RESEARCH DESIGN WHAT IS RESEARCH DESIGN?

An activity-and-time based plan The design is always based o the research question Guides the selection of sources and types of information A framework for specifying the relationship among the variables Outlines procedures for every research activity

COMPONENTS OF RESEARCH DESIGN The Sampling Design: Method of selecting samples The Observational Design: Procedures and techniques to be used for gathering information The Statistical Design: Methods used in analysis of data The Operational Design: Deals with the techniques by which procedures specified in sampling, statistical and observational designs can be carried out. DESCRIPTORS OF RESEARCH DESIGN
CATEGRY The degree to which research question has been crystallised Method of data collection OPTIONS Exploratory Study Formal Study Monitoring Communication

DESCRIPTORS OF RESEARCH DESIGN

CATEGORY The power of the researcher to produce effects in the variables

under study The purpose of the study OPTIONS Experimental Ex post facto Descriptive Causal
CATEGORY Time-dimension The topical scope-breadth and depth of study OPTIONS Cross-sectional Longitudinal Case Statistical study CATEGORY Research Environment OPTIONS Field setting Laboratory Research Simulation

DIFFERENT PURPOSES OF RESEARCH & RESEARCH DESIGN 1. Exploratory Studies: Purpose- To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insight into it, often in order to formulate a more precise research problem or hypothesis.
2. Descriptive Studies: To portray accurately the characteristics of

a particular situation or group or individual with or without specific initial hypothesis about the nature of theses characteristics.
3. Diagnostic Studies: To determine the frequency with which

something occurs or with which it I associated with something else ( usually but not necessarily with a specific initial hypothesis.
4. Experimental studies: To test a hypothesis of a causal

relationship between variables. EXPLORATORY RESEARCH Purposes: Formulate a problem or define a problem more precisely Identify alternative courses of action Develop hypotheses Isolate key variables and relationships for further examination Gain insight for developing an approach to the problem Establish priorities for further research

EXPLORATORY RESEARCH
Characteristics: Research process is flexible & unstructured. Information needed is defined only loosely. Sample is small. Analysis of primary data qualitative. Focus of investigation may shift constantly as new insights are

discovered. EXPLORATORY RESEARCH

Methods Used: A search for secondary information sources (Survey of Literature) Experience Survey: Interview with persons who are knowledgeable

about the subject area being explored Examination of analogous situation Focus group survey: A focus group is a panel pf people, led by a trained moderator, who meet for 90 minutes to 2 hours.

DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH It is narration of facts & characteristics concerning individual, group or situation. DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH Objectives: Descriptions of phenomena or characteristics associated with subject population ( the who, what, when, where, and how of a topic) Estimates the proportion of population that have these characteristics Discovery of association among different variables

DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH
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Methods Used: Survey Method Observation Method Examination of Records Interview

DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH
Steps: Formulating the objective of the study Designing the methods of data collection Sample selection Data collection Processing and Analysis of data Reporting the findings

Concept of cause: The essential element in causation is that-

A produces B or A forces B to occur Advertisement increases Sales

THE CONCEPT OF CAUSE: MILLS METHOD OF AGREEMENT THE CONCEPT OF CAUSE: MILLS METHOD OF DIFFERENCE

CAUSAL RELATIONSHIP

In business research the cause-effect relationship is less explicit. It deals with explaining, predicting, and controlling relationship

between variables. POSSIBLE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEM TWO VARIABLES

Symmetrical Reciprocal Asymmetrical Symmetrical relationship: Two variables fluctuate together but we

assume the changes in neither variable are due to changes in the other. Reciprocal Relationship- Two variables mutually influence or reinforce each other. Asymmetrical Relationship: Changes in one variable (IV) are responsible for changes in other TESTING CAUSAL HYPOTHESIS
In testing causal hypothesis, three types of evidence are required: Covariation between A and B Do we find that A and B occur together in the way we

hypothesised? When A does not occur, is there also an absence of B? When there is more or less A, does one also finds more or less B?

TESTING CAUSAL HYPOTHESIS 2. Time order of events moving in the hypothesized direction. Does A occur before B? 3. No other possible causes of B? Can we determine that C, D, and E do not covary with B in a way that suggests possible causal connections? CAUSATION AND EX POST FACTO DESIGN Instead of manipulating and/or controlling exposure to an experimental variable, we study subjects who have been exposed to the independent factors and who are not. EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES In experimental studies researcher tests the hypotheses of causal relationship between variables. The researcher manipulates the independent or explanatory variable in a setting and see how it affects the subjects being studied. AN EVALUATION OF EXPERIMENTS Advantages: Researchers ability to manipulate the independent variable. Contamination from extraneous variable can be controlled more effectively than in other designs. Replication leads to the discovery of an average effect of the IV across, people, situations and times.
Disadvantages: Artificiality of the laboratory Generalisation from nonprobability sample can pose problem Experimental studies of the past is not feasible. Studies about intension or predictions are difficult.

CAUSATION AND EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

Other requirements: Control: All factors, with the exception of the independent variable,

must be held constant and not confounded with other variable that is part of the study. Randomization: Each person in the study must have an equal chance for exposure to each level of the independent variable. CONDUCTING AN EXPERIMENT Select relevant variables Specify the level(s) of treatment Control the experimental environment. Choose the experimental design Select and assign the subjects. Pilot-test, revise and test Analyse the data. AN EXAMPLE Research Question: Does a sales presentation that describes product benefits in the introduction of the message lead to improved retention of product knowledge? Hypothesis: Sales presentation in which the benefits models is placed in the introduction of a 12-minute message produce better retention of product knowledge than those where the benefits model placed in conclusion VALIDITY IN EXPERIMENTATION
Validity: Validity refers to the extent to which a test/experiment

measures what one actually wishes to measure. Internal Validity: Do the conclusions we draw about a demonstrated experimental relationship truly imply cause? External Validity: Does an observed causal relationship generalise across person, settings & times? INTERNAL VALIDITY

History: During the time that an experiment is taking place, some

events may occur that confuse the relationship being studied. Maturation: Changes may occur within a subject that are a function of time and are not specific to a particular event. Testing: The process of taking a test can affect the scores of a second test. Instrumentation: Changes between observations in either the measuring instrument or the observer. Selection: Differential selection of subjects for experimental and control groups. EXTERNAL VALIDITY
The Reactivity of Testing on X The reactivity effect refers to

sensitizing subjects via a pretest so they respond to the experimental stimulus in a different way. The population from which one selects subjects may not be same as the population to which one generalises the results. EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGN
BEFORE AND AFTER WITHOUT CONTROL DESIGN Single test group DV is measured before the introduction of the treatment Treatment is introduced Effect is measured BEFORE AND AFTER WITHOUT CONTROL DESIGN
AFTER-ONLY WITH CONTROL DESIGN BEFORE AND AFTER WITH CONTROL DESIGN COMPLETELY RANDOMIZED DESIGN RANDOMIZED BLOCK DESIGN LATIN SQUARE DESIGN

FACTORIAL DESIGN A factorial design is used to measure the effects of two or more
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independent variables at various levels. Factorial designs allows for interaction between variables. An interaction is said to take place when simultaneous effect of two or more variables is different from the sum of their separate effects.

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