),
he grew tired so he was not able to reach (unsuccessful completion of a specific action) the shore.
obs. alternative constructions to be able to: manage(d) to, succeed(ed) in
5. skills to be acquired in the future: will be able to
e.g. I will be able to drive by next summer.
6. could may be used as an alternative for would be able to→future reference
e.g. I could help you with the furniture when you move into your new house.

II (IM)POSSIBILITY
1. can/could + inf→present reference
e.g. Lightening a match in a gas station can cause an explosion.
It can be very cold in winter.
If she catches the 8.30 bus, she can/could get here in time.
Can this be true?
Could this be true? (less credible than can)
You can’t bathe here because the river is polluted.
The situation couldn’t be worse. (with comparative adjectives)
2. could + inf →past reference
e.g. We couldn’t bathe there because the river was polluted.
3. can’t/couldn’t + inf (negative deduction)→present reference
e.g. You can’t be hungry. You’ve just had dinner.
A: “I think Lucy is typing the letter now.”
B: “Lucy can’t be typing the letter. She can’ type.”
4. can’t/couldn’t have + 3rd form of the vb. (negative deduction or past possibility) →past reference
e.g. He couldn’t have heard the news on the radio because he was sleeping then.
David could have won the race if he tried.

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5.can as possibility cannot be used in a future sense; it will be possible, will be able→future reference
e.g. When the new tunnel is ready, we’ll be able to get to town more easily.
6. could as possibility may be used in a future sense→future reference
e.g. You could bathe here next summer, as the water will be warm.
7. couldn’t (possibly) + inf (unwillingness)→present/future reference
e.g. I couldn’t possibly leave without helping you!

III PERMISSION
1. can + inf (to ask for permission; informal)→present reference
e.g. Can I borrow your car?
2. can/cannot + inf (to express/refuse permission) →present reference
e.g. Yes, you can borrow my car.
3. could + inf (to ask for permission; more polite) →present reference
e.g. Could I borrow your umbrella, Miss Johnson?
4. can’t/couldn’t + inf (to ask for permission; insistence) →present reference
e.g. Mum, can’t/couldn’t I stay out till midnight, please?
5.could + inf. (permission; after past tense verbs)→past reference
e.g. I told him he could borrow my car.

MAY/MIGHT
Mainly express POSSIBILITY, PERMISSION
I POSSIBILITY
1. may/might +inf→ present/future reference
e.g. They may/might come today/tomorrow.
A: “Where is Bill?”
B: “He may be at home. He is usually at home at this hour.”
C: “He might be at home. I’m not sure.” (less sure)
might - less probable
2. may/might have + 3rd form of the vb.→past reference
They might not have noticed what was going on.
3. might + inf (indirect speech; i.e. when the introductory verb is in the past)

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e.g. She said: “I may go this afternoon.”
She said that she might go this afternoon.
4. may/might are not used to express possibility in questions; they are replaced by phrases like do you
think + present/future tense or is it likely + inf →present/future reference
e.g. Do you think they know where we parked our car?
Are we likely to meet them in this crowd?

II PERMISSION
1. may + inf (to grant/refuse permission by the speaker)→ present/future reference
e.g. They may go.
2. may + inf (to indicate the idea of having permission)→ present/future reference
e.g. I/we may go.
3. may + inf (to request permission)→ present/future reference
e.g. May I smoke in here?
4. might + inf (to express permission)→ present/future reference(with conditional implication)
e.g. Might I take your car for an hour?
obs to be allowed to, to be permitted to replace can, could, may, might when they express
PERMISSION.
e.g. I will be allowed to drive a car when I’m 18.

fig. - permission relative to degree of politeness:

politeness
Might
May
Could
Can

III Other cases

1. might + inf (strong requests) →present reference
e.g. You might tell me what is going on.
2. might have+ 3rd form of the vb. (reproach) →past reference
e.g. You might have told me what happened.

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3. may/might as well(to indicate intention with a 1 st person subject)
e.g. It’s not far, so we might as well go on foot.
4. may/might as well(to indicate recommendation, with the other persons)
e.g. You might as well start the programme now.
5. might just as well(to indicate an alternative, usually not a very desirable one)
e.g. I might just as well wait until Thomas comes and then start the work.
6. try as I may +…→ present reference
try as I might + …→ past reference
e.g. Try as I may, I cannot do it.
= Although I try hard, I cannot do it
Try as I might, I could not pass my driving test.
= Although I tried hard, I could not pass my driving test.
7. may + vb. (to express although clauses)
e.g. She may be the boss, but that is no excuse for shouting like that.
= Although she is the boss, that is no excuse for shouting like that.

CAN/COULD VS MAY/MIGHT
1. notice the difference in negative sentences
e.g. He may not be at home. (= it is possible that he is not at home)
He can’t be at home. (= it is not possible for him to be at home)
2. can→ theoretical possibility vs. may→ factual possibility
e.g. The road can be blocked. (it is possible to block the road)
The road may be blocked. (=it is possible that the road is blocked)

MUST/HAVE TO
Mainly express OBLIGATION, POSITIVE DEDUCTION, STRONG NECESSITY,
PROHIBITION/LACK OF OBLIGATION
1. must + inf (obligation imposed by the speaker)→ present/future reference
e.g. You must be back before it gets dark.
You mustn’t be noisy outside a hospital. (total obligation)
2. self-imposed obligation (with the 1st person pronouns)→ present/future reference

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e.g. I/we must do something about the weeds in the garden.
3. must + inf (obligation resulting from rules)→ present/future reference
e.g. Pedestrians must cross the street on the zebra.
4. have to + inf (external obligation) )→ present/future reference
e.g. You will have to leave now or you’ll miss the train.
5. have to + inf (habitual, repeated obligations)
e.g. I have to be at the hospital every morning at 10 o’clock.
Do you ever have to be up at 5 o’clock?

6. in the past or future tense have to is used instead of must

e.g. You must stay in bed. You’ve got the flu.
You will have to stay in bed when you have a fever again.
He had to stay in bed because he had the flu.
7. don’t have to (lack of obligation)
e.g. You don’t have to write such a long essay.
obs. future tense form: won’t have to
past tense form: didn’t have to (occasionally hadn’t got to)
e.g. When he was young, he didn’t have to help his mother in the kitchen.
8. had to + inf (past obligation) →past reference
e.g. Sorry I’m late, I had to post some letters.
9. must/had to + inf (inescapable obligation) → with a past tense introductory verb (for
present/future reference)
e.g. He told me he must/had to warn me of the consequences.

II DEDUCTION(also called certainty)

1. must + inf→present/future deduction
e.g. You must be hungry. You haven’t eaten anything since yesterday.
You must be Mr. Smith.
2. must have + 3rd form of the verb→past deduction
e.g. She must have worked very hard for this exam. She’s got a very high grade.
3. must + inf→ with a past tense introductory verb( for present/future deduction)

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e.g. He said George must be a fool to behave like that.
She said I must be hungry.

MUST VS MAY
1. must may be used as a counterpart of may (permission)
e.g. You may borrow my car.
You may not/ mustn’t borrow my car.

NEED
A. FULL VERB:
e.g. I need help./Do you need any help?/I don’t need any help.
e.g. I need(ed) to go to the dentist.
B. MODAL VERB
As a modal, need occurs only in interrogative and negative sentences
e.g. Need you leave so soon?
e.g. You needn’t leave so soon.
Mainly expresses NECESSITY, ABSENCE OF NECESSITY
I NECESSITY
1. need + inf→present/future reference
e.g. When need you go to the dentist?
2. needn’t have + 3rd form of the vb.(absence of necessity, but the action was performed)→past
reference
e.g. I bought the book. Then they told me it wasn’t necessary for me to buy it.
= I needn’t have bought the book.
3. didn’t need to + inf (absence of necessity, the action was not performed)→past reference
e.g. I wanted to buy the book, thinking I have to do it. But I didn’t buy it. Then they told me it wasn’t
necessary for me to buy it.
= I didn’t need to buy the book.

NEED NOT + INF VS DON’T HAVE TO + INF

1. they can both express absence of obligation (/necessity)

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e.g. You don’t have to write such a long essay.
You need not write such a long essay.
SHOULD
Mainly expresses ADVISABILITY, SUPPOSITION
I ADVISABILITY
1. should + inf (piece of advice coming from the speaker)→ present/future reference
e.g. He should learn more in order to pass the exam.
You shouldn’t tell lies.
2. should have + 3rd form of the verb(reproach or past advisable course of action)→past reference
e.g. He should have learnt more in order to pass the exam.
You shouldn’t have done it.

II SUPPOSITION
1. should + inf →present/future reference
e.g. Mary should be in Paris. At least I think so.
2. should have + 3rd form→past reference
e.g. Mary should have been In Paris at 10 o’clock. (But her plane was delayed.)

SHOULD VS MUST
1. should + inf(supposition about the present/future) vs. must + inf (logical deduction about the
present/future)
e.g. Mary should be in Paris. At least I think so.
Mary’s plane lands in Paris at 10 o’clock. It is 10.30, so Mary must be in Paris now.
2. should have + 3rd form(supposition about the past) vs. must have + 3rd form of the vb. (logical
deduction about the past)
e.g. Mary should have been In Paris at 10 o’clock. (But her plane was delayed.)
Mary must have been in Paris at 10 o’clock. (Her plane was to land at 10 and I don’t know of any
delay)
THAT…SHOULD
1. after suggest, propose, insist, recommend, advise (instead of an –ing construction)
e.g. I suggested going there. = I suggested that we should go there.

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2. after agree, demand, determine, be determined, order, command (instead of an infinitive
construction)
e.g. He was determined to go there first. = He was determined that nobody should get there before him.
3. after arrange, stipulate, be anxious (instead of for + object + inf)
e.g. I am anxious for nobody to know where I am going. = I am anxious that nobody should know
where I am going.
4. after it is/was + adj. (necessary, important etc.) (instead of for + object + inf)
e.g. It is necessary for him to leave. = It is necessary that he should leave.

OUGHT TO + inf→present/future reference

OUGHT TO HAVE + 3rd form of the vb. →past reference: can replace SHOULD except in questions
and negatives

SHALL+ inf→present/future reference

1. to express a threat or command in affirmative statements, with a 2 nd person subject
e.g. You shall do it whether you like it or not
2. to expresss a promise
e.g. You shall have a bike for your birthday.
3. to express an intention
e.g. We shall celebrate this very night.
4. in offers
e.g. Shall I help you pack?
5. suggestions
e.g. Shall we meet at the theatre?

WILL
1. to express intention, willingness, determination (1st person subject)
e.g. I will write tomorrow.
We’ll celebrate this very night.
2. to express an impersonal type of command
e.g. You will stay here till you are relieved.

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3. to express insistence which is associated with a habit
e.g. If you will put so much salt in your food, it’s no wonder you are always thirsty.
He will go swimming in very dangerous waters.
4. to express supposition
e.g. He’ll be there by now (=I think he is there)
They will have arrived by now.
That will be the postman. (It is 10 o’clock. The bell is ringing. The postman usually comes at this
hour)
5. in requests
e.g. Will you show me how to do this?

WOULD
1. instead of will after a past tense verb
e.g. He said that he would never do anything like that.
2. in polite requests
e.g. Would you give me a hand?
3. would + inf (may express certainty - with a suppressed conditional sentence) →present/future
reference
e.g. Nobody would agree with that idea (if we asked them)
4. would have + 3rd form of the vb.(events in the past which did not happen; sometimes with a
suppressed conditional sentence) →past reference
e.g. I would have accepted the job, but I didn’t want to move house.
Nobody would have tried to do it (if we had asked them).
5. would have + 3rd form of the vb (assumptions about the past = past supposition)
e.g. “Someone called after you left but didn’t leave a message.”
“That would have been Cathy.”

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C. VOCABULARY
Football
1. The Pitch. Fill in the blanks with the field markings of a football pitch.
corner kick
quarter circle

restraining arc

goal line

touch line
The rectangular pitch is divided in half by a line drawn between the mid-points of the two longer
sides. This is the 1_____. Exactly halfway across it is the 2_____. Kick-offs, at the start of each
half and after a goal is scored, are taken from this spot. When a team kicks-off, players from the
opposing team must remain at a distance of at least 10 yards (9.15 m) from this spot until the
kick is taken. A circle drawn around the centre spot, known as the 3_____, marks this distance.
At either end of the pitch are the 4_____. These are formed by two upright posts placed
equidistant from the corner flagposts, 24 feet (7.32 m) apart and 8 feet (2.44 m) in height, joined
at the top by a crossbar. Nets are usually placed behind these objects , though they are not
required by the Laws of the Game. Two boxes are marked out on the pitch in front of each goal.
The smaller box, called the 5_____ or colloquially the "goal area", is laid out to surround the
goal at an equal distance of 6 yards (5.5 m). Goal kicks and any free kick by the defending team
may be taken from anywhere in this area. An indirect free kick awarded to the attacking team for
an incident occurring within the this area must be taken from the point on this line parallel to the
goal line nearest where an incident occurred. The outer box is known as the 6_____ (or
colloquially the 18 yard box), and is set 18 yards (16.5 m) to each side of the goal, and 18 yards
in front of it. A small semicircle (called the 7_____ or the D) is also drawn at the outside edge of
the penalty area, 10 yards (9.15 m) from the penalty mark. This is an exclusion zone for all
players other than the one taking the kick in the event of a penalty being awarded.
The 8_____ (or penalty mark) is immediately in the middle of and 12 yards (11 m) in front of the
goal.
The area of play is defined by the two sets of boundary lines. The longer boundary lines are
called 9_____ while the shorter ones are known as 10_____.
In each corner of the pitch a small quarter circle with a 1 yard (1 m) radius is drawn where corner
kicks are taken from. This is called the 11_____.

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2. Field markings. Using the information from the previous exercise complete the following
table with the names and the functions of the field markings of a football pitch.
Field marking Function
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.

3. Starts and restarts. From the initial kick-off of a period until the end of that period, the
ball is "in play" at all times until the end of the playing period, except when the ball leaves
the field of play or play is stopped by the referee. Match the words in the first column of
the table with their definitions on the second column to discover the methods by which the
game is restarted in such situations.
1. goal kick a. When the ball has wholly crossed the touch line it is awarded to the
opposing team to that which last touched the ball. To restart the game in
this manner, a player outside the touch line throws the ball to a teammate
who is in play. The player must always use two hands and bring the ball
from behind the head while standing in the spot where the ball left the
field of play.
2. indirect free kick b. Awarded to the attacking team when the ball has wholly crossed the
goal line without a goal having been scored and having last been touched
by a defender.
3. kick-off c. Such a kick is awarded for ”pennal fouls”, such as pulling an opponent
to the ground by grabbing the jersey. The ball may be kicked directly into
the goal from the spot of the foul.
4. dropped-ball d. This method is used to begin each period of play or to restart the game
after a goal having been scored.
5. penalty kick e. This restart method is used when the referee has stopped the play for a
reason which cannot be considered an infraction: a serious injury to a
player, interference by an external party, or a ball becoming defective.
6. direct free kick f. It is awarded to fouled team following "penal" foul having occurred in
their opponent's penalty area.
7. throw-in g. This designates the kick up the field from one of the corners of the goal
area awarded to the defending team after the attacking team has kicked the
ball past the goal line without a goal being scored.
8. corner kick h. Such a kick is awarded to the fouled team for ”non-pennal fouls”, such
as obstructing an opponent while pursuing the ball. The ball must touch
one other person (a teammate, opponent, or goalie) before a goal can be
scored.

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 4. The following words name positions of football players on the field. Choose the
appropriate definitions for each of them:

(1) goalkeeper
(2) midfield
(3) sweeper
(4) center back (a.k.a. central defender)
(5) striker
(6) winger

(a) He has one main task: to score goals.

(b) He is free to move up and down the field, in contrast to man-to-man markers, who
must stick to their designed attacker.
(c) His job is purely defensive: to guard his team’s goal from being breached. He is
allowed to use his hands when playing the ball.
(d) He is a link between defense and attack when his team is in possession of the ball, and
must also defend when the opposing team is in possession.
(e) He plays in a wing position and his job is to provide crosses into the penalty area for
the strikers to score from.
(f) His job is to stop opposing players, particularly the strikers, from getting the
opportunity to score, and to clear the ball from the penalty area. He is usually tall, with
good heading ability.

5. Equipment. Lable the picture with the following items of football equipment:

jersey, shorts, socks (stockings), shin guards, football boots (shoes with cleats)

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6. Fill in the blanks with the appropriate word or phrase. Write them down in the table
below the text. Each word can be used only ONCE.

of, are, with, pass, players, attacker, is composed of, the, hands, is

Football 1_____a game played by two teams on a rectangular field, in which 2_____ attempt to
knock a round ball through the opponents’ goal, using any part of the body except the 3_____.
Generally, players use their feet and heads as they kick, dribble, and 4_____ the ball toward the
goal. One player on each team guards 5_____ goal. This player, the goalkeeper, is the only
player allowed to touch the ball 6_____ the hands while it is in play.
In a regulation football game, each team 7_____ 11 players. There 8_____ four main positions:
goalkeeper, defender, midfielder, and 9_____. One player from each team plays the position
10_____ goalkeeper, but the distribution of other players among the other positions can vary.

7. How much do you know about football? Decide whether the following sentences are true
or false.

1. The referee calls fouls on players who commit one of ten major infractions: intentionally
kicking, tripping, or jumping at an opponent; violently charging, striking, holding, pushing, or
spitting at an opponent; tackling an opponent without the ball or touching the ball with the hands.
2. A player cannot be ruled offside when receiving the ball from a throw-in or if the player is in
his or her own half of the field.
3. Coaches determine offsides infractions and signal them by waving their flags and pointing to
the spot where the infraction occurred.
4. The referee is assisted by three linesmen.
5. A standard adult football match consists of two periods (known as halves) of 45 minutes each.
6. There is usually a 20-minute break between halves, known as half time.
7. The extra-time and the shootouts come before the fulltime.
8. Players may be replaced by substitutes during the course of the game.
9. A player who is shown the yellow card once in one game is ejected.
10. If a single foul is violent enough, the referee may immediately show the player a red card,
which means automatic ejection.
11. A replaced player may not reenter the game.
12. An attacking player is offsides if, when receiving a forward pass from a teammate, there are
not at least two opponents (usually one defender and the goalkeeper) behind the receiver—that
is, between the attacking player and the opponents' goal line.
13. The referee is allowed to add time on if there are frequent and lengthy interruptions.
14. A football team consists of one goalkeeper and twelve outfield players.
15. A goalkeeper can handle the ball when back-passed.
16. A goalkeeper is allowed to use any part of his/her body when saving a ball.
17. A two-leg stage involves the two teams playing against each other twice.
18.In man-to-man marking each centre back has the job of covering a particular opposition
player.
19. In zonal defence each centre back covers a specific area of the pitch.
20. Formation in football describes how the players in a team are positioned on the pitch.

18
8. Fill in the blanks with the following words:

forehead, tackling, trap, propel, stops, ball, control, goal, jockey, stop, accuracy, blocking, feet,
skills, knocking, kicking, protecting, passes, headers, outside, fake, running, trapping

Soccer players use five basic skills: kicking, dribbling, passing, heading, and trapping. 1_____is
the most basic skill. Players who wish to kick the ball powerfully do so with the top of the foot,
the area just above the toes, generating power from the upper leg and torso. A powerful kick may
2_____ the ball up to 120 km/h (75 mph). Many players cannot kick the ball equally well with
both 3_____, and favor the stronger foot when making a shot at the goal or kicking the ball a
long distance. Players who wish to kick the ball powerfully do so with the top of the foot, the
area just above the toes.
Players move the ball small distances by dribbling. Dribbling entails tapping, dragging, or rolling
the ball in front of the body while 4_____. The objective—to advance the ball while keeping it in
control and 5_____ it from defensive players—is similar to that of dribbling in basketball, using
the feet instead of the hands. A player with good dribbling skills can make quick 6 ______,
change direction, and move the 7_____ from one foot to another with ease. Advanced players
can also 8_____ one way with the ball, only to turn and move in the opposite direction.
Players use 9_____ to move the ball around the field more quickly than they can by dribbling.
Passes are like kicks, but they require less power and more 10_____. Players usually pass by
using the inside of the foot to push the ball in a certain direction, though sometimes the 11_____
of the foot is used. Talented players can pass with both feet in all directions, including behind
them.
Players use 12_____ to make plays on balls that are in the air, either to pass or to make a shot on
13_____. To make a header, they knock the ball with the 14_____, using power generated from
the neck muscles. When a ball is high in the air, members of both teams will 15_____ for
position on the ground in order to control the header. Tall players and those who can jump high
have a distinct advantage in these situations.
Players use 16_____ to gain control of loose balls that may be rolling, bouncing, or flying
through the air. To bring the motion of the ball to a momentary 17_____, players absorb the
ball’s force with a part of their body. Most traps are made with the inside of the foot or the sole
of the foot, but balls may also be brought under control with the leg, chest, head, or top of the
foot. Good trapping allows players to control the tempo of the game by maintaining control of
the ball for long periods of time. It also enables them to pass the ball with pinpoint 18_____,
because they have control of the ball at the moment they pass.
A sixth skill, called 19_____, is the primary tool of defense. Tackling in soccer is not like
tackling in American football. A tackle in soccer is a means of taking away the ball from an
opponent, not bringing the opponent down. 20_____ the advance of the ball with the foot or
lower leg is the most common form of tackling in soccer. Some players also slide in front of
attacking players to steal the ball, a move known as a slide tackle.
A goalkeeper must learn all the skills that other players do, but because the goalkeeper can use
the hands, he or she must also master an entirely different set of 21_____. The goalkeeper must
be able to catch balls in the air and 22_____ them with the hands and body when the ball is
bouncing along the ground. Goalkeepers must also know how to punch away balls that are
kicked towards the top or corners of the goal, as attempting a catch in these difficult situations is
often more dangerous than simply 23_____ the ball away.

19
UNIT 2
A. WRITING

The Descriptive Essay

Read the following essay. Consider the role of each paragraph.

A Walk on Sunday Morning

P1 Though I usually go on excursions to the country during the weekend, I had decided to
spend the whole of Sunday in the city for a change and to visit the central square and public
gardens. It was so early when I left home that the streets were deserted. Without the usual
crowds and traffic, everything was strangely quiet.
P2 When, at last, I arrived at the square I was surprised to find so many people there. Some
were feeding pigeons and others were sitting peacefully at the foot of a tall statue. I went and sat
with them so as to get a better view. What amused me most was a little boy who was trying to
make pigeons fly up to his shoulder. He was holding some bird-seed in his hand and whenever a
pigeon landed on his arm, he laughed so much that he frightened the bird away.
P3 Some time later I made my way to the public gardens. Here there was an entirely
different atmosphere. The sun was now bright and warm and the air was filled with gay laughter.
P4 The pond interested me more than anything else for many people had come to sail model
boats. There were little yachts with bright red sails, motor boats and wonderful sailing ships.
They moved gracefully across the water carried by the wind while their owners waited for them
to reach the other side.
P5 After resting for a time under a tree, I went and joined a number of people who had
gathered round a man with a big model of a famous sailing ship called ‘The Cutty Shark’. It was
perfectly made and I gazed at it with admiration as its owner placed it in the water where it sailed
majestically among the ducks and swans.
P6 At midday, I left the gardens and slowly began walking home. I was not at all sorry that I
had not gone to the country for the weekend. There had been much more to see in the city on a
Sunday morning than I could have ever imagined.

20
○ Structure
Introduction
Paragraph 1
Setting the scene, introducing persons, places, objects to the reader.
Development
Paragraphs 2, 3, 4, 5
Each paragraph describes a particular characteristic/aspect of the person, object, place.
Conclusion
Paragraph 6
Impressions, feelings, opinions.

○ The goal of descriptive writing is to create a clear picture or impression of a person, place or
object.
○ Selecting details:
- do not include every detail about the person, place, or object you are describing.
- decide whether or not to use a detail on the basis of whether it will contribute to its purpose in
writing the description.
- sometimes the selection is based on the wish of the writer to convey a strong, single impression
to the reader (description of a person)
- sometimes the writer chooses only the details that help to support a general statement he/she
makes (topic sentence)
○ Use adjectives. Don’t forget the proper order:
P1 a. opinion, b. size, c. age, d. shape e. temperature
P2 Colours
P3 Material
P4 Purpose
P5 Noun
○ Using sensory details:
Descriptive writing creates a strong impression through the use of sensory details which appeal
to the reader’s senses of sight, sound, smell, taste, touch. The choice of words has to evoke a
strong sensory response in the reader’s imagination.

21
○ Locating details:
When you describe a scene, you often want your reader to know where the details are located.
You also want to show their relationship to one another (over, next to, beneath, on the right, in
the distance, near, far, above, below, here, there, inside, outside, nearby, beyond, between, over,
under).
○ Using tenses:
1. Describing people:
- Present tenses for someone you see every day
- Past tenses can be used to describe someone related to the past
- Present tenses or conditional tenses for the description of ideal persons
2. Describing places or buildings
- Present tenses when you describe smth for a tourist brochure, or when you envisage the
description of the general characteristics of an object, or when you pretend to be at the exact
location you are describing
- Past tenses can be used to describe smth you saw in the past
- Conditional tenses for the description of an ideal city/house
○ Find the central idea of what you want to describe. e.g. A market: people buying, things sold
○ No event will keep the reader in suspense as in the case of the narrative essay. The question
‘What happens next?’ does not apply.
○ Language for rendering, describing facts, states. e.g. description of a man, town, landscape
he looks …, He has dark eyes, She wears …, Her face …
○ When rendering, describing facts and emotional impressions
- provide an account of your feelings, opinions
- try to get the reader involved
○ When you describe things you may have to provide information on the position, weight,
structure, colour, composition, size, shape and function of the object described.

Structure
X is nailed/screwed/fixed/fastened to Y by
linked/welded/tied/connected Z
attached
consists of Y and
contains Z
includes

22
 held in place/ secured/ by
X is supported/ suspended Y
joined to
mounted/placed/pivoted on
Position
adjacent to/alongside/below/
beyond/facing (diagonally)/
parallel
to/underneath/opposite/ in
A is the middle of/on the right B
of/ on the left of/on the left
of/near/close to/
touching/behind/in front of
/under/ on top
of/above/below/ level
with/diagonally above/
vertically below
between B and
equidistant from C
Colour
X is dark/light/pale/bri green/blue/red/
ght/dull yellow

Talking and writing about colours

shade = one of the different types of a particular colour, especially when describing how dark or
light it is.
e. g. a deep shade of red, subtle shades of blue and green
tone = one of the different types of a particular colour.
e. g. a delicate pink tone, eye shadow in tones of green and brow
-ish = used with colours to make adjectives describing things that look a bit like that colour.
e. g. reddish hair
dark = used for describing colours that look more like black than white. e. g. dark green trousers
deep = used for describing dark colours, especially when they look attractive. e. g. lovely deep
blue eyes
rich = used for describing dark colours that look beautiful and expensive. e. g. rich brown velvet
sombre = dark in the way that seems suitable for a serious occasion and use. e. g. The men were
wearing sombre suits and black ties.
bright = strong and noticeable. e. g. bright yellow paint
vibrant = bright in a way that looks exciting.
e. g. curtains in vibrant shades of red
colourful = brightly coloured, or having a lot of bright colours. e. g. wonderfully colourful
curtains
loud = bright in a way that you think looks silly or ugly. e. g. He tends to wear silk shirts and
loud ties.
gaudy = very brightly coloured, especially in a way that you think shows bad taste. e. g. Look at
those gaudy purple sunglasses.

23
light = pale rather than bright. e. g. a light blue shirt
pale = like white with a small amount of colour mixed in. e. g. pale grey feathers
pastel = in a soft and attractive way. e. g. summer dresses in pastel shades.
faded = something that is pale because it had been washed a lot or because it has been affected
by light or the sun. e. g. faded blue jeans. The paintwork was faded in places.
Composition
X is made metal/steel/aluminium/cloth/silk/china.
of wood/plastic/glass/ an alloy of A and
B
Size and weight
X is 6 long/wide/high
cm
X is 6 length/height/width/diameter
cm in
X is 6 weight
kg in
The length/height/width/diameter of X 6
is cm
weight 6
kg
X length/height/width/ of 6
has a diameter cm
weight 6
kg

X measures 6
cm
X weighs 6 kg
Shape
square/round/rectangular/
triangular/semi-circular/
conical/spherical/hexagonal/
octagonal/oval/circular/irregular/
X is cubical/cylindrical/pyramidal in shape
spherical/tubular/spiral
hemispherical/conical/bulbous
tapering/concave/convex

diamond-shaped/kidney-shaped/U-
X is shaped
star-shaped/bell-shaped/dome-shaped
mushroom-shaped/X-
shaped/crescent-shaped
egg-shaped/pear-shaped/Y-shaped

24
 square/circle/rectangle
X is a shaped like triangle/semi-circle
a hexagon/octagon
Function
function thermometer measure
purpose the
The aim of is temperature
objective the tripod to hold the
camera

The thermometer is used measuring the

for temperature
tripod holding the
camera
Properties
X is light/tough/soft/elastic/malleable/flexible/
soluble/a good conductor of electricity/heat/
corrosion resistant/combustible/transparent/
smooth/heavy/brittle/plastic/ductile/rigid/
insoluble/a bad conductor of electricity/not
corrosion resistant/non-combustible/opaque
rough

25
B. GRAMMAR
Direct and Indirect Speech

I. DIRECT SPEECH
1. We use direct speech whenever we speak. We use the term direct speech to describe the way
we represent the spoken word in writing.
2. Quotation marks (or ‘inverted commas’) go round what is actually spoken. They may be
single (‘…’), or double (“…”) and are placed high above the base-line at the beginning and the
end of each quotation.
e.g. ‘Is that you Jane?’ Bob asked.
3. When the quotation comes after the reporting verb it is preceded by comma and the quotation
begins with a capital letter.
e.g. John said, ‘It’s good to see you’.
4. When the subject + reporting verb comes after what is said, the quotation has a comma before
the second quotation mark.
e.g. ‘It’s good to see you,’ John said.
5. If the quotation ends with an exclamation mark or a question mark, a comma is not used.
e.g. ‘Where can I get a taxi?’ John asked.
6. Subject + verb can come in the middle of a quotation sentence.
e.g. ‘Where, in the wretched town,’ John asked, ‘can I get a taxi?’
7. If there is a ‘quote within a quote’, we use a second set of quotation marks. If double quotation
marks have been used on the outside, single ones are used on the inside and vice versa.
e.g. Ann said, ‘Just as I was leaving, a voice shouted, “Stop!”.’
e.g. ‘What do you mean, “Are you all right?”?’ Ann asked.
8. Noun + reporting may be in subject + verb order or may be inverted (vb. + subject)
e.g. ‘This is a serious offence,’ the judge said/said the judge.
9. If the subject is a long one, then inversion is usual.
e.g. ‘Where’s this train going?’ asked the lady sitting beside me.
10. With a pronoun subject, inversion is rare in modern English.
e.g. ‘This is a serious offence,’ he said.

26
II. INDIRECT SPEECH
We use indirect speech when we are telling someone what we or another person says or said.
D. S.: ‘I shall help you tomorrow,’ John said.
I. S.: John said that he would help me the next day.
D. S.: ‘What are you doing,’ Mary asked.
I. S.: Mary asked what I was doing.
1. Reporting verbs
The commonest reporting verbs are say, tell, ask
○ SAY - is used in indirect speech when we do not want/need to mention the listener.
e.g. He said (that) his life was in danger
○ TELL - is used in indirect speech when we want/need to mention the listener. It must be
followed by an indirect object (tell somebody …).
e.g. He told me (that) his life was in danger.
○ ASK - a) is followed by if /whether when reporting yes/no questions
e.g. ‘Are you comfortable?’ he asked (me).
He asked (me) if /whether I was comfortable.
b) is followed by a Wh - word when reporting a Wh - question
e.g. ‘Where are you going ?’ he asked (me).
He asked (me) where I was going.
2. CHANGES
2. 1 Verbal tense changes :
A. Reporting verb in the present → NO CHANGES
‘I’ve read Tony’s book and I don’t understand it,’ John says.
John says (that) he has read Tony’s book and doesn’t understand it.
B. Reporting verb in the past → BACKSHIFT
Direct Speech Indirect Speech
Present Tense Past Tense
Past Tense Past Perfect
Present Perfect Past Perfect
Past Perfect Past Perfect
Future Tense Future-in-the-Past
(would + inf)

27
 (would + inf)
e.g. ‘I’ll help you,’ John said.
John said (that) he would help me.
‘I have moved to another flat,’ Mary told me.
Mary told me (that) she had moved to another flat.
Exceptions !!!
The backshift does not occur in the following situations:
1. When reporting habits.
e.g. George said, ‘I go to the seaside every summer.’
e.g. George said that he goes to the seaside every summer.
2. When reporting scientific facts.
e.g. The teacher said, ‘Water boils at 100º Celsius.’
The teacher said that water boils at 100º Celsius.
3. When reporting a past statement which is still true at the moment of speech.
e.g. Last night George told me ‘I don’t have enough money to buy a car.’
Last night George told me that he doesn’t have enough money to buy a car.

MODAL VERBS
-can→could
-will→would
-may→might
e.g. ‘I can/may/will see you later,’ he said.
He said he could/might/would see me later.
-shall (future reference) →would
-shall (offers, suggestions, requests for advice) →should
-should (desirability)→should
-would, could, might, ought to, needn’t have→ No change
- must → must/had to
must (future reference) → must/would have to
must (deduction) → must

28
ADVERBS AND DEMONSTRATIVES
Direct Speech Indirect Speech
today that day
yesterday the day before
the day before two days before
yesterday
tomorrow the next/following day
the day after in two days’ time
tomorrow
next week the next/following week
last week the previous week/the week before
a year ago a year before/the previous year
this that
these those
here there
now then

OTHER CASES:
1. ‘Yes’ and ‘No’
He said ‘No.’ → He refused. He denied it. He answered in the negative.
He said ‘Yes.’ → He agreed/accepted/answered in the affirmative.
2. When reporting interrogative sentences, besides ask we ca also use: wonder, want to know,
inquire.
e.g. Helen asked (me)/wondered/wanted to know why Tom was angry.
3. Exclamatory sentences:
- What (a) …!, How…! → That Clauses
e.g. ‘How very kind of him to help!’ mother said. →
Mother exclaimed that it was very kind of him to help.
- Oh!, Ah!, Ugh! → He exclaimed with surprise/disgust. He gave an exclamation of
surprise/disgust.

29
- verbs such as exclaim, complain, shout, remark, observe, say admiringly, say scornfully can be
use to report exclamatory sentences depending on the meaning.
e.g. ‘What a delicious cake !’ the guest said. → The guest said admiringly that the cake was
delicious.
e.g. ‘How tired I am!’ the old woman said. → The old woman complained that she was tired.
- She said, ‘Thank you.’ → She thanked me.
- He said ‘Damn it!’ → He swore.
- They said, ‘Good morning!’ → They greeted me/wished me a good morning.
- She said, ‘A happy new year!’ → She wished me a happy new year.
- He said ‘Well done!’ → He congratulated me.
- She said ‘Liar!’ → She called me a liar.
4. Imperative sentences
- imperative → infinitive
He said ‘Sit down, Peter!’ → He told Peter to sit down.
- Verbs such as tell, order, command (orders), ask, request, beg, urge (requests), warn, advise,
recommend (advice) can be used when reporting imperative sentences.
e.g. Officer to soldiers: ‘Clean the barracks!’ → The officer ordered the soldiers to clean the
barracks.
e.g. Teacher to Tom: ‘You should go to the doctor.’ → The teacher advised Tom to go to the
doctor.
- Let’s + infinitive → suggest + Gerund
e.g. Nick said, ‘Let’s watch TV.’ / ‘What about watching TV?’ →
Nick suggested watching TV/that they should watch TV/That they watch TV.
- be to can also be used.
e.g. He says, ‘Do the next exercise!’ → He says that we are to do the next exercise.

30
C. VOCABULARY

Gymnastics

1. Read the following text and fill in the blanks in the diagram.

Gymnastics is a sport involving the performance of sequences of movements requiring physical

strength, flexibility, balance, endurance, grace, and kinesthetic awareness, such as handsprings,
handstands, split leaps, aerials and cartwheels. It developed from beauty practices and fitness
used by the ancient Greeks, including skills for mounting and dismounting a horse, and circus
performance skills. There are three major forms of competitive gymnastics: artistic gymnastics,
rhythmic gymnastics, and trampoline.
Artistic Gymnastics is usually divided into Men's and Women's Gymnastics, each group
doing different events; Men compete on Floor Exercise, Pommel Horse, Still Rings, Vault,
Parallel Bars, and High Bar, while women compete on Vault, Uneven Bars, Beam, and Floor
Exercise. Though routines performed on each event may be short, they are physically exhausting
and push the gymnast's strength, flexibility, endurance and awareness to the limit.
The discipline of rhythmic gymnastics is competed only by women (although there is a
new version of this discipline for men being pioneered in Japan, see Men's rhythmic
gymnastics), and involves the performance of five separate routines with the use of five
apparatus — ball, ribbon, hoop, clubs, rope — on a floor area, with a much greater emphasis on
the aesthetic rather than the acrobatic. Rhythmic routines are scored out of a possible 20 points,
and the music used by the gymnast can contain vocals, but may not contain words.
Trampolining consists of four events, individual, synchronized, double mini and
tumbling. Only individual trampoline is included in the Olympics. Individual routines in
trampolining involve a build-up phase during which the gymnast jumps repeatedly to achieve
height, followed by a sequence of ten leaps without pauses during which the gymnast performs a
sequence of aerial tumbling skills. Routines are marked out of a maximum score of 10 points.
Additional points (with no maximum at the highest levels of competition) can be earned
depending on the difficulty of the moves. Synchronized trampoline is similar except that both
competitors must perform the routine together and marks are awarded for synchronicity as well
as the form of the moves. Double mini trampoline involves a smaller trampoline with a run-up,
two moves are performed and the scores marked in a similar manner to individual trampoline. In
power tumbling, athletes perform an explosive series of flips and twists down a sprung tumbling
track. Scoring is similar to trampoling.

31
 competitive
gymnastics

artistic rhythmic

men rope double

mini

build
up
phase

ten
leaps

32
2.
A. Fill in the blanks of the following diagram with the qualities of a gymnast you can find
in the text.

gymnast

B. Fill in the blanks with the words/phrases in the diagram.

1. Lifting that heavy barbell requires a lot of _____ .

2. The ballet dancer was moving with extraordinary _____ .
3. The long and difficult journey tested our courage and _____ to the limit.
4. Your joints are very rigid. You should do some exercises to improve your _____ .
5. He lost his _____ and fell.
6. A gymnast needs _____ in order to be able to execute highly accurate movements.

3. Match the names of the events in women’s artistic gymnastics with their definitions.

1. balance beam a. In this event, gymnasts sprint down a 25 meter (about 82 feet) runway,
jump onto a springboard and onto an apparatus, known as a horse in a straight
body position, touching it with their hands and blocking off it. The dismount
may include one or multiple saltos and twists.
2. floor b. In this event, the gymnast navigates two horizontal bars set at different
heights. The height is generally fixed, but the width may be adjusted.
Gymnasts perform swinging, circling, transitional, and release moves, as well
as handstands.
3. uneven bars c. The gymnast performs a choreographed routine from 60 to 80 seconds in
length consisting of leaps, acrobatic skills, turns and dance elements on a
padded sprung beam. The event requires in particular, balance, flexibility and
strength.
4. vault d. Gymnasts perform a choreographed exercise 70 to 90 seconds long. The
music is instrumental and cannot have vocals. The routines consist of
tumbling passes, series of jumps, dance elements, acrobatic skills, and
turns.The exercise is performed on a carpeted, spring floor, 12 m x 12 m. A
gymnast has three or four tumbling passes that include three or more tricks.

33
4. Match the beginnings of the definitions marked 1-6, with the right endings marked a-f to
find the description of the events in men’s artistic gymnastics: floor exercise, pommel
horse, still rings, parallel bars, high bar (horizontal bar), vault.

1. The floor event occurs on a carpeted 12 m × a. Successful vaults depend on the speed of the
12 m square, usually consisting of hard foam run, the length of the hurdle, the power and
over a layer of plywood, which is supported by strength the gymnast has in the legs and arms
springs or foam blocks. This provides a firm and shoulder girdle, the kinesthetic awareness
surface that will respond with force when in the air, and the speed of rotation in the case
compressed, allowing gymnasts to achieve of more difficult and complex vaults.
extra height and a softer lading than on usual
surfaces.
2. The ultimate balancing act, gymnasts must b. At least one static strength move is required,
perform continuous circular movements around but some gymnasts may include two or three.
the horse while allowing only their hands to A routine must begin with an impressive
actually touch it. mount, and must conclude with an equally
impressive dismount.
3. This event is arguably the most physically c. The gymnasts performe a series of swings,
demanding event. The rings are suspended on balances, and releases that require great
wire cable from a point 5.75 meters off the strength and coordination.
floor, and adjusted in height so the gymnast
has room to hang freely and swing. He must
perform a routine demonstrating balance,
strength, power, and dynamic motion while
preventing the rings themselves from
swinging.
4. Gymnasts sprint down a runway, which is a d. This is considered one of the most difficult
maximum of 25 metres in length, before of the men's events and requires flawless
hurdling onto a spring board. The body control of balance and body position.
position is maintained while "punching"
(blocking using only a shoulder movement) the
vaulting platform. The gymnast then rotates to
a standing position.
5. Men hold themselves on two bars slightly e. By using all of the momentum from giants
further than a shoulder's width apart and and then releasing at the proper point, enough
usually 1.75m high. height can be achieved for spectacular
dismounts, such as a triple-back salto.
6. A 2.4cm thick steel bar raised 2.5m above f. A series of tumbling passes are performed to
the landing area is all the gymnast has to hold demonstrate flexibility, strength, and balance
onto as he performs giants (revolutions around tests. The gymnast must also show non-
the bar), twists, and changes of direction. acrobatic skills, including circles, scales, and
presses. Men's floor routines usually have four
passes that will total between 60–70 seconds
and are performed without music, unlike the
women's event.

34
5. Choose the right variant to fill in the blanks:

The origins of gymnastics 1_____ be traced to the ancient civilizations 2_____ China, Greece, Persia and
India. Exercises such as rope-climbing 3_____ in the ancient Olympic Games. Gymnastic exercise was
4_____ practised by the Romans in military preparation. 5_____ the demise of the ancient Olympic
Games in 393 AD, and the fall of 6 _____ Roman Empire, the sport disappeared until 7 _____ revival in
the 19th century.
The first gymnastic club in Britain was formed in 1860 8_____ German immigrants. Over the
next twenty years, most major cities established gymnastic clubs. The sport boomed 9_____ during this
time, 10 _____ the foundation of the International Gymnastic Federation in 1881.

1. A. would, B. can, C. ought to, D. was able to

2. A. with, B. by, C. of, D. on
3. A. was included, B. included, C. were included, D. includes
4. A. almost, B. also, C. among, D. along
5. A. following, B. followed, C. according to, D. as it follows
6. A. the, B. a, C. an, D. - (zero article)
7. A. his, B. its, C. it, D. him
8. A. in, B. of, C. at, D. by
9. A. internationale, B. international, C. internationally, D. internationaly
10. A. leading to, B. lead to, C. leding to, D. lading to

35
UNIT 3
A. WRITING

The For and Against Essay

1. Read the following essay. Find the topic sentence in each paragraph, underline the
linking words and consider the role of each paragraph.

Advantages and disadvantages of using technology in sport

P1 Technology in sport is the use of man-made objects or materials in order to change or

enhance sporting performance. The supporters of technology claim that it has been beneficial to
sport in many respects, while opponents accuse it of influencing sport in an adverse way.
P2 One of the main arguments for the use of technology in sport is that it has improved the
training methods. Athletes have access to more equipment that allows them to watch themselves
on video, test their fitness in a laboratory and adjust their diet in order to get peak performance.
Moreover, problems of climate can be solved using technology. Training apparatus can be used
to provide constant training for the athlete, regardless of inclement weather.
P3 What is more, safety equipment has undergone vast improvement owing to technology.
The rather precarious position of the jockey has been improved by equipment such as hard hats
and body padding. Motorsport has been made safer with fire resistant suits, helmets and body
reinforcement in cars.
P4 On the other hand, with increased knowledge of the body, certain drugs can be used to
affect performance in both humans and animals. Horses and greyhounds can be given drugs in
order that their performance is affected to cause them to either win or lose a race. Some snooker
and darts players have been accused of taking beta-blockers, which slow the heart rate in order
that the athlete is more relaxed and therefore less likely to miss a shot.
P5 In addition to this, technology has been held responsible of taking the excitement out of
sporting competition. For example, the improvements to the McLaren cars on the 1998 Formula
1 Grand Prix circuit at the beginning of the season were far superior to the other teams, with the
result that McLaren won consistently. Many followers of Formula 1 became disenchanted,
knowing that one particular team would probably win every race.

36
P6 It can be concluded that while technology can alter athletic performance and disappoint
sports fans, it can also make sports safer and training more efficient. Some sports rely more on
technological advances than others, but throughout the latter part of the 20 th century, there have
been few sports that have not been influenced in some way by technology. All in all,
technology’s impact on sport and society should not be underestimated.
○ A ‘for and against’ essay is a formal piece of writing in which a topic is considered from
opposing points of view. You should present both sides in a fair way by discussing them
objectively and in equal detail.
○ Structure
Introduction
Paragraph 1
Clearly state the topic without giving your opinion.
Main body
Paragraphs 2 and 3
Arguments for and justifications, examples, and/or reasons.
Paragraphs 4 and 5
Arguments against and justifications, examples, and/or reasons.
Conclusion
Paragraph 6
Balanced considerations/your opinion directly or indirectly
○ Before you start writing your essay you should make a list of the points for and against.
○ Each paragraph should start with a topic sentence which summarises the topic of the
paragraph.
○ Do not use informal style (short forms, colloquial language) or strong language to express your
opinion (I know …, I strongly believe that …).
○ Express your opinion in a non-emotional way (It seems that …, I therefore feel that …)

Useful expressions and linking words/phrases

○ to list points:
Firstly, First of all, In the first place, To begin/start with, Secondly, Thirdly,
Finally

37
○ to list advantages:
One/Another/A further/An additional (major) advantage of … is …
The main/greatest/first advantage of … is …
○ to list disadvantages:
One/Another/A further/An additional (major) advantage/drawback of … is …
The main/greatest/first/most serious advantage of … is …
Another negative aspect of …
○ to introduce points/arguments for or against:
One (very convincing) point/argument in favour of …/against
A further common criticism of …
It could be argued that …
often claimed/suggested
It is widely argued/maintained that
generally felt/believed/held

claim/suggest/argue/feel that …
maintain/believe/point out/agree/hold that …
some/many advocate (+ing/noun)/support the view that …
most people/experts oppose the view that …
scientists/skeptics are in favour of/against …
critics of the opinion that/convinced that …
opposed to …

○ to add more points to the same topic:

in addition (to this), furthermore, moreover, besides, apart from, what is more, as
well as, not to mention (the fact) that …, also, not only … but also/as well, both
… and/there is another side to the issue/question/argument of …
○ to make contrasting points:

on the other hand, however it may be said/argued/claimed that …

still, yet, but, nonetheless, others oppose this viewpoint
nevertheless, even so, many people (strongly) disagree …,
claim/feel/believe this argument is
incorrect/misguided

38
 although. though, even though, while, whilst, whereas, despite/in spite of (the fact
that), regardless of the fact that
Opponents of … argue/believe/claim that …
The fact that … contradicts the belief/idea that …
While it is true to say that …, in fact …
While/Although …, it cannot be denied that …
○ to introduce examples:
for example, for instance, such as, like, in particular, particularly, especially
This is (clearly) illustrated/shown by the fact that by the fact that …
One/A clear/striking/typical example of (this) …
The fact that … shows/illustrated that …
○ to emphasize a point:
clearly, obviously, it is obvious, naturally, of course, needless to say, indeed
○ to express reality:
in fact, the fact (of the matter) is, actually, in practice, it is a fact that, in effect
○ to make general statements:
as a (general) rule, generally, in general, on the whole, by and large, in most cases
○ to make partially correct statements:
to a certain extent/degree, in a way/sense, this is partly true (but), to a limited
extent, there is some truth in (this), in some cases, up to a point
○ to explain/clarify a point:
in other words, that is to say, this/which means that
○ to express cause:
owing to, due to (the fact that), on account of, on the grounds that, given that,
because, since
○ to express effects:
therefore, thus, as a result/consequence, consequently, so, for this reason, if …
were … to happen, … the effect/result would be ….
○ to express intention:
to, so as to, in order to, so that, with the intention of (+ ing)

39
○ to draw conclusions expressing balanced considerations/opinions indirectly
In conclusion, it can/must be said/claimed that …
On balance, is seems/appears that …
All things considered, it would seem that …
Taking everything into account/ it is likely/unlikely/possible/foreseeable that
considerations, there is no/little doubt that …
To conclude, the best course of action would be to …
To sum up, achieving a balance between … would be …
All in all, it is true to say that …
Finally/Lastly, although it must be said that …
it may be concluded/said that …

All things considered, the obvious conclusion to be drawn is that …

There is no absolute answer to the question of …
In the light of this evidence, it is clear/obvious that …
In conclusion, clear/apparent above evidence
All in all, it is plain/obvious from the points
To sum up, evident foregoing arguments

○ to draw conclusions expressing opinions directly

In conclusion,
On balance,
All things considered, it is my belief that/opinion that …
Taking everything into account/ I believe/feel/think that …
considerations, I am inclined to believe that …
To conclude, I (do not) agree that/with …
To sum up,
All in all,
Finally/Lastly,

Taking everything into account, I therefore conclude/feel/believe (that) …

For the above-mentioned reasons, therefore, I firmly believe that …

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B. GRAMMAR
The Passive Voice

I. Introduction
1. In the active voice, the subject is the person or thing doing the action.
e.g. John cooked the food last night.
2. In the passive voice, the action is done to the subject.
e.g. The food was cooked by John last night.
3. The passive transformation
Active Voice Passive Voice
Object (‘the food’) → Subject
Subject (‘John’) → Agent (‘by John’)
Main Verb (‘cooked’) → to be + past participle (‘was cooked’)
II. Form of the passive
Simple Aspect Continuous Aspect
a form of to be + past participle a form of to be +being + past participle (3rd form of the
(3rd form of the verb) verb)
Conjugation Patterns
Tense/Mood Active Voice Passive voice
Present A doctor cures sick people. Sick people are cured by the doctor.
Simple
Present She is watering the flowers. The flowers are being watered by her.
Continuous
Present They have opened a new A new shop has been opened.
Perfect shop.
Past Simple I taught them English They were taught English (by me) yesterday.
yesterday.
Past They were singing songs. Songs were being sung.
Continuous
Past Perfect They had heard the news. The news had been heard.

41
Future Tense She will call me in the I shall be called (by her) in the morning.
morning.
Future I shall have seen them by the They will have been seen before the end of
Perfect end of the week. the week.
Future-in- I thought I would hear the I thought the bell would be heard.
the-Past bell.
Imperative Do it at once! Be done with it at once!
Infinitive It’s hard to hear in such a It’s hard to be heard in here.
noise.
Present They would excuse me if I I would be excused if I explained.
Conditional explained.
Past I would have sent for the The doctor would have been sent for if I had
conditional doctor if I had thought it thought it necessary.
necessary.
OBSERVATIONS
1. Only present tense and past tense continuous are common in the passive voice.
e.g. He is being interviewed now.
e.g. He was being interviewed at 10 o’clock.
However, modals with progressive aspect sometimes occur.
e.g. I know Mark was going to have an interview sometimes this afternoon. He may be being
interviewed as we speak.
2. The adverbial particle or the obligatory preposition are placed immediately after the verb in
the passive voice.
Active Voice Passive Voice
They are speaking to you. (prep.) You are being spoken to.
The wind blew the tent down. (adv. particle) The tent was blown down.
No one can put up with her any more. (adv. She can’t be put up with any more.
particle + preposition)
We have done away with the old rules. (adv. The old rules have been done away with.
particle + preposition)

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III. Uses of the passive
1. When speakers do not wish to commit themselves to actions, opinions, or statements of which
they are not completely certain.
e.g. The matter will be dealt with as soon as possible.
2. When the stress falls on the action and not on the doer of the action.
e.g. My car has been scratched!
e.g. Thousands of beaches are polluted.
e.g. Charles I was beheaded in 1649.
3. When the doer of the action is unknown or when we want to avoid using a vague word
(somebody, a person) as a subject.
e.g. After my talk, I was asked to explain a point I had made.
e.g. A doctor has been sent for.
4. In scientific writing (to describe ‘process’).
e.g. The mixture is placed in a crucible and is heated to a temperature of 300ºC. It is then
allowed to cool before it can be analysed.
5. Announcements
e.g. Candidates are required to present themselves fifteen minutes before the examination begins.
They are asked to be punctual.
e.g. Passengers are requested to remain seated until the aircraft comes to a complete stop.
6. Headlines, advertisements, etc
e.g. PRICES SLASHED! ALL GOODS GREATLY REDUCED! PETROL CUPONS
ACCEPTED
IV. The use of ‘by’ + agent after a passive
1. An agent is a doer, the person or thing that performs the action expressed by the verb. By +
agent in passive constructions tells us who or what did something.
e.g. The poem was recited by Mary.
e.g. The window was broken by a stone.
2. By + agent is only necessary when the speaker wishes to say (or the hearer has to know) who
or what is responsible for the event in question.
e.g. The window was broken by a slate that fell off the roof. (not by a person)
e.g. The window was broken by the boy who lives next door. (not by my brother)

43
3. By + agent is often used with the passive of verbs like build, compose, damage, design,
destroy, discover, invent, make, wreck, write.
e.g. The action of penicillin was discovered by Sir Alexander Fleming.
e.g. The electric light was invented by Thomas Edison.
e.g. The Eiffel Tower was designed and built by Gustave Eiffel.
V. By + agent is omitted in the following situations:
1. When the subject of the sentence in the active voice is expressed by a vague word: you, they,
one, everybody, everyone, somebody, someone, all, a person.
e.g. A. V. People speak English all over the world.
P. V. English is spoken all over the world.
2. When the agent can be inferred from the context.
e.g. The thief was arrested. (one can easily infer that it was the police that arrested the thief)
e.g. The bridge was built last year. (one can easily infer that it was the workers who built the
bridge)
3. When the doer of the action is unknown or the speaker does not wish to mention him/her/it.
e.g. A doctor has been sent for.
e.g. This subject will be treated fully in the next chapter.
VI. The passive with verbs of ‘saying’ and ‘believing’.
1. It + passive + that -clause with verbs like agree, allege, arrange, assume, believe, consider,
decide, declare, discover, expect, fear, feel, find, hope, imagine, know, observe, presume, prove,
report, say, show, suggest, suppose, think, understand.
e.g. People say that John is thief. → It is said that John is a thief.

2. Subject (other than it) + passive + to- infinitive with verbs like acknowledge, allege, believe,
consider, declare, know, recognize, report, say, suppose, think, understand.
e.g. They know that Mary is a spy. → Mary is known to be a spy.
3. There + passive + to be + complement with verbs like acknowledge, allege, believe, consider,
fear, feel, know, presume, report, say, suppose, think, understand.
e.g. They say that there is plenty of oil in our country. → There is said to be plenty of oil in our
country.

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VII. Miscellaneous
1. Verbs such as bring, give, offer, tell can have two passive forms.
e.g. A. V. Tom gave me a pen. →
a) I was given a pen by Tom.
b) A pen was given to me by Tom.
!!! Because we are often more interested in people or animals, variant a) is more common than b)
2. Active verbs with passive meaning.
e.g. This surface cleans (can be cleaned) easily.
e.g. These clothes wash well. The wine is selling quickly. What’s showing at the cinema this
weekend? Her novel is reprinting already.
3. Verbs such as be born, be married, obliged are used more frequently in the passive than in the
active.
4. Passive constructions are common after verbs followed by the -ing form, such as like, enjoy.
dislike, remember and after verbs followed by a to- infinitive.
e.g. Most people don’t like being criticized.
e.g. He hates to be criticized.
VIII. ‘Get’ + past participle
Get is often used instead of be before certain past participles (arrested, caught, confused,
delayed, divorced, dressed, drowned, drunk, elected, engaged, hit, killed, lost, married, stuck ) in
colloquial English. Be can sometimes be replaced by become.
We use get in the following situations:
1. When we do something to ourselves.
e.g. I got dressed as quickly as I could.
2. When we manage to arrange something in our favour.
e.g. I see old Morton has got himself promoted at last.
3. When something (often unfavourable) happens beyond our control.
e.g. We got delayed because of the holiday traffic.
4. When we express commands or insults.
e.g. Get dressed! Get washed! Get lost!

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C. VOCABULARY
Track-and-field
1. Use the following words to label the representation of the track-and-field arena below.
water jump, shot put area, pole vault area, infield, track, hurdles, long and triple jump pit,
discus and hammer area, high jump area, javelin area

2. Choose the correct variant.

1. The high jumper managed to _____ the bar at his first attempt.
a. cross, b. traverse, c. clear, d. touch
2. Michael would have won the race if he had not _____ the last hurdle.
a. overthrown, b. overcome, c. overrun, d. overturned
3. The start of the race was cancelled because one of the sprinters had jumped the _____.
a. the starting signal, b. the starting line, c. the queue, d. the gun
4. During the second lap, the Romanian athlete was already leading _____.
a. the field, b. the race, c. the event, d. the competition
5. John saw that Paul was getting tired after the first two laps so he _____ the lead.
a. gained, b. took, c. earned, d. got
6. As she was exhausted, she tried to slow down a bit but soon she noticed that the pursuers were
gaining _____ her.

46
a. off, b. of, c. to, d on.
7. During the second half of the race, Andrew sped up, which allowed him to _____ three
runners.
a. overtake, b. overcome, c. overlap, d., overstep
8. Due to his excellent physical fitness, he had no trouble qualifying _____ the final.
a. for, b. in, c. to, d. at
9. Since all the competitors were very well trained, the race had a _____ finish.
a. predictable, b. close, c. inevitable, d. even
10. Jim was running so fast that he soon _____ the other competitors.
a. beat, b. lapped, c. defeated, d. overcame
11. In case of failure, each jumper is entitled to an additional _____.
a. try, b. trying, c. trialing, d. trial
12. At the end of a competition, the runners-up are awarded the _____ medal.
a. gold, b. silver, c. bronze
13. The long jumper missed the take-off board because he had made a mistake during the _____.
a. run-up, b. rundown, c. runabout, d. run-off
14. The Romanian team lost the race because of a misunderstanding during the first _____
passing.
a. stick, b. rod, c. staff, d. baton
15. The English athlete had an advantage over the other competitors because he had started the
race on the _____.
a. runway, b. inner lane, c. middle lane, outer lane
16. The sprinters were disadvantaged by a very strong _____.
a. assisting wind, b. headwind, c. crosswind, d. windshield
17. A long jumper needs a very good sense of _____.
a. equilibrium, b. stability, c. balance, d. steadiness
18. The athlete _____ one mile in four minutes.
a. covered, b. finished, c. terminated, d. executed
19. John had been leading the field for two minutes when he suddenly felt exhausted and
reluctantly had to _____ to the other competitors.
a. to abandon, b. give away, c. give way, d. give up

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20. Jane had been out of training for three months so she had a hard time keeping _____ with the
other runners.
a. rhythm, b. speed, c. velocity, d. pace
3. Match the names of the track-and-field events with their definitions.
1. long-distance running a. Contest in which athletes must throw a very heavy round ball as
far as possible.
2. hurdle race b. A long-distance race of 26 miles and 385 yards (42.195 km)
3. steeplechase c. An event in which athletes must throw a heavy thick-centered
disc.
4. middle-distance running d. An event in which a long light spear is thrown by the athletes as
far as possible.
5. relay race e. An event in which competitors throw an object called hammer
as far as possible.
6. cross-country race f. The goal in this event is to race as fast as possible while still
maintaining a walking gait. During the race the heel of the forward
foot must maintain touch with the track until the toe of the trailing
foot leaves the ground.
7. hammer throwing g. Race in which athletes must run across fields or countryside.
8. discus throwing h. Event in which competitors attempt to vault over a high bar
with the aid of a long flexible pole.
9. shot put i. Race between teams of runners in which each team member in
turn must cover part of the total distance while carrying a baton.
10. javelin throwing j. Event in which competitors jump as far as possible along the
ground in one leap.
11. marathon race k. Races ranging from 600 meters to 3,000 meters. The most
popular distances are the 800-meter, 1,500-meter, and 3,000-meter
runs.
12. race walking l. Event in which athletes must run at full speed over a short
distance.
13. high jump m. Race in which athletes must jump over a series of four hurdles
and water jumps.
14. long jump n. Event in which athletes must jump as far as possible by
performing a hop, a step and a jump from a running start.
15. pole vault o. A race in which athletes must jump over a series of upright
frames.
16. sprint p. Event in which competitors jump as high as possible over a bar
of adjustable height.
17. triple jump r. Race in which competitors have to cover distances longer 3,000
meters. The most common are ones of 5,000 to 10,000 meters, and
the marathon.

48
UNIT 4

A. WRITING

The Opinion Essay

Read the following essay. Find the topic sentence in each paragraph, underline the linking
words and consider the role of each paragraph.

Although the position of women in society today has improved, there is still a great deal of
sexual discrimination. Do you agree?

P1 Throughout this century, the role of women within society has changed, and the majority
of people feel that this change is for the better. More women work than ever before, and it is
accepted in Western culture that many women now have careers. Nonetheless, in my opinion
there is still a great deal of sexual discrimination against women within society, and the belief
that sexual equality has been achieved is not altogether accurate.
P2 To begin with, many women find it very difficult to return to work after having children.
The main reason for this is that there are rarely any provisions made for childcare in the
workplace and, in these cases, women are forced to find someone to look after the children while
they are at work. Obviously, this can prove to be a time-consuming and expensive process, yet it
must be done if mothers are to be able to resume their careers.
P3 Secondly, the traditional views of the position of women within society are so deeply
ingrained that they have not really changed. For instance, not only is the view that women should
stay at home and look after their family still widely held, but it is reinforced through images seen
on television programmes and advertisements. An example of this is that few men are ever seen
doing housework on television, since this is traditionally thought of as ‘a woman’s job’.
P4 Thirdly, since families often need two incomes in order to enjoy a good standard of
living, a woman finds herself doing two jobs: one at home and one at the office. So, it could be
said that a woman’s position has, in fact, deteriorated rather than improved, with the result that
women carry the burdens of equality but get none of the benefits.

49
P5 In contrast, there are some people who claim that the problem of sexual discrimination no
longer exists. They point out that women do, after all, have legal rights intended to protect them
from discrimination. In addition, a few women are now beginning to reach top positions as
judges, business leaders and politicians, while a number of previously all-male professions are
opening their ranks to women. Nonetheless, these examples are not the norm and discrimination
is still very much with us.
P6 Taking these points into consideration, I would say that the position of women has
improved only slightly. While rules and laws have changed, it is the deep-rooted opinions of
people within society which are taking a longer time to evolve. Needless to say, until these
attitudes have changed, sexual discrimination will remain a problem which we all need to face
and fight against.

○ An opinion essay is a formal piece of writing. It requires your opinion on a topic, which must
be stated clearly, giving various viewpoints on the topic supported by reasons and/or examples.
You should also include the opposing viewpoint in another paragraph.
○ Structure
Introduction
Paragraph 1
State the topic and your opinion clearly
Main body
Paragraph 2
Viewpoint 1+reason/example
Paragraph 3
Viewpoint 2+reason/example
Paragraph 4
Viewpoint 3+reason/example
Paragraph 5
Opposing viewpoint+reason/example
Conclusion
Paragraph 6
Summarise/restate your opinion.

50
○ Decide whether you agree or disagree with the subject of the topic, then make a list of your
viewpoints and reasons.
○ Write well-developed paragraphs, joining the sentences with appropriate linking words and
phrases. Do not forget to start each paragraph with a topic sentence which summarises what the
paragraph is about.
○ Linking words and phrases should also be used to join one paragraph with the other.

Useful expressions and linking words/phrases

○ to give opinions:
To my mind/To my way of thinking …
It is my (firm) belief/opinion/view/conviction that …
I (firmly) believe that …
I am (not) convinced that …
I (do not) agree that/with …
It strikes me that …
My opinion is that …
I (definitely) fell/think that …
I am inclined to believe that …
It seems/appears to me …
As far as I am concerned, …

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B. GRAMMAR
Conditional Sentences

1. If=when

1.1 What is always true: If+present+present

If I work late, I get tired.
1.2 What was always true: If+past+past
If it was foggy, we went home.

2. Type 1 (real condition)

If+present tense will+infinitive

If we run, we shall not be late.

3. Type 2 (imaginary condition)

If+past tense would+infinitive

If I knew the answer, I would tell you.
If I were you, I would stop smoking.

4. Type 3 (impossible condition)

If+past perfect would+have+3rd form

If I had known the answer, I would have told you.

5. Type 3+Type 2 (past events with results in the present)

If+past perfect would+infinitive

If Jim hadn’t missed the plane, he would be here now.

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6. Unless =if not

Unless we hurry, we shall miss the buss. = If we don’t hurry, we shall miss the buss.

7. Provided=only if

You can go out to play provided (that) you finish your homework first.

8. Should (after ‘if’ this makes the possibility of an event seem unlikely)

If you should see Ann, could you ask her to call me? (But I do not expect you to see her.)

9. If it were not for/If it hadn’t been for

If it weren’t for Jim, this company would be in a mess.

If it hadn’t been for their goalkeeper, united would have lost.

10. But for=if not (it must be followed by a noun form)

If you hadn’t helped us, we would have been in trouble.

But for your help, we would have been in trouble.

11. Supposing/Suppose=if

Supposing you won the competition, what would you do?

12. Otherwise=or if not

I hope the weather improves. Otherwise, we’ll have to cancel the picnic.

53
 Hypothetical Constructions
1. Wish
- wish + to infinitive = immediate desire
e. g. I wish to apply for a visa. (I shall apply)
I wish you to speak to the manager. (You will speak to the manager.)
Verbs that can be used in the same way: like, love, ask, beg, expect, want, intend, need, prefer
e. g. I like to keep everything tidy. (refers to my actions)
I like you to keep everything tidy. (refers to my actions)
- wish + Past Tense = wishes referring to the present
e. g. I regret they don’t agree to my proposal.
I wish they agreed to my proposal.
- wish + Past Perfect = wishes referring to the past (unrealized situations in the past)
e. g. I wish you had let me know yesterday.
- wish + would + infinitive functions like a polite request.
e. g. I wish you would be quiet.
I wish you wouldn’t make so much noise.
!!! We use could not would after I and we
e. g. I wish I could be you.
I wish we could be together.
2. If only
- If only + Past Tense = wishes referring to the present
e. g. I don’t live in the country.
If only I lived in the country.
- If only + Past Perfect = wishes referring to the past (unrealized situations in the past)
e. g. If only I had been here yesterday.
- the position of only after if
only can be separated from if and can be placed:
◦ after be e. g. If he were only here now!
◦ before the past participle e. g. If I had only known!

54
 ◦ after the modal e. g. If you would only try harder.
3. It’s time
- It’s time to = the time has arrived to do something
e. g. It’s time for us to have lunch. (It’s about noon)
- It’s time + Past Tense
e. g. It’s time we had our lunch. (It’s past two o’clock)
4. Would rather/sooner - preferences
4.1 would rather/sooner + bare infinitive
preference + action - same subject
◦ would rather + infinitive - refers to the present
e. g. I would rather be a teacher than a bank clerk.
◦ would rather + have + past participle - refers to the present
e. g. If I had lived in 1400, I would rather have been a knight than a monk.
4.2 would rather/sooner + past tense/past perfect
preference + action - different subjects
◦ would rather/sooner + past tense - present/future reference
e. g. I would rather Jack left on an earlier train.
◦ would rather/sooner + past perfect - past reference
e. g. I would rather they had left on time.
5. As if/As though
Indicative = Fact Subjunctive = Non-fact
Simultaneous Simultaneous
He looks as if he is ill. (He really is He looks as if he were ill. (He is not necessarily ill.)
ill.) He looked as if he were ill.
He looked as if he was ill. (He really
was ill.)
Anterior Anterior
He looks as if he was ill. He looked He looks as if he had been ill.
as if he had been ill. (He had really He looked as if he had been ill.
been ill.)

55
C. VOCABULARY

Tennis

1. Read the following text and fill in the diagram.

The players (or teams) stand on opposite sides of the net. One player is designated the server,
and the opposing player, or in doubles one of the opposing players, is the receiver. Service
alternates between the two halves of the court.
For each point, the server stands behind his/her baseline, between the center mark and the
sideline. The receiver may stand anywhere on his/her side of the net, usually behind the
diagonally opposite service box. When the receiver is ready, the server will serve.
In a legal service, the ball travels over the net (without touching it) and into the
diagonally opposite service court. If the ball hits the net but lands in the service court, this is a let
service, which is void. If the first service is otherwise faulty in any way, the serving player has a
second attempt at service. If the second service is also faulty, this is a double fault and the
receiver wins the point.
A legal service starts a rally, in which the players alternate hitting the ball across the net.
A legal return consists of the player or team hitting the ball exactly once before it has bounced
twice or hit any fixtures. It then travels back over the net and bounces in the court on the
opposite side. The first player or team to fail to make a legal return loses the point.
A tennis match usually comprises one to five sets. A set consists of a number of games,
which in turn consist of points.
Matches consist of an odd number of multiple sets, the match winner being the player
that wins more than half of the sets. The match ends as soon as this winning condition is met.
Some matches may consist of five sets (the winner being the first to win three sets), while most
matches are three sets (the winner being the first to win two sets).
A set consists of a sequence of games played with service alternating between games,
ending when the count of games won meets certain criteria. Typically, when a player wins a set
when he wins at least six games and at least two games more than their opponent.
A game consists of a sequence of points played with the same player serving, and is won
by the first player to have won at least four points and at least two points more than their
opponent. The running score of each game is described in a manner particular to tennis: scores of
zero to three points are described as "love" (or "zero"), "fifteen", "thirty", and "forty"
respectively.

56
1. 2.

service court

3.
Serve
The divisions of a tennis match

4.
love

forty fifteen

thirty

57
2. Fill in the blanks with the appropriate word.
server, strikes, serve, net, doubles, racket, court, indoors, match, receiver
Tennis is a game played with a 1_____ and a ball by two (as in singles) or four (as in 2_____)
competitors, on a rectangular 3_____ with a 4_____ strung between the two sides of the field. Tennis may
be played 5_____ or outdoors.
A 6_____ begins every point of a tennis 7_____. The player who initiates the point is called the 8_____,
and the one who receives the ball is called the 9_____. To serve, a player tosses the ball into the air and
10_____ it before it touches the ground, hitting it into the opponent’s service area, known as the service
box.

3. Fill in the blanks with the words in the diagram

tennis ball

size colour composition

diameter weight yellow white rubber wool artificial

6.35-6.6 cm 56-59,4 g fibres

A 1_____ is hollow and composed of inflated 2_____ covered with a fabric made of 3_____ and
4_____. 5_____ and 6 _____ balls are used in tournament competition and are the most common
colours, although balls of other colours are manufactured. A standard tennis ball measures
between 7_____ in diameter and weighs between 8 _____.

4. Read the following text and fill in the diagrams.

There is no uniform design of tennis rackets, and their sizes and shapes vary. The general
classifications, determined by the size of the racket head, are standard, midsize, oversize, and
super oversize. In tournament play, the maximum length of a racket is 29 in (73.7 cm). The
maximum width is 12.5 in (31.8 cm). The head of the racket may not exceed a length of 15.5 in
(39.4 cm) and a width of 11.5 in (29.2 cm), and it is usually strung with resilient gut or nylon or
other synthetic materials. There are no restrictions on weight. Rackets were originally made of
wood, but now virtually all rackets are made of materials such as aluminum, graphite, and carbon
fiber, which are stronger and lighter than wood. The racket handle is generally covered with a
rubber or leather grip.

58
 tennis racket

structure size composition

racket
head

general specific string

size size comp.

59
 racket handle

grip composition

5. Fill in the blanks with the following words in order to find out the names of the lines and
areas of a tennis court: doubles side line, singles side line, service courts, baseline, net.
Some of them are must be used twice

1
2

5
6
7

Tennis court

60
UNIT 5
A. WRITING

The Curriculum Vitae and The Letter of Application

The Curriculum Vitae

A curriculum vitae (known as C.V. for short) is a short account, laid out in a clear form, of the
details of your life. It includes the following things:
○ your name and precise address and telephone number
○ your date of birth
○ a precise record of schools attended
○ a precise record of colleges/faculties attended
○ examination qualifications
○ personal achievements (e.g. in sport or music etc.)
○ employment positions held (including part-time work)
○ interests and activities
○ future education plans
○ references (names and addresses of responsible people who will write a reference for you if
approached)

CURRICULUM VITAE
Andrew Foster
105 Cheriton Road
Dorchester
Dorset DY4 4HQ

Telephone: Dorchester (0305) 69542

Date of Birth: January 15th, 1948

Nationality: British

Languages: Conversational French

Computer literacy: WordPerfect, Lotus 1-2-3

Education
1953-1960 Maynard Boys Junior School, Waltham Forest, London
1960-1967 Romford Royal Liberty School, Romford, Essex
1968-1971 Hull University, Yorkshire
1974-1976 Darlington Hall, Devon
1977-1978 College of St Mark and St John, Plymouth

61
Qualifications
GCE ‘0’ level examinations (June 1965): English Language (3); English Literature (4);
Mathematics (5); Combined Science (6); History (1); Geography (1)
GCE ‘A’ level examinations (June 1967): History (B); Economics (E); Geography (B)

2nd Class Honours Degree in Psychology (B. Sc.) from Hull University (1971)
Diploma in Music (Darlington Hall, 1976)
Post-Graduate Certificate of Education in Primary Teaching (1978)

Other Achievements
Captain of School Swimming Team (1966-67); School Basketball Team; School Debating Team;
School Debating Vice-Captain (1967); University Basketball Team; President of University Arts
Society (1970); President of Student Union, Darlington Hall, (1975-1976)

Employment
1964-1967 Part-time work weekends/holidays furniture removal
1966-1969 Christmas work for Post Office
9/67 to 4/68 Salesman, Little Foxes Record Shop, Fulham, London
9/71 to 10/72 Salesman, HMV Record Shop, London
10/72 to 7/74 Junior Officer, Arts Council, London
10/76 to 6/77 Paid sabbatical president, students union, Darlington Hall
9/78 to 7/81 Teacher, Grove Middle School, Dorchester
4/83 Self-employed harpsichord constructor

Interests and Activities

Playing the piano and harpsichord; chess; literature; psychology; hill walking; horticulture

Personal
Married 1979
Two children, born 1981 and 1982

References
Dr. Bryan Tunniwell, Darlington Hall, Devon
Mr Richard Raine, Headmaster, Grove Middle School, Dorchester, Dorset

1. Adapt and transfer the information in this Curriculum Vitae to the European
Curriculum Vitae Format on the next page.

62
 EUROPEAN
CURRICULUM VITAE
FORMAT

PERSONAL INFORMATION

Name [ SURNAME, other name(s) ]

Address [ House number, street name, postcode, city, country ]
Telephone
Fax
E-mail

Nationality

Date of birth [ Day, month, year ]

WORK EXPERIENCE

• Dates (from – to) [ Add separate entries for each relevant post occupied, starting with the most recent. ]
• Name and address of employer
• Type of business or sector
• Occupation or position held
• Main activities and responsibilities

EDUCATION AND TRAINING

• Dates (from – to) [ Add separate entries for each relevant course you have completed, starting with the most
recent. ]
• Name and type of organisation
providing education and training
• Principal subjects/occupational
skills covered
• Title of qualification awarded
• Level in national classification
(if appropriate)

63
 PERSONAL SKILLS
AND COMPETENCES
Acquired in the course of life and career
but not necessarily covered by formal
certificates and diplomas.

MOTHER TONGUE [ Specify mother tongue ]

OTHER LANGUAGES
[ Specify language ]
• Reading skills [ Indicate level: excellent, good, basic. ]
• Writing skills [ Indicate level: excellent, good, basic. ]
• Verbal skills [ Indicate level: excellent, good, basic. ]

SOCIAL SKILLS [ Describe these competences and indicate where they were acquired. ]
AND COMPETENCES
Living and working with other people, in
multicultural environments, in positions
where communication is important and
situations where teamwork is essential
(for example culture and sports), etc.

ORGANISATIONAL SKILLS [ Describe these competences and indicate where they were acquired. ]
AND COMPETENCES
Coordination and administration of
people, projects and budgets; at work, in
voluntary work (for example culture and
sports) and at home, etc.

TECHNICAL SKILLS [ Describe these competences and indicate where they were acquired. ]
AND COMPETENCES
With computers, specific kinds of
equipment, machinery, etc.

ARTISTIC SKILLS [ Describe these competences and indicate where they were acquired. ]
AND COMPETENCES
Music, writing, design, etc.

OTHER SKILLS [ Describe these competences and indicate where they were acquired. ]
AND COMPETENCES
Competences not mentioned above.

DRIVING LICENCE(S)

ADDITIONAL INFORMATION [ Include here any other information that may be relevant, for example contact persons,
references, etc. ]

ANNEXES [ List any attached annexes. ]

64
 The Letter of Application

□ A letter of application should include the following:

○ where you got the information to make the application
○ inquires about the thing you are applying for
○ your personal interests and professional experience that may make your application successful,
including qualifications.
○ your ability to speak foreign languages

□ Language notes
○ Introduction:
I’d like to apply for…

Job:…the job/post/position advertised in …/I saw advertised in …/I’ve just seen in the…
… bursary/scholarship
… course/cultural exchange
Experience: recent
for the last … I’ve been …
I’ve been … since …
general
I’ve had experience of …
I’ve done …before …
past
In 1979 I worked …
… before that I worked …
Interests: I’m very (especially) interested in …
I’m rather keen on …
One of the reasons I’m applying is …
One of my reasons for applying is …
Writing biographical information
I was born and brought up in …
was educated at …
was … given a job … dismissed …
was injured in a car crash …
Time sequences:
○ after and before: After this, I …
After graduating from high school, I applied for …
Before this, I had worked in …
Before moving to Bucharest, I sold my house in Cluj.
Until then, I lived/had lived
○ same time: During this period, I become ill …
While working at …, I got interested …
While I was working at …
It was then that I started …

65
Model

14, Newton Road

Densfield
Worcestershire
WO4 6YH
Tel: (01256) 456789
18th May 1992
Ms A Winter,
Personnel Manager,
LIB Publishing
45 Book Street
London W1B 4BK

Dear Ms Winter,
I am writing to apply for the position of Editorial Assistant that you advertised in The Guardian
on 8th May 1996, as I believe it offers the career challenge which I am seeking.

As you will see from my enclosed Curriculum Vitae, I graduated from the University of Sussex
last year and since then I have had a successful year working in a scientific environment with a
local chemical services firm.

I would like to highlight the following skills which I believe would add value to your
organisation:

Organisational skills - developed in my current job with Desford Chemical Services.

Accounting skills - developed in my role as University Entertainments Officer where I prepared

annual reports and accounts and was responsible for a budget of £15,000 per annum.

Interpersonal skills - developed through working in a team environment in my current role and
through a number of holiday vacation positions.

I have a keen interest in scientific publishing and would appreciate the opportunity of an
interview to discuss why I believe I am a good match for your requirements.

I’d be grateful if you could tell me what the wages and hours are before you invite me for an
interview.

I look forward to hearing from you.

Yours sincerely,

Angela Nadia Smith

66
2. Apply for the following summer job advertised in the Wales Advertiser. Give personal
details, ask about wages, hours and length of season.

Can you swim ? Earn some money this season on one of the loveliest beaches in Wales as a life
guard. Apply in writing to: The Town Clerk, Town Hall, Bangor, Wales

3. Read the following advertisement

Work experience! Come and work in the U.K. for six months or a year, at our expense!
The British Government are just beginning a scheme whereby exchanges may be arranged
between you and someone in Britain doing the same job. You’ll work in Britain while someone
works in your job.
Apply to: JOB SWAP
Department for Economic Trade and Development
London WC2 5TR
Great Britain.

Write a letter of application to the local British Council for the scheme. Explain why an
exchange would be interesting/useful to you. Say something about your English ability. Ask
for more details, or about anything you’re not clear about.

67
B. GRAMMAR
Inversion
Use
1. After adverbials (adverbs, adverbial phrase) at the beginning of a clause.
Never have I heard such a thing.
I have never heard such an excuse.
2. Time expressions: never, rarely, seldom.
These are most commonly used with PRESENT PERFECT, PAST PERFECT, MODALS
Rarely/Seldom/Never had I seen such a behaviour.
3. Time expressions: hardly, barely, scarcely, no sooner.
These refer to an event that quickly follows another. They are used with PAST PERFECT,
although no sooner can be followed by PAST SIMPLE.
Hardly/Barely/Scarcely had I entered the room when the phone rang.
No sooner had I entered the room than the phone rang.
4. After only.
Only later did I realize Mary was right.
Only after learning the theory was I able to solve the exercise correctly.
Only after I posted the letter, did I remember that I had forgotten to put on a stamp.
Only if you tell me what is wrong can I help you.
Only when you tell me what is wrong can I help you.
5. Phrases containing no/not (under no circumstances, on no account, at no time, in no way,
on no condition, not until, not only…but also)
On no condition are you to open this box.
Not until I got home did I notice that I had the wrong umbrella.
Not only did he fail to report the accident, but also later he denied that he had been driving the
car.
6. Little
Little did she care about her job.
7. Three types of IF-sentences can be inverted when IF is not used.
A. If they were to escape the police, the police would catch them again. (Type 2)
Were they to escape, the police would catch them again.

68
 If the police had found out, I would have been in trouble.
Were the police to have found out, I would have been in trouble. (Type 3)
B. If you should meet her, tell her that I love her.
Should you meet her, tell her that I love her.
C. If I had been there, I would have helped you.
Had I been there, I would have helped you.
8. After so, neither, nor.
- I like pizza. - I don’t like tea.
- So do I. - Neither/ nor do I.
9. With so and such
SUCH+NOUN
Such fun am I having that I don’t want to leave.
Such a relief did she feel that she couldn’t speak.
SO+ADJECTIF/ADVERB
So impressive was everything that he burst out crying.
So impressive a show was it that he burst out crying.
10. A MAY-clause introduced by although
Although it may be difficult, I want to do it.
Difficult as it may be, I want to do it.
11. After as
We were short of money, as were most people in our neighbourhood.
Exercises
Rephrase the following sentences
1. The facts were not all made public until later.
Only _____________________________________
2. If I had realized what would happen, I wouldn’t have accepted the job.
Had ______________________________________
3. The response to our appeal was so great that we had to take on more staff.
Such _____________________________________
4. Harry broke his leg, and also injured his shoulder.
Not only __________________________________

69
5. The police didn’t at all suspect that the judge was murdered.
Little _____________________________________
6. If you do happen to see Helen, could you ask her to call me.
Should ____________________________________
7. The bus driver cannot be blamed for the accident in any way.
In ________________________________________
8. The snowfall was so heavy that all the trains had to be cancelled.
So ________________________________________
9. There was so much uncertainty that the financial markets remained closed.
Such ______________________________________
10. You won’t be allowed in until your identity has been checked.
Only ______________________________________
11. Just after the play started there was a power failure.
Hardly _____________________________________
12. The Prime Minister has hardly ever made a speech as inept as this.
Rarely _____________________________________
13. We had only just arrived home when the police called.
Scarcely ___________________________________
14. Press photographers are banned from taking photographs backstage.
On no _____________________________________

70
C. VOCABULARY
Swimming
1. Read the following text and solve the tasks below.
Swimming is the act of moving through the water by using the arms, legs, and body in motions
called strokes. The most common strokes are the crawl, backstroke, breaststroke, butterfly, and
sidestroke. Swimming is an integral part of almost all water-based activities. It is also a competitive sport
itself.
Some scientists believe that human beings are born with an instinctive ability to use their arms and
legs to stay afloat. That instinct, however, disappears within a few months after birth. Later in life many
children and adults learn to swim in order to be safe around the water, to have fun, and to participate in
competition.
In rivers and oceans, all swimmers should respect the power of nature. Powerful waves, tides, and
currents can easily overpower even the most experienced swimmers, sweeping them out beyond safety or
throwing them into coral or rocks. Caves pose additional dangers because swimmers can be trapped inside
them. Swimmers must follow the instructions of lifeguards and obey posted information about water
conditions, tides, and other dangers such as jellyfish or pollution. A good precaution for children is the
buddy system, in which each child is paired with another while in the water. This system ensures that no
person is swimming alone and that if an emergency does happen, the lifeguard can be notified
immediately.
Swim meets are organized competitions that pit individual swimmers or swimming teams against
each other. Most meets feature preliminary races, called heats, that occur before the finals. The top eight
swimmers from the preliminaries compete in the finals of each event. In the finals, the fastest swimmers
are assigned to the middle lanes. These lanes are considered most desirable because the swimmers in
them are most aware of the positions of their competitors. Swimmers in the middle lanes also encounter
the least wave action from the water as it travels from the swimmers and bounces off the sides of the pool.
During competition, swimmers must obey the starter’s commands. When the starter announces
“Take your marks,” all the swimmers must assume the starting position by crouching on the blocks. The
starter’s horn (or pistol) then sounds, indicating the start of the race, and the swimmers dive into the
water. In most meets, any swimmer who makes a false start by leaving the starting block before the horn
sounds is disqualified. In Olympic competition, two false starts are allowed for the competitors as a
whole. After these two, any competitor who makes a false start is disqualified.
Swimmers are also disqualified for swimming the wrong stroke or for swimming the stroke
incorrectly, as judged by officials. Turning incorrectly or failing to surface 15 m after the turn can also
lead to disqualification.

71
A. Decide whether the following statements are true (T) or false (F) according to the text.

1. The strokes are pieces of equipment used by professional swimmers.

2. It is thought that humans are completely incapable of swimming at birth.
3. People learn to swim only for recreational reasons.
4. Swimming is both an individual and a team sport.
5. The heats and the finals take place at the same time.

B. Choose the correct answer according to the text.

1. In the text the word ‘overpower’ means

A. to take advantage of, B. to be stronger than,

C. to help somebody to become stronger.

2. How many children swim together according to the ‘buddy system’?

A. four, B. three, C. two.

3. In the text the phrase ‘pit against’ means

A. to make somebody compete against someone else, B. to try hard to achieve something
C. to make somebody cooperate with somebody else.

4. Why are the fastest swimmers assigned to the middle lanes?

A. so that the spectators can see their performance better, B. because these lanes have several
shortcomings, C. because these lanes give them some advantages over their opponents.

5. In the Olympic Games, swimmers are allowed to make:

A. no more than two false starts, B. more than two false starts,
C. a limitless number of false starts.

2. Each of the following pictures illustrates a swimming stroke. Write their names in the
box bellow the pictures.

1 2 3 4 5

72
2. Match the names of the swimming strokes with their definitions.
1. crawl a. This stroke is one of the easiest and most
relaxing strokes for novices. Competitive
swimmers, however, find it difficult because it
uses more energy than the crawl and
backstroke when swum at a fast pace. When
using this stroke, the swimmer enters the water
with the body streamlined, facing the pool
bottom with arms and legs fully extended. To
begin the stroke, the swimmer sweeps the arms
out with the hands facing outward and bent
slightly upward at the wrist.
2. backstroke b. This stroke is powerful, graceful, and fast.
More than any other stroke, it relies on good
technique. It is swum with an undulating
motion. The arms are brought forward over the
water’s surface, then brought back together in
front of the body simultaneously. Each arm
stroke is complemented by two dolphin kicks,
meaning the feet are kept together and brought
down then up again, much like the motion of a
dolphin’s tail.
3. breaststroke c. This is the only stroke that is swum on the
back, with the swimmer looking up. Swimmers
therefore cannot see where they are going.
Because the face is out of the water, swimmers
need no special breathing technique. The
flutterkick is similar to that used by crawl
swimmers do.
4. butterfly d. This stroke’s propulsion comes mainly from
the legs in a movement called a scissors kick,
because the legs are brought together
powerfully like the shears of a pair of scissors.
The arms provide some propulsion but mainly
serve to stabilize the body on its side.
5. sidestroke f. It is the fastest and most efficient swimming
technique. It is also called the freestyle,
because swimmers use it in freestyle events,
which allow the use of any stroke. The
swimmer travels through the water with the
chest and head pointing downward toward the
bottom. The legs move in a flutterkick, moving
up and down quickly and continually. Each
arm stroke begins as the right arm is brought in
front and slightly to the right of the swimmer’s
head and into the water.

73
4. The natural sequence of moments in the following strokes has been mixed up. Look at
the pictures and read the fragments carefully to re-establish the appropriate order.
Crawl a. The swimmer continues the rotation of his
body, and his face and chest are now
submerged. His right arm continues its stroke
through the water, providing power and
movement. His left arm is back in the water and
helps streamline the body as the swimmer glides
forward. His legs continue the flutterkick.
b. The swimmer now tips his body on its left
side and takes a breath. His right arm has
finished its stroke through the water and comes
above the surface. His left arm moves under the
surface to begin its stroke. The flutterkick
continues.
c. The swimmer is rotating his body down into
the water, and his right arm is beginning to pull
under his body. The swimmer has swung his left
arm through the air out in front of his body and
is about to dip it into the water again. His legs
continue to move in a flutterkick.
d. The swimmer has tipped his body on its right
side and it taking a breath. His right arm is
stretched out ahead of his body, ready to start
pulling down through the water. His left arm has
just finished a stroke, and the swimmer has
pulled it out of the water and is about to swing it
through the air ahead of his body again. The
swimmer is moving his feet in a flutterkick.
Backstroke a. The swimmer has tipped her body slightly on
the right side. Her right arm is outstretched and is
beginning to pull from above her head down
through the water. Her left arm is just coming out
of the water. The swimmer is moving her feet in a
flutterkick.
b. The swimmer rotates her body onto its left side.
Her left arm begins its stroke down through the
water while her right arm comes out of the water
and the swimmer begins to pull it through the air
ahead of her body. The flutterkick continues.
c. The swimmer is rotating her body so that her
back has dropped into the water. Her right arm
pulls down through the water as her left arm
swings up through the air ahead of her body. Her
legs continue to move in a flutterkick.
d. The swimmer starts to rotate her body onto its
left side as her left arm dips into the water ahead
of her body. Her right arm has finished its stroke
through the water and is about to come above the
surface again. Her legs continue the flutterkick.

74
Breaststroke a. The swimmer drops his face back into the water
and throws his arms forward under the water. While
keeping his upper legs in position, he swings his
lower legs out. When he straightens them again, he
will push his body forward.
b. The swimmer pulls his head and shoulders
entirely out of the water and takes a breath. Having
pulled his arms down to his chest the swimmer now
pulls his hands up under his chin, just about at water
surface. He continues to flex his knees.
c. The swimmer begins to rise out of the water. He
swings his arms out, bends his elbows, and begins to
pull down through the water. He flexes his knees to
begin the leg stroke.
d. The swimmer has extended his body into a
streamlined position and is gliding through the
water. His face is under the water surface, and his
arms are out ahead of his body. His palms are turned
upward, ready to begin a stroke.
Butterfly a. The swimmer has extended his body in a
streamlined position, and his face is under the water
surface. His arms have just dipped under the water.
Facing out, his palms are ready to begin their stroke
through the water. His legs have just finished a kick
and are now extended.
b. The swimmer begins to pull his face out of the
water as he bends his elbows and pulls his arms
together through the water underneath his body. His
legs begin to flex together in a powerful dolphin
kick.
c. He now straightens his arms and throws them
forward to begin his next stroke. His face dips under
the water again as he streamlines his body. He is
about to flex his legs for another quick dolphin kick,
which will begin just as his hands hit the water.
d. The swimmer arches his back, and his head rises
out of the water completely as he takes a breath. His
elbows stay bent as the arms continue their stroke
through the water. His legs now begin to straighten
again.

75
Sidestroke a. The swimmer moves back to the original glide
position.

b. When the glide slows, the swimmer pulls her

left arm down through the water as she moves her
right arm toward her left shoulder. She draws her
knees up toward her chest slightly.
c. The swimmer crosses her arms in front of her
chest. At the same time, she flexes her knees and
kicks her right leg forward in front of the body
and her left leg back behind the body.
d. With her left ear in the water, the swimmer has
extended her body in a streamlined position as she
glides through the water.

76