Chemistry IGCSE: Higher Tier Revision Syllabus This booklet contains all the topics you need to know

for your IGCSE Chemistry paper, but not necessarily in sufficient detail. It must be used in conjunction with your other resources (e.g. textbook, notebook, revision guide)

1. Principles of chemistry a) States of matter The particles in solids and liquids are touching whilst in a gas they are far apart. In a solid particles can only vibrate, in a liquid they can move and in a gas they are moving quickly b) Atoms We know from experiments that matter is made up of small particles that move randomly: dilution of coloured solutions (shows how small particles are), diffusion experiments (shows particles move), Brownian motion (shows particles move randomly) An element is the simplest type of substance, and an atom is the particle of which elements are composed Atomic masses are the masses of atoms relative to 12C = 12 and are referred to as relative atomic masses (Ar) A mole of atoms is a number of atoms equal to the Avogadro Constant (= 6 x 1023). You can also have a mole of molecules, ions, electrons, anything! You need to know when to use the following separation techniques: filtration (solid from a liquid), crystallization (solid dissolved in a liquid), simple distillation (the liquid from a dissolved solid), fractional distillation (two liquids with similar boiling points) and chromatography (a mixture of liquids) c) Atomic structure Atoms consist of a central nucleus, composed of protons and neutrons, surrounded by orbiting electrons Relative mass and relative charge of a proton, neutron and electron: proton rel. mass = 1 ; rel. charge = + 1 neutron - rel. mass = 1 ; rel. charge = 0 electron - rel. mass = l/1840 (about zero); rel. charge = -1 Atomic number = proton number, mass number = proton + neutron number. Isotopes have the same atomic number but different mass number (eg 35Cl and 37Cl, both atomic number 17) You should be able to calculate the relative atomic mass (average mass of an atom, taking into account the relative abundances of the naturally occurring isotopes) of an element from the relative abundances of its isotopes (Ar = sum of (mass numbers x abundances)/(total abundance)) Isotopes react identically because chemical properties depend only on the number of electrons in the outer shell of the atom. You should recall the electronic configurations of the first twenty elements of the Periodic Table

 Atoms have similar chemical properties if the electron configurations are similar: Group 1 elements (2.1; 2.8.1; 2.8.8.1) and the Group 7 elements (2.7; 2.8.7; 2.8.18.7; 2.8.18.18.7) Noble gas electronic configurations (2; 2.8; 2.8.8; 2.8.18.8; 2.8.18.18.8) make atoms unreactive. d) Relative formula masses and molar volumes Relative formula masses for a compound (Mr) can be calculated from the Ars of the constituent atoms (just add them up! H2O = 1+1+16 = 18) moles = mass (g) / Ar or moles = mass (g) / Mr 1 mole of ANY gas occupies the same volume. This is the molar volume of a gas, and it depends upon conditions: at rtp (24 dm3 per mole = 24000 cm3 per mole). e) Chemical formulae and chemical equations You should understand experiments to find the formulae of simple compounds such as copper (II) oxide (reduction to copper, measure mass before and after, calculate empirical formula) and water (electrolysis and measure vols of gases produced). This type of experiment has been done with other compounds. You should be able to calculate empirical formulae (simplest formulae) from composition data and be able to convert this into a molecular formulae (need the Mr). You should be able to calculate percentage yield (= (what you get / what you expected) x 100) Remember to use the state symbols (l), (s), (g) and (aq) in chemical equations to represent liquids, solids, gases and aqueous solutions respectively when asked in the question. Be able to write balanced chemical equations to represent the reactions studied in this specification. f) Ionic compounds You should be able to: describe the formation of ions by gain or loss of electrons link electronic configuration and ionic charge use the dot and cross model to explain the formation of an ionic compound by electron transfer, limited to combinations of Li+, Na+, Mg2+, F-, Cl- and O2-

recall that: ionic compounds, such as NaCl and MgO, have high melting points and high boiling points because of strong electrostatic forces between ions; MgO has a much higher melting point and boiling point than NaCl because of the increased charges on the ions

 recall that there is a strong electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions, called an ionic bond, and this extends throughout the ionic structure describe an ionic crystal as a giant three-dimensional ionic structure held together by attraction between oppositely charged ions.

g) Covalent substances You should be able to: describe how covalent bonds involve the sharing of electron pairs between outer electron shells of atoms, and that these bonds are strong recall that the covalent bond is the result of attraction between the bonding pair of electrons and the nuclei of the atoms involved in the bond use dot and cross diagrams to represent single covalent bonds in: hydrogen; chlorine; water; methane; ammonia; hydrogen chloride (the inner shells are not normally needed read the question!)

describe the electron arrangement in more complex covalent molecules such as: oxygen; nitrogen; ethane; ethene; carbon dioxide. recall that substances with molecular structures are usually gases, liquids or solids with low melting points and boiling points and be able to explain this in terms of the relatively weak forces between the molecules (intermolecular forces apply to molecules only) describe and explain the physical properties of a typical simple covalent compound low m.p and b.p., doesnt conduct a current even when molten/in solution

 recall that diamond and graphite are allotropes of carbon describe and explain the giant molecular covalent structures of diamond and graphite and relate their structures to their use - graphite as a lubricant and diamond in cutting

understand that atoms in diamond and graphite are held together by strong covalent bonds which result in high sublimation points. h) Metallic crystals A metal is a giant structure: a lattice of positively charged metal ions in which electrons are free to move. relate the structure of a metal to physical properties such as conductivity (electrons can move) and malleability (layers of metal ions slide over each other, sea of electrons fills the gaps). i) Electrolysis make sure you can: recall simple experiments to distinguish between electrolytes and non-electrolytes understand an electric current as a flow of electrons or ions understand that ionic compounds conduct electricity when molten or in solution because the ions can move recall the charges on common ions met in the specification recall that one Faraday represents one mole of electrons calculate the amounts of the products of the electrolysis of molten salts and aqueous solutions write ionic half-equations representing the reactions at the electrodes during electrolysis Eg Al3+ + 3 e- Al; 2O2- O2 + 4e-

recognise oxidation as the loss of electrons and reduction as the gain of electrons

2. Chemistry of the elements a) The Periodic Table The Periodic Table is an arrangement of elements according to atomic number (NOT relative atomic mass) Elements can be classified as metals and non-metals on the basis of their properties (eg electrical conductivity). Be aware that some elements exhibit a mixture of the properties of metals and nonmetals (eg silicon shiny but forms covalent bonds) The charges of simple ions correlates with the position of an element in the Periodic Table (i.e group 1 forms M+, 2 forms M2+, 7 forms X-, 6 forms X2-). Reactivity of the elements within Groups 1, 2 and 7 changes as the group is descended (increases down 1&2, decreases down 7) The noble gases (Group 0) are inert b) The Group 1 elements - lithium, sodium and potassium The Alkali Metals They all react with water to form hydroxides and hydrogen 2NaOH + H2 eg: 2Na + 2H2O You should be able to describe any observations during these reactions: e.g. sodium moves around the surface of water, an effervescence is seen, sodium disappears You should be able to explain the trend in reactivity in terms of ease of loss of an outer electron as it gets further from the nucleus so less strongly attracted As a result of your knowledge of Li, Na and K, you can predict properties of Rb and Cs. c) The Group 7 elements - chlorine, bromine and iodine The Halogens You should know the colour and physical states of the elements at room temperature; Fluorine colourless gas, Chlorine pale green gas, Bromine red liquid, Iodine grey solid. The halogen and halide ion can be interconverted (eg electrolysis 2Cl --(aq) Cl2(g) + 2e or I2(aq) + 2Cl (aq) displacement with more reactive halogen 2I --(aq) + Cl2(aq) Note that the iodide ions is being oxidized as it is losing an electron Remember difference between hydrogen chloride (a covalent molecular gas) and hydrochloric acid (a solution of the gas in water that has dissociated into H+(aq) and Cl-(aq)) A solution of hydrogen chloride in water is acidic due to dissociation, but in methylbenzene it is not, because the molecule does not dissociate. Test for chlorine - bleaches damp litmus paper You should be prepared to make simple predictions about the properties of other halogens in this group (b.p., state at rtp, colour etc)

d) Oxygen and oxides The air is a mixture of gases (N2 = 78%, O2 = 21%, Ar = 1%, CO2 = 0.03% by volume) Oxygen may be produced in the lab by decomposition of hydrogen peroxide, using manganese (IV) oxide as a catalyst. 2H2O2 2H2O + O2 (note MnO2 is not in the equation)

You should be able to describe the reactions with oxygen in air with magnesium, iron, copper, carbon, sulphur and methane and write equations. 2Mg(s) + O2(g) 2MgO(s) , 4Fe(s) + 3O2(g) 2Fe2O3(s) etc The percentage by volume of oxygen in the air may be determined by passing air over heated copper and look at volume change after cooling.

Oxidation and reduction may be defined as the addition and removal of oxygen respectively Sulphur dioxide is acidic in solution (acid rain) and it reacts with water to form sulphurous acid, H2SO3. Remember the laboratory preparation of carbon dioxide (marble chips and dil HCl, CaCl2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l) collect over water) CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq)

You should know some simple physical properties of carbon dioxide (denser than air, slightly soluble in water) and its reaction with water (forms carbonic acid, H2CO3) and alkalis (forms carbonates, eg Na2CO3).

 Carbon dioxide is used to carbonate drinks and in fire extinguishers Nitrogen reacts with oxygen if an electrical spark is present (internal combustion engine or during a thunder storm) to form nitrogen monoxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2) e) Hydrogen and water Dilute hydrochloric and dilute sulphuric acids react with magnesium, aluminium, zinc and iron to produce hydrogen and a salt Hydrogen reacts with oxygen to form water: 2H2(g) + O2(g) 2H2O(g) Water can be tested for using anhydrous copper (II) sulphate (white to blue), CuSO4 + 5H2O CuSO4.5H2O If water is pure it has a b.p. of 100oC f) Reactivity series Elements can be arranged in order of their reactivity know the order K,Na,Li,Ca,Mg,Al,C,Zn,Fe,H,Cu and recall reactions used to establish the order of reactivity (ie displacement reactions) Iron requires oxygen and moisture to rust (rust is hydrated iron(III) oxide) Rusting of iron and mild steel may be prevented by grease, oil, paint, plastic and galvanizing (sacrificial protection) describe the sacrificial protection of iron and mild steel in terms of the reactivity series. g) Tests for ions and gases You should be able to: recall simple tests for the cations: flame tests - Li+ (red), Na+ (orange), K+ (lilac), Ca2+ (brick red) using flame tests; sodium hydroxide - NH4+ (ammonia evolved on warming: damp red litmus turns blue); sodium hydroxide - Cu2+ (blue ppt), Fe2+ (dark green ppt) and Fe3+ (rust coloured ppt) recall simple tests for the anions: silver nitrate + nitric acid - chloride (white ppt), bromide (cream ppt) and iodide (yellow ppt); barium chloride and hydrochloric acid sulphate (white ppt); carbonate (identifying the carbon dioxide evolved, see below) recall simple tests for the gases: ammonia (damp red litmus turns blue); carbon dioxide (limewater turns milky); chlorine (bleaches damp litmus); hydrogen (pops with lit splint); oxygen (re-lights glowing splint)

3. Organic chemistry a) Alkanes Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons (hydrocarbon = compound of carbon and hydrogen only, saturated = no C=C bonds) A homologous series is a series of compounds with same general formula and gradually changing physical properties, eg b.p. General formula is CnH2n+2 Isomers are compounds of the same molecular formula but different displayed formulae You should be able to draw displayed formulae of all the alkanes containing up to five carbon atoms (not just straight chains), and name them (remember all Cs have 4 bonds, all Hs have 1)

methylbutane Remember the chlorination of methane (produces chloromethane and HCl, requires UV UV light) CH4 + Cl2 CH3Cl + HCl b) Alkenes Alkenes are unsaturated hydrocarbons (unsaturated means it contains C=C bonds) General formula is CnH2n Make sure you can draw displayed formulae for alkenes containing up to 4 carbon atoms in a molecule The test for alkenes is that they decolourise bromine water c) Ethanol Ethanol (C2H5OH) is made industrially by: passing ethene and steam over a heated phosphoric acid catalyst;
C2H4(g) + H2O(g) C6H12O6(aq) C2H5OH(g) 2C2H5OH(aq) + 2CO2(g)

Or by the fermentation of sugars (conditions = yeast, in solution, around 35C) evaluate the factors which are relevant to the choice of method to be used in the manufacture of ethanol, e.g. the relative availability of sugar cane and crude oil or the use that the product will be put to (does it need to be suitable for consumption, does it need to be 100% pure?) Ethanol may be dehydrated to ethene (hot aluminium oxide):
C2H5OH H2O + C2H4

4. Physical chemistry a) Acidity, alkalinity and neutralisation Know how to test for acidity and alkalinity, using suitable indicators Recall the colours produced by the following indicators in acidic solution and alkaline solution: litmus (acid = red, alkaline = blue), phenolphthalein (acid = colourless, alkaline = pink), methyl orange (acid = red, alkaline = yellow) and universal indicator (acid = red, alkaline = purple) Describe the pH scale, running from 0-14, as a scale of acidity and alkalinity Solutions which have a pH value less than 7 are acidic, those with a pH value of more than 7 are alkaline and those with a pH of 7 are neutral Acids and alkalis are defined in terms of proton transfer (acids = proton donors, alkalis = proton acceptors) Describe how to carry out acid-alkali titrations including; use of burette, use of pipette, careful addition of solution near endpoint, use of appropriate indicator (with colour change) Do calculations involving solutions whose concentrations are given in mol dm-3 Solubility Rules all common sodium, potassium and ammonium salts are soluble all nitrates are soluble; common chlorides are soluble (except silver chloride) common sulphates are soluble (except barium and calcium) common carbonates and hydroxides are insoluble (except those of sodium, potassium and ammonium) understand that insoluble salts can be formed as precipitates by the reaction of suitable reagents in solution use information on solubility to predict methods of preparing salts: insoluble reactant soluble salt: use excess of solid e.g. CuSO4 from excess CuO added to H2SO4, filter off excess, evaporate to half bulk and leave to cool, filter and dry soluble reactants insoluble salt: use rules of solubility to decide what to mix, filter insoluble salt from solution, wash and dry soluble reactants soluble salts use titration of acid with alkali using burette, pipette and indicators, repeat without indicator, evaporate to half volume, cool and filter, dry. b) Energetics Chemical reactions are accompanied by an energy change which, in solution, may be detected as a temperature change Reactions may be described as exothermic when heat energy is given out and endothermic when heat energy is taken in Recall that energy changes accompany combustion, solution and neutralisation Remember the H notation (negative = exothermic) Explain the term enthalpy change The breaking of bonds is endothermic and that the making of bonds is exothermic Heats of reaction are the result of energy changes when bonds are broken and formed Be able to draw energy profiles for exothermic and endothermic reactions

Exothermic Endothermic Use average bond dissociation energies to calculate the energy change during a simple chemical reaction. H = bonds broken bonds formed. c) Rates of reaction Describe the effect of surface area, concentration, temperature and the use of a catalyst on the rate of a reaction Describe experiments to investigate the effects of temperature, concentration and surface area of a solid on the rate of reaction Explain the effects of particle size, concentration and temperature in terms of effective collisions per unit time and particles per unit volume using a simple kinetic model Understand that activation energy is the minimum energy required for a collision to be successful Know that a catalyst works by the lowering the activation energy by offering and alternative pathway, therefore allowing a greater proportion of particles to have sufficient energy to react d) Equilibria Be aware of the idea of a simple reversible reaction, such as the hydration of heated anhydrous copper(II) sulphate or the effect of heat on ammonium chloride You need to understand the concept of dynamic equilibrium (dynamic = forward and backward reactions always happening, equilibrium = amounts of reactants and products do not change because the speed forward = the speed backwards) and the use of the symbol in equations You should be able to predict the effects of changing the conditions (pressure and temperature) on reversible reactions including the industrial processes outlined in section 5d (Le Chateliers principle)

5. Chemistry in Society a) Extraction and uses of metals Remember the extraction of aluminium from purified bauxite (aluminium oxide) by electrolysis, including: use of molten cryolite; need to replace the positive electrodes; cost of the electricity as a major consideration

Write ionic half-equations for the reactions at the electrodes in aluminium extraction cathode: Al3+ + 3e Al, anode:2O2 O2 + 2e Describe the reaction of carbon with metal oxides Recall how iron is extracted from iron ore in a blast furnace using the raw materials iron oxide, coke, limestone and air

C(s) + O2(g) CO2(g) heat for furnace 2C(s) + O2(g) 2CO(g) reducing agent Fe2O3(s) + 3CO(g) 2Fe(l) + 3CO2(g) CaCO3(s) CaO(s) + CO2(g) CaO(s) + SiO2(s) CaSiO3(l) slag

Describe and explain the main reactions involved in the extraction of iron, including the role of carbon dioxide and limestone Explain how the methods of extraction of the metals in this section are related to their positions in the reactivity series Recall some important uses of the metals in this section and relate the uses to specified properties eg Aluminium for overhead power lines owing to its high electrical conductivity and low density. Iron for bridges owing to its high tensile strength b) Natural oil and gas Crude oil is a complex mixture of hydrocarbons Describe how the process of fractional distillation can be used to separate the hydrocarbons in crude oil Recall that the fractions obtained from crude oil are refinery gases, gasoline, kerosene, diesel, fuel oil and bitumen

 Describe the physical properties and uses of the main fractions Recall that complete combustion of hydrocarbon fuels produces carbon dioxide and water Recall that incomplete combustion of fuels may produce carbon monoxide Recall that carbon monoxide is poisonous because it reduces the capacity of blood to carry oxygen Recall that fractional distillation of crude oil produces more long-chain and fewer shortchain hydrocarbons than required Describe how long-chain hydrocarbons are cracked to give more short-chain hydrocarbons c) Synthetic polymers A polymer is formed by joining up many small molecules of monomer Polymers may be made by two different processes: addition and condensation Ethene is used in the manufacture of the addition polymer poly(ethene) Be able to describe the manufacture of poly(ethene) and draw its structure, showing the repeat unit

Apply the principles of addition polymerisation to the addition polymers poly(propene) and poly(chloroethene) Recall the uses of polymers: poly(ethene), poly(propene) and poly(chloroethene) and be able to link the properties of a polymer to its use Recall the types of monomers used in the manufacture of the condensation polymer nylon (di-carboxylic acids and di-amines)

 Describe the formation of nylon (a polyamide) and draw its structure in a block diagram format

d) The manufacture of some important chemicals Recall how nitrogen, from air, and hydrogen, from natural gas or the cracking of hydrocarbons, are used in the manufacture of ammonia (Haber process) N2 + 3H2 2NH3 Recall the conditions used in the Haber process: 450 C; 200 atmospheres; an iron catalyst; remember how the ammonia produced is liquefied and any unused hydrogen and nitrogen recycled Recall important uses of ammonia, including the manufacture of nitric acid and NPK fertilisers by neutralisation with appropriate acids Recall the raw materials used in the manufacture of sulphuric acid (S, air and water) Describe the manufacture of sulphuric acid by the contact process, including essential conditions VO S(l) + O2(g) SO2(g) ; 2SO2(g) + O2(g) 450 oC 2SO3(g) ;
2 5

SO3(g) + H2O

98% H2SO4

H2SO4(aq)

Recall important uses of sulphuric acid, to illustrate its economic importance (manufacture of fertilisers, paints, detergents) Understand that sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides are pollutant gases which contribute to acid rain Discuss some of the problems associated with acid rain (kills aquatic life in lakes, deforestation) Describe the manufacture of sodium hydroxide and chlorine by the electrolysis of sodium chloride solution (brine) in a diaphragm cell anode: 2Cl- Cl2 + 2e-; cathode: 2H+ + 2e- H2 Recall important uses of sodium hydroxide (manufacture of soap, paper, ceramics) and chlorine (in bleach and sterilising water supplies).