Projects can be successfully completed, in respect of timely completion, optimum use of men, materials and machines and achievement

of overall economy, and derivation of intended results with regard to targets and social benefits-only through adoption of appropriate principles of management. In small works, the engineer will himself be the manager, but in large construction projects, there will be separate management divisions, with managers and other personnel for each section, such as materials, production, plant and machinery, finance, maintenance, personnel and safety and other aspects.

CONSTRUCTION MANAGEMENT
Management is a way of utilising or implementing technology. If technology deals only with material or physical aspects, management deals with materials and men, thus introducing the human element. Management helps coordination of all activities involving materials, machine, men and monetary aspects. It helps in increase of productivity through proper use of technology as well as other factors. Management encompasses all the aspects such as planning, design, construction and postconstruction activities such as monitoring and evaluation of the construction project in question.

General Aims of Management

(1) To plan procedures and all work items in a systematic manner. (2) To organise the activities in a connected way, i.e., taking their interrelationships into account. It aims to simplify the works and bring a balance between items. (3) To handle personnel management such as recruitment, training, and lay down functions, powers and responsibility of each level of personnel employed on work. (4) Arrange for proper supervision and issue directions. (5) To exert control on the running of the activities, to maintain the planned schedule and conformity to norms and specifications. (6) To make decisions which would lead to coordinated and smooth working of different wings and prevention of conflicts and delays. (7) To maintain the system of instructions and communication uninterrupted, quick and effective. The above aims may be listed as planning, organising, personnel, directions, control, coordination and communications.

SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
To achieve speed, economy and efficiency of constructions, the following specific objectives may be kept in consideration. (1) Planning to be scientific and methodical. (2) A good organisation be set up for taking up the execution of the work. (3) Preparation of effective schedules for Men, Materials, Machines and Monetary aspects. (4) The designs, drawings and specifications should be final and without any ambiguity (5) Time schedule of works to be cast in advance. (6) Instructions in clear-cut terms-should be prepared and issued to different people. (7) Guidance, supervision and control at every step of execution with provision for correction of mistake, if any, in time. (8) Proper maintenance of materials account. (9) Maintain proper log or records of working, performance and maintenance for machinery and tools and plants. (10) Keep track of recruitment, engagement, control, training, welfare and incentives and

human relation aspects of personnel or workers. (11) Arrange for and supervise safety provisions and take steps to prevent accidents and failures in work site. (12) Maintain work progress-payment schedule-and proper accounting of finances. (13) Give minimum scope for legal problems and labour problems and solve the issues quickly and effectively. (14) Give due weightage to human relations and labour welfare. (15) To maintain cooperation among all departments concerned and also the public-relation needed to ensure quick and effective implementation of the construction. In achieving the above objectives, the organisation set up for management should-gear up and adopt appropriate steps. The aims of management will be fulfilled and helped by the adoption of the following aspects of management:(a) Adoption of economic designs. (b) Choice of most suitable techniques in execution (c) Use of sophisticated equipments and control 'devices (d) Adopting labour and time saving methods and tools (e) Steps for elimination of wastes of energy (f) Advance or timely recruitment of labour and of proper skills (g) Adopting good wage systems to attract skills (h) Adopting modern management techniques.

CLASSIFICATION OF WORKS
For the purpose of programming and scheduling of works, the classification of work or the nature of the work should be known. Works may be classified as:(1) Major, (2) Medium, (3) Minor depending on extent or magnitude and the budget involved.

Also asOriginal works-New - Under execution or on-going. (2) Plan works-those under assistance' of Central Government. (3) Maintenance works/Repair works. (4) Relief works (flood, fire and other ravages). (5) Welfare schemes. (6) Works under external aid.
(1)

This will help in planning for the organisation, and working out the norms for follow up.
Projects are to be subdivided into several activities. Each activity has certain aim for completion and requirements of materials, labour and equipments. Also for each activity, the time for starting, rate of progress, time of completion and thus stipulation of total time to be allotted. He may use the tools of traditional as well as new techniques of analysing the project. These tools include(a) Preparation of schedules-for work as a whole for materials for resources-time, space for operation of machinery for engagement of labour for finances. (b) Specific flow charts for movements-indicating sequence of operations.

(c) Observe and control the progress-through graphs, charts and maintain a record. (d) Network analysis.

PROJECT SCHEDULING
The steps in project scheduling are:Calculate - the details of the works and the control limits Assign - timings for each event and activity Give - due consideration to resources, i.e., relative availability, limitations, skills and Allocate - or link the work items to resources.

CONTROL
This is the stage undertaken during the execution. This consists in reviewing the progress with schedules and applying checks and corrective measure from time to time. Rescheduling of certain items may also be done. The steps in control process can be:(a) Establish-standards and targets: (b) Measure-the performance against standards and expectations. (c) Identify-the discrepancy or deviations, and (d) Suggest-corrective measure. These controls could be on each of the activities or aspects at the respective stage and the overall schedule of the project.

DECISION MAKING
This is an important function of a manager or the management. The efficiency or progress of a project will be very much affected if decision is not given in time if decision is delayed or kept pending if decision is withheld (not at all evolved) if wrong decisions are made if decision is not properly communicated. Scheduling, control and progress are very much linked with making and communicating the decisions at right moment. The virtue of a good manager lies in his capacity to make decisions with regard to the methods, the labour, procurements, payments and solutions to problems and situations.

METHODS TO ANALYSE THE PROGRESS, ALTERNATIVES AND CONTROLS

For the purposes of analysis, the following methods may be adopted : (1) Bar charts (2) Milestone charts (3) Work study

(4) Flow or Process charts-for materials - for machines -for men/workers (5) Network planning through-CPM-Critical Path Method PERT-Programme Evaluation and Review Technique

BAR CHARTS
These are pictorial charts indicating the relationship between 'time periods' represented along horizontal axis and the operations on various activities of work along the vertical axis. The operations which are sequential, th9se which are concurrent and those which are linked and controlled by partial or full progress of other operations, can be traced from these charts. The programme and the progress can also be shown combined or in the same chart.

ADVANTAGES ADVANTAGES
(1) These are simple graphical representations which can be understood easily. (2) In a combined chart, progress can be compared with programme.

DISADVANTAGES
(1) The interdependence of each activity is not shown. (2) The tolerances of time durations are not indicated. (3) Overall progress of work cannot be traced.

NETWORKS PLANNING
This is an improved technique which is now-a-days adopted in all major construction projects. It involves, breaking down of the project work into individual jobs, or activities and events, arranging in a logical sequence and try alternatives for comparison. The duration of time required for completion of each job or sub-work is an important measure to scale the network, formed of links representing activities and nodes representing events. From the analysis of the networks the most suitable process of execution is evolved. In general, the network planning is developed on following features:(1) It is a diagramatic or graphical representation of the plans, programmes and progress indicating the interlinking of the activities and events. (2) It provides a means of preparing different schedules-such as work, materials, linking with output, labour and time. (3) The network builds convenient inter-relationship among the sub-works, or job activities and events. (4) It helps in portraying, distinguishing or highlighting critical activities from those not so critical-depending on how they affect or influence the other co-activities. (5) The nature of problems in a job, causing bottlenecks can be identified. Thus, scope for badly running work to be converted to good job is achieved. The CPM can be built on anyone of the following systems:(1) 'AOA' -Activity on Arrow System. (2) 'AON'-Activity on Node System.

Following are the main features, which 'form the basis for or taken into consideration for analysing the network CPM ACTIVITY: ACTIVITY It is the job or sub-work or operation stretching over a period of time. EVENT: EVENT It is the starting or ending point of an activity or operation, reckoned in terms of time. The starting event is the 'from' event and the finishing event being the 'to' event.

STEPS ADOPTED IN CPM TECHNIQUE

(1) The project is divided into discreet activities, each having a definite starting and finishing point. (2) The duration period for each activity is estimated. (3) The sequence of the activities into preceding and following is arranged on logical basis (4) The activities and events are interconnected and grouped into a Activity-on-Arrow (AOA) diagram. (5) The network is optimized, after scrutinising the alternatives. (6) All events are numbered to facilitate establishment of proper direction to activities, i.e. the 'from' numbers ensured to be always less than the 'to' numbers. (8) The critical path and the critical activities are determined. AOA Diagram: It is necessary to include dummy activities. They increase the length of tables, enlarge the diagram and take more time for analysis. It is still used, being the first to be developed. A, B are activities, and (1) (2) and (3) are events. AON Diagram: Also known as the precedence diagram, in which activities are denoted by boxes, and arrows used only to show interconnection between activities. It is simpler to draw and explain and presents a clearer picture of the project than the AOA diagram.

(a) AOA Diagram.

PROGRAMME EVALUATION AND REVIEW TECHNIQUE (PERT)

The PERT is adopted in construction projects for scheduling and controlling the various activities or jobs. Although it was originally developed for use by U.S. Military establishments, it has been subsequently used by many projects now-a-days, on account of its advantages and disciplined approach to planning, scheduling, controlling and monitoring of operations. Especially, it is useful in taking care of performance time and therefore achieving timely completion targets, even where some activities tend to disturb the time schedule. While the CPM is 'activity' oriented, the PERT is 'event' oriented. In major projects, it uses 'three time estimates' for scheduling activities. Where extensive projects are undertaken, computers may be needed.-But simplified approaches with 'single time'

approach and not needing computers are now available and can be adopted for smaller projects. Three Times: As assigning a single time accurately for operation is usually felt difficult this method uses three times, namely. (1) Optimistic time '(a)': This is the minimum possible time, an activity requires for completion, based on optimism that everything connected with the activity goes well No provision is made for delays and breakdowns. (2) Pessimistic time '(b)': The time assigned on the assumption that everything will run bad, and will be the maximum possible time taken for completion of the activity However, the time delays due to major catastrophies, huge labour strikes and unrest and natural calamities are not considered. (3) Most likely time '(c)': This could be the time, actually needed or taken for completion of an activity, when happenings will be normal. A few delays and setbacks are accommodated in the estimate on time. This would lie between optimistic and pessimistic times. The utility of PERT or its implications can be understood by the following statements : (1) PERT-It is a Manager's tool which helps him in defining a project and coordinating various activities. (2) It gives Directions to accomplish objectives of the project. (3) It helps the decision maker, but does not make decision-thus it is a Profile. (4) It creates a Way to synchronize various components of the total work. (5) It presents statistical information about uncertainties in the performance time of activities-thus a Technique. (6) It acts as a Method for drawing manager's attention towards (a) latent problems which need quick decisions. (b) Adjustment of time, resources and performance rates. (c) Minimising delays in progress-due to interruptions and conflicts. (7) Serves as an Approach for expeditious completion of work. (8) Acts as a Good Communication facility, which informs as to how things are going, right or wrong.

COMPARISON BETWEEN PERT AND CPM PERT

(1) It is event-oriented. (2). Three time estimates are considered for each activity-by considering the Uncertainty and Probability aspects. (3) The method is useful when it is not possible to specify the cost or time, accurately for an activity. (4) Adoption is recommended for research and developmental projects. (5) Computer programme may be adopted for large projects-but can be simplified and done with single time estimates for small works. (6) Critical path or activity is such one-along which the slack time is either zero or negative. (7) Dummy activities are not needed, as it is mainly event-oriented.

CPM
(1) It is activity-oriented. (2) Only one time estimate is considered. No uncertainity is accounted. (3) The method is useful when time and cost of activity can be predicted reasonably accurate. (4) More useful for projects such as construction industry. (5) Computer programme may not be necessary in most of the cases-as arrow and node diagrams, and possible with time grid can be built- with clarity. (6) Critical path is assigned to the direction of activities, which ensures proper sequence for achieving the desired result. (7) Dummy activities are introduced to set a network. (8) It requires more planning- thus planning cost is increased.